The document provides definitions and explanations of key concepts in empirical research methods, including constructs, concepts, and variables. It discusses how constructs are abstract ideas that cannot be directly observed, while variables are operationalized concepts that can be measured through observation. Variables can take different roles in research, such as independent and dependent variables. The document emphasizes that clear operational definitions are needed to bridge the abstract, theoretical level and the observational level of empirical research. It also explains how latent variables underlie observable variables as indicators of theoretical constructs.
The document discusses key aspects of developing a research problem including identifying the problem area, writing a problem statement, and criteria for a good research problem. It also covers developing research objectives and identifying variables. Specifically, it defines a research problem, discusses how to define the problem through selecting a topic and narrowing it. It provides criteria for a good research problem including significance and feasibility. It also discusses formulating the research problem and writing a statement of the problem.
1. Introduction to Research Methdology.pptxMohamudAli19
1. Research is defined as a systematic process of collecting and analyzing information to increase understanding of phenomena. It involves careful investigation and moving from known to unknown.
2. The objectives of research are to solve problems, study trends, face challenges, advance knowledge, and serve society. Research aims to discover new facts or information.
3. There are different types of research based on the nature of information (qualitative vs. quantitative), utility/subject matter (theoretical vs. applied), approach (longitudinal vs. cross-sectional), and method (philosophical vs. historical vs. experimental).
This document provides an overview of research methodology. It defines research and lists its purposes, which include testing existing knowledge, understanding issues from different perspectives, establishing reliable guides, expanding knowledge, and providing solutions to problems. The document also outlines the classification of research by purpose (basic, applied, action, evaluation) and method (historical, correlational, experimental, descriptive). Key aspects of the research process are described, including identifying a problem, developing research questions and hypotheses, designing and conducting the study, analyzing and interpreting data, and drawing conclusions. Operational definitions of terms, scope of study, and conceptual frameworks are also discussed.
The document outlines the key steps in the research process, including problem identification, selection of a research design, data collection and analysis, and report preparation. It discusses exploratory and conclusive research designs such as descriptive research, causal research, experimental and quasi-experimental studies. The research process begins with defining the problem and formulating research objectives, then selecting an appropriate design and instruments to collect and analyze data to address the objectives.
Teaching Research Methods: How to Make it Meaningfuladielmedic
The document provides suggestions for teaching research methods in an engaging way that shows students its relevance. It recommends using real-world examples from media, statistics, and research used in various fields. Assignments should apply tools to topics students find interesting. Students initially see research methods as dry but come to recognize them as useful career tools. Instructors should emphasize causal research and its importance over descriptive, help students interpret results for policy and practice, and encourage visual thinking using path diagrams modeling relationships between variables.
A Research problem is a problem that a researcher wants to solve moreover, it is an issues or a concern that an investigator / researcher presents and justifies in a research study.
The document provides an overview of the research methodology process. It discusses defining the research problem, reviewing literature, formulating hypotheses, and establishing research objectives. The key steps are:
1) Defining the research problem by identifying and selecting a problem to study based on criteria like interest and feasibility.
2) Reviewing relevant literature to understand previous work and identify gaps.
3) Formulating testable hypotheses about relationships between variables based on theories and findings from the literature.
4) Establishing clear and achievable research objectives to directly answer the research problem.
This document outlines the key steps and components of the research process for a study titled "A Study on Pragmatic Approaches and Quality Initiatives for Enhancing Teachers’ Caliber in Post Graduate Institutes offering MBA Programme under Bangalore University". The research methodology section defines different types of research and the scientific research process. It also provides details on key aspects of research design including objectives, hypotheses, sampling, data collection and analysis. The document concludes by mentioning the final steps of report writing and research reporting.
The document discusses key aspects of developing a research problem including identifying the problem area, writing a problem statement, and criteria for a good research problem. It also covers developing research objectives and identifying variables. Specifically, it defines a research problem, discusses how to define the problem through selecting a topic and narrowing it. It provides criteria for a good research problem including significance and feasibility. It also discusses formulating the research problem and writing a statement of the problem.
