- The document provides details on Rockwell Diamonds Inc.'s Wouterspan diamond project in South Africa, including a geological summary, description of the mineralization, exploration history, and licence status.
- The project comprises alluvial diamond deposits preserved in paleochannel gravels of the Orange River located 20-40m above the current river level. Diamonds were derived from kimberlites in the headwaters and concentrated in traps within the paleochannel system.
- Exploration involves bulk sampling of the fluvial-alluvial gravel sequence to define diamond-bearing units and recover diamonds, which occur in clusters rather than being uniformly distributed.
Rockwell Resources RSA conducted a technical statement for its Niewejaarskraal and Viegulands Put mining operations in South Africa as of July 1, 2013. The document summarizes the geological setting of the alluvial diamond deposits preserved in paleochannel gravels along the Orange River. It also provides details on exploration drilling, sampling, mineral processing using dense media separation, and an inferred mineral resource estimate based on historical production data from 2001-2005 under previous ownership. The operations are fully permitted and infrastructure is in place to support mining and processing of the gravel deposits.
Rockwell Resources RSA (Pty) Ltd provides a technical statement for its Saxendrift Mine as of February 28, 2013. The independent report details the mine's location in South Africa, valid mining and prospecting licenses, BEE compliance, infrastructure, deposit types within the Orange River terraces, and a geological setting describing the fluvial-alluvial gravel sequence and mineralization. It also provides an overview of drilling, sampling, a pre-feasibility study on trial mining areas, current production mining methods, and planned processing through an in-field screening plant.
1. The document discusses different types of coal deposits associated with various delta environments, including fluvial-dominated, wave-dominated, and tide-dominated deltas.
2. Characteristics of coals are influenced by the depositional environment, such as thickness, continuity, ash and sulfur content. Coals may form in various delta plain settings like lower, upper, and during transgressive phases.
3. Additional coal deposits discussed include back-barrier, fluvial, and alluvial fan coals. Mineral and trace element content in coals is influenced by factors like pH and exposure to marine waters during peat formation.
05 xiaodong liu geologic setting of interformational-braided-channel type sa...Monatom Mgl
This document summarizes uranium deposits in interformational braided channel sandstones in northern China. It describes the geologic setting and characteristics of major uranium-bearing basins, including the Ordos, Erlian, and Kailu Basins. Uranium mineralization is associated with braided stream depositional systems within these basins. In the Ordos Basin, uranium occurs in braided channel sandstones between the Yan'an and Zhiluo Formations. Hydrocarbons may have played a role in the formation of the Dongsheng uranium deposit. The Erlian Basin's Bayanwula deposit contains tabular and roll-front uranium ore bodies within braided channel sand
The document discusses lithified sedimentary rocks and their impact on groundwater flow. Complex stratigraphy, such as interfingering rock units, can make groundwater exploration challenging. Folds and faults can create complex hydrogeologic systems, acting as barriers or conduits to flow depending on their composition. Clastic sedimentary rocks have permeability influenced by grain size, sorting, and cementation, with fractures increasing permeability. Fractures near the surface are important for bypassing low-permeability layers and recharge.
This document provides an overview of diamond deposits found along drainage systems in southern Africa, specifically the Vaal-Orange river basin. It discusses the geological history and evolution of the drainage basin, from its origins following the breakup of West Gondwana in the Late Mesozoic to its current configuration. Key points include:
1) The Vaal-Orange river system is the major drainage basin in southern Africa, transporting sediments from the interior plateau westward to the Atlantic Ocean. It has undergone superimposition and rejuvenation over time.
2) Diamond-bearing gravel deposits are found along the Limpopo-Vaal watershed near Lichtenburg and Ventersdorp. These are
Groundwater quality in different provinces in indiaSwaster Xwax
The document summarizes groundwater quality in different provinces in India. The Cenozoic Fault Basin Province contains discrete fault basins with quaternary valley fill deposits of sand and gravel intermixed with silt and clay, affected by faults. These lenses form moderately yielding aquifers. The Ganga – Brahmaputra Alluvial Province covers northern India and contains three distinct hydrological belts with permeable gravel, sand, and pebble that yield up to 300 cu.m/hr from dug wells and tube wells. The Himalayan High Land Province contains highly folded and faulted sedimentary rocks traversed by valleys filled with alluvium, which act as conduits transmitting water and recharging the G
Petroleum exploration project on the Halfway Formation in the Dimsdale Oil Field, working alongside another student geologist by analyzing the depositional environments, hydrocarbon trapping methods, oil-water contact, well interpretation, basin model building, and volumetric measurements on hydrocarbons.
Rockwell Resources RSA conducted a technical statement for its Niewejaarskraal and Viegulands Put mining operations in South Africa as of July 1, 2013. The document summarizes the geological setting of the alluvial diamond deposits preserved in paleochannel gravels along the Orange River. It also provides details on exploration drilling, sampling, mineral processing using dense media separation, and an inferred mineral resource estimate based on historical production data from 2001-2005 under previous ownership. The operations are fully permitted and infrastructure is in place to support mining and processing of the gravel deposits.
Rockwell Resources RSA (Pty) Ltd provides a technical statement for its Saxendrift Mine as of February 28, 2013. The independent report details the mine's location in South Africa, valid mining and prospecting licenses, BEE compliance, infrastructure, deposit types within the Orange River terraces, and a geological setting describing the fluvial-alluvial gravel sequence and mineralization. It also provides an overview of drilling, sampling, a pre-feasibility study on trial mining areas, current production mining methods, and planned processing through an in-field screening plant.