1. Introduction to Research Methdology.pptxMohamudAli19
1. Research is defined as a systematic process of collecting and analyzing information to increase understanding of phenomena. It involves careful investigation and moving from known to unknown.
2. The objectives of research are to solve problems, study trends, face challenges, advance knowledge, and serve society. Research aims to discover new facts or information.
3. There are different types of research based on the nature of information (qualitative vs. quantitative), utility/subject matter (theoretical vs. applied), approach (longitudinal vs. cross-sectional), and method (philosophical vs. historical vs. experimental).
This document provides an overview of research methodology. It defines research and lists its purposes, which include testing existing knowledge, understanding issues from different perspectives, establishing reliable guides, expanding knowledge, and providing solutions to problems. The document also outlines the classification of research by purpose (basic, applied, action, evaluation) and method (historical, correlational, experimental, descriptive). Key aspects of the research process are described, including identifying a problem, developing research questions and hypotheses, designing and conducting the study, analyzing and interpreting data, and drawing conclusions. Operational definitions of terms, scope of study, and conceptual frameworks are also discussed.
The document outlines the key steps in the research process, including problem identification, selection of a research design, data collection and analysis, and report preparation. It discusses exploratory and conclusive research designs such as descriptive research, causal research, experimental and quasi-experimental studies. The research process begins with defining the problem and formulating research objectives, then selecting an appropriate design and instruments to collect and analyze data to address the objectives.
Teaching Research Methods: How to Make it Meaningfuladielmedic
The document provides suggestions for teaching research methods in an engaging way that shows students its relevance. It recommends using real-world examples from media, statistics, and research used in various fields. Assignments should apply tools to topics students find interesting. Students initially see research methods as dry but come to recognize them as useful career tools. Instructors should emphasize causal research and its importance over descriptive, help students interpret results for policy and practice, and encourage visual thinking using path diagrams modeling relationships between variables.
A Research problem is a problem that a researcher wants to solve moreover, it is an issues or a concern that an investigator / researcher presents and justifies in a research study.
The document provides an overview of the research methodology process. It discusses defining the research problem, reviewing literature, formulating hypotheses, and establishing research objectives. The key steps are:
1) Defining the research problem by identifying and selecting a problem to study based on criteria like interest and feasibility.
2) Reviewing relevant literature to understand previous work and identify gaps.
3) Formulating testable hypotheses about relationships between variables based on theories and findings from the literature.
4) Establishing clear and achievable research objectives to directly answer the research problem.
This document outlines the key steps and components of the research process for a study titled "A Study on Pragmatic Approaches and Quality Initiatives for Enhancing Teachers’ Caliber in Post Graduate Institutes offering MBA Programme under Bangalore University". The research methodology section defines different types of research and the scientific research process. It also provides details on key aspects of research design including objectives, hypotheses, sampling, data collection and analysis. The document concludes by mentioning the final steps of report writing and research reporting.
This document provides an overview of the key components of a research proposal and paper, including the typical chapter structure and what should be included in each chapter. It discusses the introduction chapter in depth, explaining how to write the background of the study, statement of the problem, objectives, significance, theoretical and conceptual frameworks, scope and limitations. It also covers developing research questions and hypotheses. The overall purpose is to serve as a guide for writing the different elements of a research proposal and paper.
Distinguish technical terms used in research EN10V-Iva-30.pptxJONALYNNGAPPOL
This document discusses key concepts related to conducting research. It begins by defining research as a systematic process of collecting, organizing, and analyzing information to increase understanding and generate new knowledge. There are three main types of research: descriptive, correlational, and experimental. Descriptive research answers questions about characteristics, correlational examines relationships between variables, and experimental studies cause-and-effect through a controlled experiment. Proper research requires formulating a focused research problem or question, collecting relevant literature, developing a research design and methodology, analyzing collected data, and reporting findings. Key terms like population, sample, variables, hypotheses, and data are also explained. The document provides a thorough overview of fundamental research concepts and processes.
Introduction to writing research questions and determining what variables to use. Introductory concepts for school personnel interested in action research.
This document provides an overview of research methodology. It defines key terms like research, methodology, methods, and research design. It discusses the different types of research such as exploratory, descriptive, and causal research. The steps involved in research process and design formulation are outlined, including defining the problem, literature review, developing hypotheses, data collection and analysis. Both qualitative and quantitative research approaches are described.
This document provides an overview of research methodology in psychology. It discusses key concepts like variables, hypotheses, experimental design, and methods of data collection and analysis. Research methods can be descriptive, correlational, or experimental. Experimental research involves manipulating an independent variable and measuring its effects on a dependent variable while controlling for other influences. Critical aspects of research like controlling for biases, ensuring validity and reliability are also covered.
Business Research Method - Unit II, AKTU, Lucknow SyllabusKartikeya Singh
Business Research Methods, Unit II, AKTU, Lucknow Syllabus.
Research Methodology, Topics Covered - Research design: Concept, Features of a good research design, Use of a good research design; Qualitative and Quantitative research approaches, Comparison – Pros and Cons of both approaches.
Exploratory Research Design: Concept, Types: Qualitative techniques – Projective Techniques, Depth Interview, Experience Survey, Focus Groups, Observation.
Descriptive Research Designs: Concept, types and uses. Concept of Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Research
Experimental Design: Concept of Cause, Causal relationships, Concept of Independent & Dependent variables, concomitant variable, extraneous variable, Treatment, Control group.
The document provides an overview of action research methodology. It defines action research as a reflective process of progressive problem solving led by individuals working with others in teams. Key aspects of action research discussed include that it is conducted by teachers and staff to study their own practices and environments, aims to improve processes and services, and involves collecting and analyzing data to answer questions. Methods of action research mentioned are flexible and iterative to problem solve in real-world applications.
The document provides an overview of action research methodology. It defines action research as a reflective process of progressive problem solving led by individuals working with others in teams. Key aspects of action research discussed include that it is conducted by teachers and staff to study their own practices and environments, aims to improve processes and services, and involves collecting and analyzing data to answer questions. Methods of action research mentioned are flexible and iterative to problem solve in real-world applications.
This document provides an overview of research methods. It defines research and discusses its meaning and characteristics. Research is described as a systematic search for knowledge and information to answer questions. The document outlines the research process which includes identifying a problem, reviewing literature, developing hypotheses, collecting and analyzing data, and writing a report. It also discusses variables, research design, and different types of research such as quantitative vs. qualitative and basic vs. applied. Key aspects of a research proposal such as the introduction, literature review, and methodology sections are also summarized.
This document provides definitions and explanations of key concepts in research such as research, research questions, hypotheses, and the FINER criteria for developing good research questions. It defines research as a systematic investigative process to increase knowledge. It explains that a research question focuses the study and determines the methodology. Hypotheses make testable predictions about the relationship between variables. The FINER criteria (Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, Relevant) provide a framework for formulating strong research questions.
This document provides an overview of the research process. It defines research as the systematic search for knowledge to increase understanding. There are different types of research including qualitative, quantitative, mixed, and action research. Qualitative research aims to understand behaviors while quantitative determines relationships between variables. Mixed research combines both approaches. Action research identifies actions and outcomes to improve processes. Choosing a research topic requires considering interest areas that can be narrowed and have available sources to research. The literature review informs the study by analyzing previous work. Developing a good research question is also important to address a relevant issue that can be answered through research methodology.
The document discusses aims and objectives for research projects. It defines aims as broad statements of desired outcomes that emphasize what is to be accomplished, while objectives are specific tasks needed to achieve the aims and emphasize how they will be accomplished. An example is provided of an aim to assess bulky waste collection operations and three objectives to critically assess operations, classify furniture recovery schemes, and make recommendations. Aims and objectives should be concise, interrelated, realistic, and provide indicators for how the researcher will approach various aspects of the project. They should not be too vague or just repeat each other.