1. The document discusses different types of coal deposits associated with various delta environments, including fluvial-dominated, wave-dominated, and tide-dominated deltas.
2. Characteristics of coals are influenced by the depositional environment, such as thickness, continuity, ash and sulfur content. Coals may form in various delta plain settings like lower, upper, and during transgressive phases.
3. Additional coal deposits discussed include back-barrier, fluvial, and alluvial fan coals. Mineral and trace element content in coals is influenced by factors like pH and exposure to marine waters during peat formation.
05 xiaodong liu geologic setting of interformational-braided-channel type sa...Monatom Mgl
This document summarizes uranium deposits in interformational braided channel sandstones in northern China. It describes the geologic setting and characteristics of major uranium-bearing basins, including the Ordos, Erlian, and Kailu Basins. Uranium mineralization is associated with braided stream depositional systems within these basins. In the Ordos Basin, uranium occurs in braided channel sandstones between the Yan'an and Zhiluo Formations. Hydrocarbons may have played a role in the formation of the Dongsheng uranium deposit. The Erlian Basin's Bayanwula deposit contains tabular and roll-front uranium ore bodies within braided channel sand
The document discusses lithified sedimentary rocks and their impact on groundwater flow. Complex stratigraphy, such as interfingering rock units, can make groundwater exploration challenging. Folds and faults can create complex hydrogeologic systems, acting as barriers or conduits to flow depending on their composition. Clastic sedimentary rocks have permeability influenced by grain size, sorting, and cementation, with fractures increasing permeability. Fractures near the surface are important for bypassing low-permeability layers and recharge.
This document provides an overview of diamond deposits found along drainage systems in southern Africa, specifically the Vaal-Orange river basin. It discusses the geological history and evolution of the drainage basin, from its origins following the breakup of West Gondwana in the Late Mesozoic to its current configuration. Key points include:
1) The Vaal-Orange river system is the major drainage basin in southern Africa, transporting sediments from the interior plateau westward to the Atlantic Ocean. It has undergone superimposition and rejuvenation over time.
2) Diamond-bearing gravel deposits are found along the Limpopo-Vaal watershed near Lichtenburg and Ventersdorp. These are
Groundwater quality in different provinces in indiaSwaster Xwax
The document summarizes groundwater quality in different provinces in India. The Cenozoic Fault Basin Province contains discrete fault basins with quaternary valley fill deposits of sand and gravel intermixed with silt and clay, affected by faults. These lenses form moderately yielding aquifers. The Ganga – Brahmaputra Alluvial Province covers northern India and contains three distinct hydrological belts with permeable gravel, sand, and pebble that yield up to 300 cu.m/hr from dug wells and tube wells. The Himalayan High Land Province contains highly folded and faulted sedimentary rocks traversed by valleys filled with alluvium, which act as conduits transmitting water and recharging the G
Petroleum exploration project on the Halfway Formation in the Dimsdale Oil Field, working alongside another student geologist by analyzing the depositional environments, hydrocarbon trapping methods, oil-water contact, well interpretation, basin model building, and volumetric measurements on hydrocarbons.
This document summarizes the structural geology and petroleum system of the Euphrates Graben in Syria. The graben formed during the Mesozoic era due to extension related to the convergence of the Arabian plate. It contains multiple oil reservoirs in Cretaceous sandstones charged by Upper Cretaceous source rocks. Over 30 oil fields have been discovered since the 1990s, containing over 1 billion barrels of recoverable oil. The main reservoirs are in the Rutba sandstone, with seals provided by shale units like the Shiranish formation. Future work should examine the potential of the Silurian Tanf Formation as an additional source rock.
The River Tees flows eastward through northern England from its source in the Pennines mountains to the North Sea. It serves as a key water source for homes and industry, and several reservoirs help regulate water levels and prevent flooding downstream. The lower course grows more urban as it passes through towns and the major port of Teesside. Flood defenses have been implemented along vulnerable areas like Yarm, and the Tees Barrage was constructed to improve water quality and support development in the lower valley. Hard engineering approaches including reservoirs, flood walls, dredging, and river straightening have been dominant in managing the River Tees.
1. The document describes the principal alluvial diamond placers of Africa, from proximal reach placers on the craton to distal placers in coastal plains and offshore.
2. Kimberlite intrusions on the Kaapvaal craton were the primary source of diamonds, which were transported through fluvial and marine systems to terminal placers.
3. The largest terminal placer is the Namibian mega-placer offshore from the Orange River, which contains over 100 million carats of 95% gem-quality diamonds derived from the craton.
The document provides detailed information about the Holford Combe river valley located in the Quantock Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty in Somerset, England. It describes the physical geography of the river valley from its source in the upland hills to its mouth where it empties into the Bristol Channel. Key features of the upper, middle, and lower courses of the river are identified and explained, along with the geological formations and land use of the surrounding landscape.
This document summarizes the depositional and diagenetic factors controlling reservoir quality in the Little Creek Field in Mississippi. The field contains point bar sandstone reservoirs in the Upper Cretaceous Tuscaloosa Formation deposited by meandering rivers. The primary reservoirs are the Q and Q2 sandstones which have average porosities of 24% and permeabilities of 100 md. Diagenetic chlorite coatings on grains impact petrophysical properties by reducing effective porosity but allowing production of oil at high water saturations. Depositional features like shale drapes and cemented zones create some permeability variability but overall the reservoirs have good quality and continuity controlled by depositional and diagenetic factors.