The document discusses quantitative and qualitative research methods. It defines both approaches and identifies their distinguishing and similar characteristics across six steps of the research process: identifying a research problem, reviewing literature, specifying a purpose, collecting data, analyzing/interpreting data, and reporting/evaluating. The document also outlines various research design types commonly used in quantitative, qualitative or mixed methods studies.
The document discusses research design in health policy and systems research (HPSR). It explains that research design involves translating research questions into study plans, considering aims, intentions, and practical constraints. Designs can be fixed, flexible, or mixed methods. Fixed designs have tightly pre-specified plans while flexible designs evolve during data collection. The appropriate design depends on what is being investigated and the research purpose. The document also emphasizes that research questions, theories, methods, and sampling strategies all contribute to research design.
The document discusses action research methodology. It defines action research as a reflective process that aims to address practical problems and improve practices through collaborative research. Key aspects include teachers and school staff systematically studying their own work to answer questions and solve problems, with the goal of improving processes and services. The research is flexible and iterative. It also discusses that action research can be individual or collaborative, and that a variety of qualitative and quantitative methods can be used, including a triangulation of methods to look at a situation from different perspectives.
The document discusses key aspects of developing a research study, including definitions of research, the importance of research questions and hypotheses, and the FINER criteria for formulating good research questions. It provides definitions of research from various sources and outlines the steps to developing a clear research question. It also discusses how to write a good hypothesis and the different types of hypotheses. Finally, it explains each letter in the FINER mnemonic - Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant - as a framework for evaluating proposed research questions.
The document provides an introduction to key concepts in research methods. It defines research as a systematic process of investigation to establish facts and reach new conclusions. The main purposes of research are to learn and gather evidence. There are three main types of research: exploratory research which is unstructured, descriptive research which is structured, and explanatory research which uses hypotheses. Good research has clear definitions, acknowledges limitations, is planned, uses sufficient data, allows for generalization, and is systematic and logical. The scope of research includes areas like the environment, technology, innovation, competitors, markets, products, pricing, promotion, sales, customers, and organizations. Research can be pure/basic research aimed at knowledge, applied research aimed at solving problems, or
This document discusses conceptual frameworks, theories, and research questions/hypotheses in qualitative and quantitative research. It provides:
1. An overview of what conceptual frameworks are and how they are used to define variables and relationships in a study.
2. Descriptions of how theories are applied differently in qualitative versus quantitative research, such as testing theories deductively in quantitative research and generating theories inductively in qualitative research.
3. Guidelines for writing good qualitative research questions, quantitative research questions/hypotheses, and mixed methods research questions/hypotheses.
The document provides an overview of basic ice hockey rules, including:
1) It describes the layout of the rink including lines that divide zones and circles for face-offs.
2) It explains common stoppages of play from offsides and icing violations and the referee signals used.
3) It provides summaries of some common penalties like tripping, slashing, and hooking.
3D printing has been used for over 20 years to produce models and prototypes, with the first 3D printer invented in 1986 using stereolithography to solidify UV-cured polymer with a laser. 3D printers now build objects layer-by-layer using heated plastic that solidifies as the printer head moves. Digital designs are created using 3D modeling software and serve as blueprints for 3D printers to create physical objects. Bioprinting uses modified 3D printers to produce organic tissue and eventually organs by depositing layers of bio-ink containing living cells.
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Business Research Method - Unit II, AKTU, Lucknow SyllabusKartikeya Singh
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The document provides an overview of action research methodology. It defines action research as a reflective process of progressive problem solving led by individuals working with others in teams. Key aspects of action research discussed include that it is conducted by teachers and staff to study their own practices and environments, aims to improve processes and services, and involves collecting and analyzing data to answer questions. Methods of action research mentioned are flexible and iterative to problem solve in real-world applications.
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This document provides an overview of the research process. It defines research as the systematic search for knowledge to increase understanding. There are different types of research including qualitative, quantitative, mixed, and action research. Qualitative research aims to understand behaviors while quantitative determines relationships between variables. Mixed research combines both approaches. Action research identifies actions and outcomes to improve processes. Choosing a research topic requires considering interest areas that can be narrowed and have available sources to research. The literature review informs the study by analyzing previous work. Developing a good research question is also important to address a relevant issue that can be answered through research methodology.
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3) The document also lists Constitutional amendments related to slavery and civil rights, including the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments.
(1) Christopher Columbus discovered America in 1492, though he mistakenly thought he had reached India. (2) In the 1770s, the 13 American colonies had 2.5 million residents, and during the first winter, half of them died. (3) George Washington was the commander-in-chief of the Continental Army and later became the first president of the USA. (4) The official language of the USA is American English, and Independence Day is celebrated on July 4th.
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1. INTRO TO RESEARCH METHODS
SPH-X590 SU15
CONSTRUCTS,CONCEPTS,&VARIABLES:
DETAILS AND DEFINITIONS
2. Presentation Outline
From the beginning:
• Empirical Research & Scientific Method: Dimensions, Directions, & Details
• The Empirical Research Process: Problem Formulation to Dissemination
• Disciplinary Differences: Social, Life & Natural Sciences
From Review to New:
• Refining Research Objectives/Questions
– Originality and Innovation
– Feasibility
– Formal Strategies and Criteria
3. The Research Process:
Disciplines & Differences
• The Research Process of Scientific Method is the same in
terms of its goals, logic, form and format across the Social,
Life/ Health and Natural Sciences.
• Terminology, Taxonomies, Conceptualization, &
Methodological Focus
o vary dramatically from discipline to discipline
o major source of confusion
• The history of scientific research as inner-disciplinary:
research conducted within a discipline.
o Scientific Research as its own discipline.
4. Empirical Research Process:
Social, Life, & Natural Sciences
• You have been introduced to conceptualization & measurement during the discussion of
the philosophy of science and the nature of research.
o Within the context of ontology, epistemology, & methodology
• You were reintroduced to conceptualization & operationalization to illustrate the
structure of research, the process of scientific investigation, and evaluation criteria of
research
o Problem Formulation, Literature Review, Research Objectives/ Questions
o Hypothesis, and Study Design Components
o Reproducibility = Reliability + Validity * Ethics
• This presentation will be a “Re-reintroduction” , BUT in the context of Empirical
Research.
o Former discussions were broad to introduce general components, movement, and
criteria; or,
o Former discussions pointed out paradigmatic and philosophical differences.
o General introduction to research as a discipline
o Practical skills searching and reviewing the literature.
5. The Dimensions of Empirical Research:
A movement from the theoretical to analytical
EMPIRICAL
RESEARCH
Theories
Postulates
Propositions
Hypotheses
Deductive
Reasoning
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Variables
Analysis
Measurement
Constructs
Concepts
Data Collection
6. Empirical Research involves
measures, participants & procedures
An Empirical Research Methodology is explanation
and the rationale of Constructs, Concepts, Variables,
& Definitions and the Study Design these
components indicate.
7. The Empirical Research Process:
D
E
D
U
C
T
I
O
N
T
H
E
O
R
Y
Step 1 Identification of Area of Study: Problem Formulation
Step 2 Literature Review: Context
Step 3 Research Objectives to Hypotheses: Content to Methodology
• Concepts to Variables
Step 4 Study Design I: Data Collection Methods
• Research Design: experimental, quasi-experimental, or non-experimental
• Time & Unit of Analysis
Step 5 Procedures: Sampling, Assignment, Recruitment, & Ethics
Step 6 Collection: Instruments, Materials, & Management
Step 7 Study Design II: Analysis
• Statistical Approaches & Analytical Techniques
• Sample Size & Power
Step 8 Results: Dissemination
• Publication, Presentation, & New Application
8. Empirical Research:
Level of Abstraction vs. Observation
• Scientific Investigation operates at 2 levels:
1. Abstraction: Theoretical and Conceptual
2. Observation: Direct and Measurable
9. • For example, consider this theoretical hypothesis/
postulate:
o Early childhood deprivation increases latter learning
difficulties.
o 2 concepts related by the word: increases
1. early childhood deprivation
2. latter learning difficulties
o These concepts are theoretical and/or conceptual:
o Level of Abstraction
Empirical Research:
Level of Abstraction vs. Observation
10. • Empirical research operates at the Level of Observation.
o In the previous example, the research must define the 2
concepts: early childhood deprivation, and latter learning
difficulties; so that observations are possible.
o Conceptualizing is the process of defining to the point of
operationalizing.
o Operationalizing is making the concept measurable: a variable with
the operational definition
Note: The words construct, concept and variables are
often used interchangeably, but they are NOT
synonymous.