A new look at basement-hosted mineralization in the Horseshoe and Raven depos...Adnet Communications
The document summarizes the Horseshoe and Raven uranium deposits located on UEX Corporation's Hidden Bay property in Saskatchewan, Canada. UEX drilling between 2005-2009 identified continuity of mineralization, expanding the deposit footprints and identifying higher grade areas. Resources were estimated based on the drilling, with Indicated resources of 10.3 million tonnes grading 0.17% U3O8 totaling 35 million pounds at Horseshoe and Raven. The deposits are basement-hosted along the margin of the Athabasca Basin within metamorphic lithologies. Mineralization occurs within hematite and clay alteration zones that may be localized along pre-mineral faults. Geophysics helped identify the alteration zones associated with
Braided rivers have multiple intertwining channels that diverge and converge around sediment islands. They form in areas with high sediment loads where the river flow speed varies greatly. Braiding occurs when high velocity rivers carry large amounts of sediment, which deposits and causes the main channel to split into several smaller channels that braid around islands as the river seeks new paths to the mouth. Examples include the Rakaia River in New Zealand and the Son-Kul River in Kyrgyzstan.
This report analyzes the historical landscape and ecology of Coyote Creek watershed before intensive human modification to understand how the area has changed and to identify opportunities for restoration. The report finds that historically the watershed contained a diverse mosaic of habitats including native grasslands, oak savanna, wet meadows, and freshwater wetlands. However, drainage intensification, agriculture, and development have significantly altered the watershed's hydrology and habitats. Understanding these historical conditions provides a basis for more appropriate restoration goals that consider recovering locally-adapted habitat types and restoring natural watershed functions.
Rivers shape the landscape through three main functions: erosion, transportation, and deposition. Erosion occurs via abrasion, attrition, hydraulic action, and solution as a river carries rock and sediment in its flow. Transportation involves traction, saltation, suspension, and solution of materials. Deposition happens when a river's volume or speed decreases as it enters areas like lakes, seas, or plains with gentler slopes. A river's erosional and depositional work depends on its energy, which relates to its volume, flow speed, and gradient of the land.
This document summarizes different depositional environments, including continental, transitional, and marine settings. It focuses on continental environments like fluvial and glacial systems. Fluvial environments include braided rivers, meandering rivers, and alluvial fans. Braided rivers contain bars that shift positions. Meandering rivers form point bars on the insides of bends. Alluvial fans are triangular deposits at the base of mountains. Glacial environments include tills deposited directly by glaciers and moraines that form ridges along glacier margins. Transitional environments include coastal plains and deltas. Marine environments involve deposition further offshore.
The Chilcotin Basalts: implications for mineral explorationGraham Andrews
This is a presentation I gave at the GSA Cordilleran Meeting in Kelowna, BC, in May 2009. It presents advanced results from geological studies of the Chilcotin Group basalts in south-central BC, and their impact on mineral exploration activities.
Greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits typically occur along major faults in ancient greenstone belts composed of basalt, komatiite, and sedimentary rocks that have been metamorphosed to greenschist facies. They form simple to complex quartz-carbonate vein networks that contain gold deposited by hydrothermal fluids from 5-10 km depth. While most common in Archean terranes, significant deposits also exist in younger belts. Examples include the Sigma-Lamaque deposit in Quebec and the Giant Mine in the Northwest Territories.
Single boulders, clusters of boulders, and fields of boulders are common in the Great Falls Metagranite, especially along steep slopes near streams flowing into the Catawba River. During periods of lower sea levels, greater erosion exposed many corestones as the soil was removed from steep slopes. Boulders on ridge tops are still embedded in the soil, while collapsed boulder fields can be found downhill. Waterfalls and rapids formed where boulder fields and exposed bedrock were exposed by erosion.
The summary is as follows:
1. Rivers change as they flow downstream from their sources in the uplands.
2. In the upper course, the river flows through a V-shaped valley with steep sides and waterfalls are common.
3. In the middle course, the valley widens and the river meanders through the flatter landscape, eroding the valley sides.
4. In the lower course, the river enters a floodplain with ox-bow lakes and deposits sediment in a delta or estuary at its mouth.
1. River training works include guide banks, marginal banks, spurs, and pitched islands that are constructed upstream of barrages and weirs. This is to ensure the river flows through the structure and to protect upstream lands and property from submergence.
2. Marginal banks are embankments on both sides of the river that maintain the river channel and prevent submergence of upstream areas. Spurs are fortified embankments built transverse to the banks that control the river's course and protect banks from erosion. Pitched islands artificially redistribute the river's force and sediment to attract and hold the channel.
In the upper course, the river channel is narrow and steep as it cuts downwards through the landscape. In the middle course, the river widens and deepens its channel through lateral erosion, forming meander loops that can become cut off to create oxbow lakes. In the lower course, the river slows and widens its floodplain, where deposition builds up rich alluvial soil and landforms like natural levees and deltas can form at the river's mouth.
Geomorphology - irrigation on riverine plainsPramoda Raj
The document discusses irrigation on riverine plains, providing examples from Australia. It describes how riverine plains are well-suited for intensive irrigation due to their large, flat areas. These plains were built up over millions of years through sediment deposition. Past drainage patterns on the plains have been altered by climatic changes, tectonic activity, sea level fluctuations, and flooding. The document discusses natural and artificial levees, and provides examples of large levee systems along rivers like the Mississippi. It also describes the northern and southeastern riverine plains regions of Australia in detail.