Empirical Research:
Level of Abstraction vs. Observation
11. Concepts
• A concept is an abstraction formed from
“generalizations” from “particular observations”.
• For example, the concept of Academic Achievement
is abstracted (i.e. generalized) from activities that
children must learn in school.
o Reading, writing, calculation, drawing pictures, etc. are the
educational activities that children must learn/ master.
o The concept, Academic Achievement, captures the variety
of activities/behaviors and the mastery of these activities/
behaviors in a single phrase/word.
12. Constructs
• A construct is a concept.
o Typically the most abstracted level of a concept: a word
o Constructs are deliberately and consciously created
o Constructs may also have a specific scientific purpose or systematic use
o The terms construct, concept, & variable are often used
interchangeably, which is a huge source of confusion.
o A measured concept is an operationalized variable.
o A measured variable is a variable for which data has been collected.
o A theoretical construct is a construct specified by a theory or used in a
particular theoretical framework.
o A scientific construct is a variable.
o A constructed variable is a type of variable constructed from other
variables ( kind of like a score).
o Be aware of the generic use and specific use of the terms!
o Always find out how the terms are being used!
13. Constructs
• An example of a construct is Intelligence.
• Intelligence is a concept generalized from / is an abstraction of
observations of behaviors related to knowledge, skill, and
aptitude.
• Scientists consciously and deliberately created the construct of
Intelligence and use it for specific/ systematic purpose.
• As a scientific construct, Intelligence means is more than a
concept.
o It is so defined and specified that it can be observed and measured.
o The IQ Test for example.
• As a theoretical construct, Intelligence is less than a concept.
o It is part of particular theoretical frameworks which relate it in various
ways to other constructs.
14. Variables: Levels of Measurement
• As stated before, the terms construct, concept, and variable are often used
synonymously to refer to the phenomenon or properties of the phenomenon they
are studying.
• A variable is a symbol or representation to which we can assign numbers or values.
• The levels of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio guide the numbers
or values we assign.
• Be aware of other terms and/or groupings for the levels of measurement:
o Categorical and Continuous
o Discrete Ordinal, Continuous Ordinal and Continuous
o Quantitative vs. Quantitative
o Dichotomous vs. Polytomonous
• Remember during analysis, researchers often change a continuous into a
categorical variable, change/collapse the number or categories, and/or combine/
construct variables:
o These details and rationale are essential to evaluating results.
o These details should be in the Methods section of an a research article or proposal.
o In practice categorizing a continuous variable into a dichotomous or
polytonomous variable is convenient, maybe useful conceptually, but in terms of
analysis, a lot of information is lost, so Beware!!
15. Generally, variables are either continuous or categorical.
• A continuous variable is capable of taking on an ordered set of
values within a certain range: negative infinity to positive infinity
• A categorical variable specifies categories.
o The categories are from nominal variable (e.g. Names of States) that were
coded as numbers (Texas = 25, Alabama = 01).
• A categorical variable has two or more subsets of the set of
objects being measured.
• Individuals, Places, Infects, Viruses, etc. categorized by their
possession of the characteristic that defines any subset: a
taxonomy
o It’s all-or-nothing.
Variables: Levels of Measurement
16. • The phrase “qualitative variable” is sometimes used to
describe categorical variables.
o Especially, dichotomous variables: variables with only 2 response:
Yes/No
o Often used in contrast to “quantitative variables”
• The phrase “quantitative variables” is most often used to
refer to continuous variables.
o Theses uses are inaccurate, loose, and distorted.
o Variables are always quantifiable, if they are not quantifiable,
then then not variables.
o For example, the Variable X has only two subsets (i.e. 2 response
categories) and each subset can only have 1 value (e.g. 0 or 1).
o The values assigned to the subsets are quantitative and vary, so it is a
variable.
o FYI, variables with 0 or 1 for response values are “dummy variables”
Variables: Levels of Measurement
17. Constitutive & Operational Definitions:
Constructs, Concepts & Variables
• Defining in terms of empirical research is the process
of conceptualization and operationalization.
o Going from construct to concept to variable
• Two general ways to define:
1. Like a dictionary, defining a word by using other words
• Constitutive Definition
2. Using expressed or implied behaviors to define
• Behavioral or Observational Definition
18. • A Constitutive Definition defines a construct/concepts using
other constructs/concepts.
• An Operational Definition assigns meaning to concept or to a
variable by specifying the activities or “operations” necessary
to measure it and evaluate the measurement.
• In general, two kinds of Operational Definitions:
1. Measured
2. Experimental
Constitutive & Operational Definitions:
Constructs, Concepts & Variables
19. • A Measured Operational Definition describes how a
variable will be measured.
– For example, the self-reported, level of Trust on a 5-point Likert
Scale of agreement with statement
• An Experimental Operational Definition is the details
about how the variable is being manipulated/ how it
operates.
o For example, the concept of Reinforcement can be operationally
defined as the rewards (vs. no rewards) Or punishments (vs. no
punishments) for specified behaviors.
Constitutive & Operational Definitions:
Constructs, Concepts & Variables
20. • The Operational Definition is critical!
o Enable researchers to measure variables
o The bridge between the Abstract/Theoretical/ Conceptual Level and
the Level of Observation.
o No scientific research without observations
o No observations without clear and specific details about what and
how to observe.
o The Operational Definition is are those details: the instructions.
• Although operational definitions are critical to the scientific
research process, variables are limited in capturing/
measuring theoretical constructs: a significant gap between
theory and reality.
Constitutive & Operational Definitions:
Constructs, Concepts & Variables
21. Operational Definitions:
Specific to Broad
• Definitions that refer to a test score are very specific.
o For example, Intelligence is as a score on IQ intelligence
test
• A broader definitions require further specification to
be measurable.
o For example, Frustration defined as “prevention from
reaching a goal” is more general
• An example of a measured variable: Intrinsic
Motivation defined operationally as, “The cumulative
amount of time that each student played with the
pattern blocks with the reward system absent.”
22. Variables: Roles & Relationships
Roles
• Independent and Dependent
• Cause and Effect
• Exogenous and Endogenous
• Predictor and Outcome
• Exposure and Outcome
• Stimulus and Effect
o All mean essentially the same thing!
o Disciplinary Differences or Differences in Research Design
Relationships
• No Relationship
• Positive Relationship
• Negative Relationship
• Curvilinear Relationship
23. Variables: Roles & Relationships
• An independent variable is the supposed cause of the
dependent variable, the supposed effect.
• As general rule, the independent variable is:
o the variable that the researcher manipulates; or,
o the characteristic that researcher uses to assign
participants to groups
• The logic: If A, then B
o An independent variable (A) is the condition of a
dependent variable (B): a conditional conjunction
24. • In experimental research designs, the independent variable is actively manipulated.
o The researcher randomly assigns subjects to a condition: for example, control or treatment
group.
• In quasi-experimental designs, the independent variable can be a fixed
characteristic of a person, for example, or a random effect like a person’s voting.
• In quasi-experimental designs, natural experiments may exist.
o In this situation, the independent variable is “pre-manipulated”: pre-existing/ natural
control and experimental groups; or comparison groups
o For some for logistical, legal/ethical, practical reason, an independent variable that could
be manipulated in an experiment, was not.
• For example, comparing different the effect of private vs. public school education
on cognitive and functional measures of students.
o The independent variable is the type of school (private vs. public)
o The researchers have to study the subjects (i.e. the students) after they had been
“assigned” to a school.