River bank erosion is a major natural hazard in Bangladesh that causes significant land and property loss each year. Three key points:
1) Major rivers like the Jamuna and Padma have widened over 3 km and eroded over 130,000 hectares of land in the last 30 years according to satellite image analysis.
2) Case studies show river bank erosion displacing over 4,000 people and causing over 4 crore BDT in economic losses annually in some districts. A majority of affected people face poverty due to loss of land and livelihood.
3) While structural measures like embankments are used, long-term policies addressing resettlement, land zoning, and afforestation are needed to
The document discusses river processes and landforms created by erosion, transportation, and deposition of sediment. Key points include:
- Rivers erode, transport, and deposit sediment through various processes including saltation, traction, suspension, and solution that create landforms such as potholes, rapids, waterfalls, deltas, and floodplains.
- The Hjulstrom curve shows the relationship between sediment size, erosion thresholds, and transportation/deposition based on water velocity.
- Meandering rivers create oxbow lakes through lateral erosion and cut-offs of meander loops over time.
GeoCongress 2023 - Classifcation of Rooikoppie Gravels: Wouterspan Case StudyRichard Graeme Horn
T
he Wouterspan project property is located along the north bank of the
Middle Orange River, between Douglas and Prieska in the Northern Cape
Province of South Africa (figure 1), which area has been the site of intense
alluvial diamond activity since the 19 th century. The bedrock of the Orange
River valley between the confluence of the Vaal and Orange Rivers at
Douglas and Prieska is dominated by flat lying Dwyka tillite and siltstone of
the Karoo Supergroup. Underlying the Dwyka are lavas of the Ventersdorp
Supergroup, which are overlain (in places) by sediments of the Griqualand
West Supergroup, comprising shales, quartzites and dolomites. The
bedrock is cut by faults and dolerite dykes, which are rarely exposed.
The Wouterspan deposit comprises an extensive flat lying alluvial sequence,
on which a number of terraces have been identified (figure 2). The majority
of the alluvial diamonds found in gravel deposits along all of the middle
Orange River terraces are, typically, found in two distinct gravel horizons.
These comprise an upper, deflation deposit (locally known as Rooikoppie
gravels) overlying fluvial alluvial units, often known as Primary Alluvial
Gravels. Both deposit types have been seen to be developed extensively
on Wouterspan.
W
hile being ubiquitously worked along the both the Vaal and Orange
Rivers for over one hundred years (Marshall et al ., 2009; 2017), the
Rooikoppie Deflation Gravels have received significantly less scientific and
economic investigation than the kimberlites and diamondiferous alluvial
gravels located within the same environs.
A classification tool was created and applied to surface mapping and
exploration pitting on the Wouterspan Diamond Project . The aims of the
classification were to:
1.
Develop an effective tool that can describe and
categorise different types
of deflation gravel based on clast size
2.
Compare and then determine if there is a relationship between the
deflation gravel and the underlying geology
With the geological relationship established, the classification tool, when
used in conjunction with associated geological and geomorphic studies will
provide a better understanding of post depositional events while being
able to be generate targets for bulk sampling.
O
n Wouterspan, both colluvial and eluvial Rooikoppie gravels (figure 3)
were identified. The colluvial variety is a fine gravel lying directly on top of
calcreted tillite. The implication of this is that the gravels have been derived
from terraces higher up the slope. As a result, this Rooikoppie gravel unit
might be expected to have inherited more than one diamond population.
The
top few metres of each of the older channel have been variably
calcretised and are, in turn, covered by thin Rooikoppie gravels. Surface
mapping and pitting indicate that:
•
A coarse (Cobble dominant) Rooikoppie (figure 5) generally overlies the
older channels.
•
Finer (Pebble dominant) Rooikoppie is found to occur over the
younger channel, as
The document summarizes the geology of the Lambeth Group in the London Basin based on borehole data.
The environment of deposition was a barrier island lagoon or bar-built estuaries based on evidence of burrows, shells, and plant roots indicating alternating marine and terrestrial conditions.
The rock types change from east to west, with the westernmost borehole containing structureless sandstone and mudstone deposited by a river, becoming more marine and structured to the east where shells and burrows indicate a lagoon/estuary environment, and the easternmost boreholes containing coastal beach deposits.
Potential reservoir sandstones exist but are not sufficiently thick, with the thickest being only 7m
This document summarizes the structural geology and petroleum system of the Euphrates Graben in Syria. The graben formed during the Mesozoic era due to extension related to the convergence of the Arabian plate. It contains multiple oil reservoirs in Cretaceous sandstones charged by Upper Cretaceous source rocks. Over 30 oil fields have been discovered since the 1990s, containing over 1 billion barrels of recoverable oil. The main reservoirs are in the Rutba sandstone, with seals provided by shale units like the Shiranish formation. Future work should examine the potential of the Silurian Tanf Formation as an additional source rock.
The River Tees flows eastward through northern England from its source in the Pennines mountains to the North Sea. It serves as a key water source for homes and industry, and several reservoirs help regulate water levels and prevent flooding downstream. The lower course grows more urban as it passes through towns and the major port of Teesside. Flood defenses have been implemented along vulnerable areas like Yarm, and the Tees Barrage was constructed to improve water quality and support development in the lower valley. Hard engineering approaches including reservoirs, flood walls, dredging, and river straightening have been dominant in managing the River Tees.
1. The document describes the principal alluvial diamond placers of Africa, from proximal reach placers on the craton to distal placers in coastal plains and offshore.
2. Kimberlite intrusions on the Kaapvaal craton were the primary source of diamonds, which were transported through fluvial and marine systems to terminal placers.
3. The largest terminal placer is the Namibian mega-placer offshore from the Orange River, which contains over 100 million carats of 95% gem-quality diamonds derived from the craton.
The document provides detailed information about the Holford Combe river valley located in the Quantock Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty in Somerset, England. It describes the physical geography of the river valley from its source in the upland hills to its mouth where it empties into the Bristol Channel. Key features of the upper, middle, and lower courses of the river are identified and explained, along with the geological formations and land use of the surrounding landscape.
This document summarizes the depositional and diagenetic factors controlling reservoir quality in the Little Creek Field in Mississippi. The field contains point bar sandstone reservoirs in the Upper Cretaceous Tuscaloosa Formation deposited by meandering rivers. The primary reservoirs are the Q and Q2 sandstones which have average porosities of 24% and permeabilities of 100 md. Diagenetic chlorite coatings on grains impact petrophysical properties by reducing effective porosity but allowing production of oil at high water saturations. Depositional features like shale drapes and cemented zones create some permeability variability but overall the reservoirs have good quality and continuity controlled by depositional and diagenetic factors.
A new look at basement-hosted mineralization in the Horseshoe and Raven depos...Adnet Communications
The document summarizes the Horseshoe and Raven uranium deposits located on UEX Corporation's Hidden Bay property in Saskatchewan, Canada. UEX drilling between 2005-2009 identified continuity of mineralization, expanding the deposit footprints and identifying higher grade areas. Resources were estimated based on the drilling, with Indicated resources of 10.3 million tonnes grading 0.17% U3O8 totaling 35 million pounds at Horseshoe and Raven. The deposits are basement-hosted along the margin of the Athabasca Basin within metamorphic lithologies. Mineralization occurs within hematite and clay alteration zones that may be localized along pre-mineral faults. Geophysics helped identify the alteration zones associated with
Braided rivers have multiple intertwining channels that diverge and converge around sediment islands. They form in areas with high sediment loads where the river flow speed varies greatly. Braiding occurs when high velocity rivers carry large amounts of sediment, which deposits and causes the main channel to split into several smaller channels that braid around islands as the river seeks new paths to the mouth. Examples include the Rakaia River in New Zealand and the Son-Kul River in Kyrgyzstan.
This report analyzes the historical landscape and ecology of Coyote Creek watershed before intensive human modification to understand how the area has changed and to identify opportunities for restoration. The report finds that historically the watershed contained a diverse mosaic of habitats including native grasslands, oak savanna, wet meadows, and freshwater wetlands. However, drainage intensification, agriculture, and development have significantly altered the watershed's hydrology and habitats. Understanding these historical conditions provides a basis for more appropriate restoration goals that consider recovering locally-adapted habitat types and restoring natural watershed functions.
Rivers shape the landscape through three main functions: erosion, transportation, and deposition. Erosion occurs via abrasion, attrition, hydraulic action, and solution as a river carries rock and sediment in its flow. Transportation involves traction, saltation, suspension, and solution of materials. Deposition happens when a river's volume or speed decreases as it enters areas like lakes, seas, or plains with gentler slopes. A river's erosional and depositional work depends on its energy, which relates to its volume, flow speed, and gradient of the land.
This document summarizes different depositional environments, including continental, transitional, and marine settings. It focuses on continental environments like fluvial and glacial systems. Fluvial environments include braided rivers, meandering rivers, and alluvial fans. Braided rivers contain bars that shift positions. Meandering rivers form point bars on the insides of bends. Alluvial fans are triangular deposits at the base of mountains. Glacial environments include tills deposited directly by glaciers and moraines that form ridges along glacier margins. Transitional environments include coastal plains and deltas. Marine environments involve deposition further offshore.
The Chilcotin Basalts: implications for mineral explorationGraham Andrews
This is a presentation I gave at the GSA Cordilleran Meeting in Kelowna, BC, in May 2009. It presents advanced results from geological studies of the Chilcotin Group basalts in south-central BC, and their impact on mineral exploration activities.
Greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits typically occur along major faults in ancient greenstone belts composed of basalt, komatiite, and sedimentary rocks that have been metamorphosed to greenschist facies. They form simple to complex quartz-carbonate vein networks that contain gold deposited by hydrothermal fluids from 5-10 km depth. While most common in Archean terranes, significant deposits also exist in younger belts. Examples include the Sigma-Lamaque deposit in Quebec and the Giant Mine in the Northwest Territories.
Single boulders, clusters of boulders, and fields of boulders are common in the Great Falls Metagranite, especially along steep slopes near streams flowing into the Catawba River. During periods of lower sea levels, greater erosion exposed many corestones as the soil was removed from steep slopes. Boulders on ridge tops are still embedded in the soil, while collapsed boulder fields can be found downhill. Waterfalls and rapids formed where boulder fields and exposed bedrock were exposed by erosion.
The summary is as follows:
1. Rivers change as they flow downstream from their sources in the uplands.
2. In the upper course, the river flows through a V-shaped valley with steep sides and waterfalls are common.
3. In the middle course, the valley widens and the river meanders through the flatter landscape, eroding the valley sides.