Variables: Roles & Research Designs
25. Variables: Indefinite & Definite
• Active and Attribute Variables
• Manipulated and Measured Variables
• Manipulated and Subject-Characteristic Variables
• Achieved and Ascribed Variables
• State and Trait Variables
• Varying and Non-Varying Variables
• Time Varying and Time In-varying Variables
• Random and Fixed Variables
• Random and Non-Random Variables
• Latent and Manifest Variables
• Latent and Observed Variables
• Indirect and Direct Variables
Generally, BUT NOT ALWAYS, mean the same thing and refer to things about,
for example, a person that can and cannot be changed/ manipulated by the
researcher.
• A person’s eye color is fixed, non-random, ascribed, attribute, etc.
• A person’s voting behavior is random, active, state, varying, etc.
• Subject’s are randomly assigned by the researcher to a control or experimental
condition
26. • The variables can be or are manipulated by the
researcher are active, states, varying, random etc.
– The variable that captures the different things being done
to different groups of subjects/participants: for example,
the stimulus or the experimental group.
• Variables that are fixed and cannot be manipulated
are attributes or characteristic of the subjects/
participants.
o Subjects come to a study with these variables (attributes)
ready-made or preexisting: for example, having blue eyes
Variables: Indefinite & Definite
27. • An experimental variable:
o For example, a researcher gives subjects bogus results on a
Self-Esteem test.
o The researcher divides the subjects with the same measured
level (i.e. Test score) of Self-Esteem into three feedback
groups: 1. positive, 2. negative, and 3. none.
o In the positive feedback condition (i.e. positive self-esteem),
the researcher describes subjects with statements such as
“clear thinking.”
o Those subjects in the negative group (i.e. negative self-
esteem) are given adjectives like “passive in action.”
o The researchers does not give feedback to subjects in the “no
feedback” group.
o They are told that their personality profiles (i.e. Self-Esteem test score)
were not ready due to a backlog.
Operational Definitions:
For Experiments
28. • Terms like attributes, characteristic, behavior, fixed effect
can be confusing for many reasons: generic and specific
uses; disciplinary differences; research design choice, etc.
• Some variables that you might think are attributes of a person
can active, random, a state.
o For example, measuring vs. manipulating a participant's Anxiety
o Anxiety is a trait (fixed) of a person if measured at one point: treated
like a pre-existing condition, treated like eye-color.
o Anxiety can also be a state (random) if manipulated during the
research by inducing different degrees of stress
• Do not assume the same operational definition for measured
and the manipulated variables.
– In this example, Anxiety is only similar in a broad/ abstracted sense,
but is very different in terms of operational definitions.
Variables: Indefinite & Definite
29. Constructs:
Observed & Latent Variables
• Constructs are unobservable.
o variables, when operationally defined, are observable.
• A Latent Variable is something unobserved, but is
presumed to underlie observed or manifest variables.
o Intelligence is an important Latent Variable.
o Verbal, Numerical, and Spatial abilities are concepts of
Intelligence.
o The observed scores on the three ability tests used to measure
these concepts are positively and substantially related.
o Because the three concepts are related to the same underlying
construct, the observed variables (i.e. the observed scores on
the three ability tests) can measure the construct of Intelligence.
o The underlying construct is Intelligence: It is a Latent Variable.
30. • When we articulate a theory, we are articulating in
part systematic relations among latent variables (i.e.
constructs).
o For example, observed behaviors of Frustration and the
observed behaviors of Aggression are not interesting
substantively, even though they are important at the
empirical level.
o What is really interesting is the relationship between the
latent variable/construct of Frustration and the latent
variable/construct of Aggression.
Constructs:
Observed & Latent Variables
31. • Motivation is a latent variable.
• Social-Psychologists invented this construct within the
Socio-Cognitive theoretical framework of behavior.
o This means that researchers must always measure presumed
indicators of Motivation, but cannot measure Motivation itself.
Constructs:
Observed & Latent Variables