4. In the lower course, the river enters a floodplain with ox-bow lakes and deposits sediment in a delta or estuary at its mouth.
1. River training works include guide banks, marginal banks, spurs, and pitched islands that are constructed upstream of barrages and weirs. This is to ensure the river flows through the structure and to protect upstream lands and property from submergence.
2. Marginal banks are embankments on both sides of the river that maintain the river channel and prevent submergence of upstream areas. Spurs are fortified embankments built transverse to the banks that control the river's course and protect banks from erosion. Pitched islands artificially redistribute the river's force and sediment to attract and hold the channel.
In the upper course, the river channel is narrow and steep as it cuts downwards through the landscape. In the middle course, the river widens and deepens its channel through lateral erosion, forming meander loops that can become cut off to create oxbow lakes. In the lower course, the river slows and widens its floodplain, where deposition builds up rich alluvial soil and landforms like natural levees and deltas can form at the river's mouth.
Geomorphology - irrigation on riverine plainsPramoda Raj
The document discusses irrigation on riverine plains, providing examples from Australia. It describes how riverine plains are well-suited for intensive irrigation due to their large, flat areas. These plains were built up over millions of years through sediment deposition. Past drainage patterns on the plains have been altered by climatic changes, tectonic activity, sea level fluctuations, and flooding. The document discusses natural and artificial levees, and provides examples of large levee systems along rivers like the Mississippi. It also describes the northern and southeastern riverine plains regions of Australia in detail.
River bank erosion is a major natural hazard in Bangladesh that causes significant land and property loss each year. Three key points:
1) Major rivers like the Jamuna and Padma have widened over 3 km and eroded over 130,000 hectares of land in the last 30 years according to satellite image analysis.
2) Case studies show river bank erosion displacing over 4,000 people and causing over 4 crore BDT in economic losses annually in some districts. A majority of affected people face poverty due to loss of land and livelihood.
3) While structural measures like embankments are used, long-term policies addressing resettlement, land zoning, and afforestation are needed to
The document discusses river processes and landforms created by erosion, transportation, and deposition of sediment. Key points include:
- Rivers erode, transport, and deposit sediment through various processes including saltation, traction, suspension, and solution that create landforms such as potholes, rapids, waterfalls, deltas, and floodplains.
- The Hjulstrom curve shows the relationship between sediment size, erosion thresholds, and transportation/deposition based on water velocity.
- Meandering rivers create oxbow lakes through lateral erosion and cut-offs of meander loops over time.
GeoCongress 2023 - Classifcation of Rooikoppie Gravels: Wouterspan Case StudyRichard Graeme Horn
T
he Wouterspan project property is located along the north bank of the
Middle Orange River, between Douglas and Prieska in the Northern Cape
Province of South Africa (figure 1), which area has been the site of intense
alluvial diamond activity since the 19 th century. The bedrock of the Orange
River valley between the confluence of the Vaal and Orange Rivers at
Douglas and Prieska is dominated by flat lying Dwyka tillite and siltstone of
the Karoo Supergroup. Underlying the Dwyka are lavas of the Ventersdorp
Supergroup, which are overlain (in places) by sediments of the Griqualand
West Supergroup, comprising shales, quartzites and dolomites. The
bedrock is cut by faults and dolerite dykes, which are rarely exposed.
The Wouterspan deposit comprises an extensive flat lying alluvial sequence,
on which a number of terraces have been identified (figure 2). The majority
of the alluvial diamonds found in gravel deposits along all of the middle
Orange River terraces are, typically, found in two distinct gravel horizons.
These comprise an upper, deflation deposit (locally known as Rooikoppie
gravels) overlying fluvial alluvial units, often known as Primary Alluvial
Gravels. Both deposit types have been seen to be developed extensively
on Wouterspan.
W
hile being ubiquitously worked along the both the Vaal and Orange
Rivers for over one hundred years (Marshall et al ., 2009; 2017), the
Rooikoppie Deflation Gravels have received significantly less scientific and
economic investigation than the kimberlites and diamondiferous alluvial
gravels located within the same environs.
A classification tool was created and applied to surface mapping and
exploration pitting on the Wouterspan Diamond Project . The aims of the
classification were to:
1.
Develop an effective tool that can describe and
categorise different types
of deflation gravel based on clast size
2.
Compare and then determine if there is a relationship between the
deflation gravel and the underlying geology
With the geological relationship established, the classification tool, when
used in conjunction with associated geological and geomorphic studies will
provide a better understanding of post depositional events while being
able to be generate targets for bulk sampling.
O
n Wouterspan, both colluvial and eluvial Rooikoppie gravels (figure 3)
were identified. The colluvial variety is a fine gravel lying directly on top of
calcreted tillite. The implication of this is that the gravels have been derived
from terraces higher up the slope. As a result, this Rooikoppie gravel unit
might be expected to have inherited more than one diamond population.
The
top few metres of each of the older channel have been variably
calcretised and are, in turn, covered by thin Rooikoppie gravels. Surface
mapping and pitting indicate that:
•
A coarse (Cobble dominant) Rooikoppie (figure 5) generally overlies the
older channels.
•
Finer (Pebble dominant) Rooikoppie is found to occur over the
younger channel, as
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The rock types change from east to west, with the westernmost borehole containing structureless sandstone and mudstone deposited by a river, becoming more marine and structured to the east where shells and burrows indicate a lagoon/estuary environment, and the easternmost boreholes containing coastal beach deposits.
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There are three main types of sedimentary environments: continental, marine, and transitional. Continental environments include fluvial, lacustrine, paludal, glacial, and desert settings. Within fluvial environments, meandering rivers form sinuous channels and broad floodplains, depositing point bars and abandoned oxbow lakes. Deltas form at river mouths where sediment is deposited as delta plains, delta fronts, and fine-grained prodeltas.
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The document provides an overview of sandstone-hosted uranium deposits in South Africa. It discusses the historical background of uranium exploration in the region from the 1960s-1980s. The deposits are hosted by sandstones of the Late Permian Adelaide Subgroup within the Karoo Basin. Two main types of mineralization are described - laminated sandstone-hosted and carbonate-cemented sandstone-hosted. The metallogenesis involved fluvial transportation of uranium from source areas like granites, with precipitation occurring during early diagenesis aided by reductants like carbonaceous material and H2S. Limited remobilization of uranium is observed.
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This document describes various sedimentary environments including continental, marine, and transitional environments. Continental environments include fluvial, lacustrine, paludal, glacial, and desert. Marine environments include shallow marine environments like reefs and continental shelves as well as deep marine environments like continental slopes, rises, and abyssal plains. Transitional environments are at the transition between land and sea and include deltas, tidal flats, beaches, barrier islands, and lagoons.
Uranium Occurrence in the Egypt
Types of Uranium Deposits in Egypt:
Uranium Occurrences in Pan-African Younger Granites of Egypt
Uranium Occurrences in Dykes
Uranium Occurrences in Sedimentary Rock Sequences of Egypt
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Searles Lake is a dry lake bed located in the Mojave Desert of California. It was formed as one of several Pleistocene-era lakes fed by runoff from the Sierra Nevada mountains. The mineral-rich lake bed is now a source of industrial minerals through extraction, yielding over 1.7 million tons annually. It also supports the small town of Trona, built in 1913 as a company town for workers in the mining industry, which remains the economic focus of the area. An interesting geological feature are the Trona Pinnacles, a collection of over 500 tufa spires up to 140 feet tall that formed underwater from calcium carbonate precipitation but are now exposed on the dry lake bed
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Similar to Wouterspan resource summary July 2013 (20)
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1. ROCKWELL DIAMONDS INC. NI 43-101 Technical Statement
(as at 30 November 2010)
WWOOUUTTEERRSS--
PPAANN
Independent Qualified Person Dr. Tania R Marshall (Pr. Sci. Nat) of Explorations Unlimited, South Africa
Non-Independent QP Mr Glenn A Norton (Pr. Sci. Nat.) of Rockwell Resources Inc
Effective Date 15 May, 2013
Prepared for Rockwell Diamonds Inc
Purpose Annual Information Form and Mineral Resource Update
Company Year End 28 February
Personal Inspection
Site visits by independent QP 4 June 2013. All prospect areas, infrastructure and plants
visited
General Location
Located in the Herbert district of the Northern Cape Province of South Africa approximately
145km southwest of Kimberley. The operations are located on the farm Lanyonvale (various
portions) with an aggregate area of 2,579.8ha.
Licence Status
The following permits are valid for the project:
• Portions 7, 14, 16, and 18 have been consolidated into a single Mining Right in the name
of H C Van Wyk Diamonds (“HCVWD”). This conversion was granted on 25 January
2010, but has not yet been executed.
• The converted, New Order Prospecting Right on a surveyed portion of Re/ptn9 (held by
Okapi Diamonds) is under section 11 cession to HCVWD and will be included into the
existing HCVWD Mining Right, once granted.
BEE Compliance
African Vanguard Resources owns 26% of the Wouterspan project. An accepted Social &
Labour Plan is in place, covering all of the Rockwell operations.
Climate, Infrastructure, Access
Located in an arid to semi-arid, Karoo environment. Electrical power and water resources
have been accounted for. Mining personal readily available. Tailings and waste disposal sites
have been identified. Operations accessed by good network of all-weather gravel roads.
Deposit Types
Alluvial diamond deposits preserved in fluvial-alluvial palaeochannel and deflation gravels
(Rooikoppie) in Orange River terraces.
HISTORY
Alluvial diamonds have been recovered from properties along
the middle Orange River , between Douglas and Prieska since
the early 1880’s. Initially much of this activity was focussed on
the Rooikoppie gravels – deflation gravels derived from the
colluvial and eluvial reworking of pre-existing alluvial deposits.
Later it was recognised that the underlying palaeochannel
gravels, often buried beneath a hard calcrete carapace,
represented an economically viable, high volume target.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The present Orange River between Douglas and Prieska
displays a meandering channel morphology, best developed in
areas underlain by the Dwyka Group. All the different fluvial
terrace deposits are covered by Rooikoppie gravels, which
represent mobile, multi-cyclic deflation and gravitational
deposits sourced from surface scree deposits and/or elevated
(inverted) fluvial deposits and preserved and recycled
repeatedly from one successive land surface to the next. Only
the most durable silicic clast Banded iron formation (BIF,
quartzite, chert, etc) survived this deflation recycling and
diamonds are only present where the Rooikoppie gravels
recycled older diamondiferous fluvial deposits.
Palaeochannel depositional packages of the Orange River are
preserved at different elevations above the present Orange
River bed. Diamondiferous Rooikoppie gravel scree slopes
higher than the oldest preserved fluvial deposits suggest that
even older and higher elevation palaeo-deposits were present
and have been removed completely by erosion.
The ages of these terraces young with decreasing elevation and
vary from Pleistocene-Pliocene for the lower terraces to Plio-
Miocene for the upper terraces. Conversely, the probability of
preservation decreases with increasing age and elevation.
The most consistent high level palaeo deposit, and the one on
which the geological model for this area was developed, occurs
between 60-90m above river level. These deposits represent
palaeomeanders exhibiting a wavelength of approximately
13km and an amp1itudeof about 6km, very similar to that of
the modern-river. These gravel deposits occur at about 1000
masl. and generally slope slightly to the south, away from the
Orange River. Both the calcrete cap and the bedrock exhibit
this same slope. The meanders are generally covered entirely
by either calcrete or wind-blown sand, or both, but careful
mapping have defined points of entry and emergence of
palaeochannel deposits from underneath the upper calcrete
cap, along the valley scarps.
C-Terrace on Wouterspan mine (20-40m above present
river level)
E X P L O R A T I O N S U N L I M I T E D Page 1
2. ROCKWELL DIAMONDS INC. NI 43-101 Technical Statement
(as at 30 November 2010)
WWOOUUTTEERRSS--
PPAANN
Frequency of occurrence suggests that the known deposits
represent the complete palaeochannel profile for this section of
the river. The correspondence in palaeo- and modern river
morphology, for this cycle, indicates that this sector of the
Orange River system remained in relative equilibrium since,
probably, the Miocene. All the preserved meanders at this
elevation lie to the south of the present river channel
suggesting that meander cut-off occurred mostly along the
northern loops of the meanders. This may be an indication of
regional slope to the south or slow, continuous uplift to the
north.
The primary sources of diamonds trapped in the palaeogravels
of the Orange River are kimberlites and intermediate secondary
sources like eluvial, colluvial and fluvial deposits in the
catchment regions of the Vaal and Orange rivers. These
diamonds were deposited along the course of the river in
favourable trap sites either in bedrock-traps or in point-bar
complexes and within-channel bars, particularly in meanders,
scour pools and areas of divergent flow.
In the range of deposits on Wouterspan and within the context
of the model presented diamonds were first deposited in gravel
units at an elevation of + 110m above the present river. As a
result of consecutive cycles of continental uplift and erosion,
the oldest diamondiferous gravels deposited by the Orange
River have been recycled and re-deposited repeatedly through
time down to the lowest level gravels as preserved today.
Lower elevation terraces (less than about 30 m above present
river bed) of the Orange River are typified by up to 30% sand
matrix with a high proportion of zeolite-rich sand lenses and a
high proportion of red Drakensberg basalt clasts. These gravels
normally exhibit intermediate to low diamond grades. They are
typically cobble-pebble gravels with occasional boulders. Clast
composition is dominated by BIF +60%, andesite, dolerite,
shale, quartzite, riebeckite and others with a low percentage of
agate and amygdales. Clast-rounding is moderate, packing is
moderate to poor which impacts negatively on diamond
entrapment potential. Average grades of 0.5-1.2ct/m3
or 0.23-
0.54cpht are known with the occurrence of occasional large
stones. The lowest terrace does not appear to be as calcreted
as the upper two terraces and mining
is, therefore, easier. Lower terrace
deposits are generally covered by 1-4
m of sand whereas the upper terrace
deposits are capped by a hard calcrete
layer some 2 - 3 m thick which
protected the gravel deposits from
erosion and prevented exploitation in
the past.
The Wouterspan deposit comprises an
extensive flat lying alluvial sequence
located on the right bank of the
modern Orange River extending
across an area of approximately
4x3km. The bedrock is well exposed
in the workings and shale and tillite of
the Karoo age Dwyka Group, are
common. The bedrock displays an
irregular erosional surface with gully
and pothole features creating high
diamond trapping potential.
At Wouterspan, the gravel terrace
occurs approximately 20-40m above
the Orange River and appear to have
been deposited in a braided river
environment. These terraces are,
probably, of lower to intermediate age.
Thin (<2m), extensive Rooikoppie blanket the property. The
fluvial-alluvial sequence is comprised of a basal gravel overlain
by a generally upward-fining sequence with hanging gravel
lenses known as “Middlings”. The sequence is covered by a
(non-silcreted) calcrete cap, generally less than 5m thick. Post-
depositional weathering of this calcrete has formed solution
hollows called “makondos” which are often filled with diamond-
enriched Rooikoppie gravels.
Fluvial-alluvial gravel unit being bulk-sampled on
Wouterspan showing basal gravel unit and overlying
“middlings” gravels
MINERALISATION
The palaeochannel gravels are mineralised by diamonds
derived from the weathering and erosion of kimberlites present
in the headwaters of the palaeo-Vaal River system. Colluvial
and eluvial post-depositional modification of these fluvial-
alluvial deposits resulted in the formation of the Rooikoppie
gravels.
E X P L O R A T I O N S U N L I M I T E D Page 2
3. ROCKWELL DIAMONDS INC. NI 43-101 Technical Statement
(as at 30 November 2010)
WWOOUUTTEERRSS--
PPAANN
Under arid conditions low stream flow typically results in wide,
shallow channels. The valleys displays moderate sinuosity and
braiding may be frequent. Braided streams are highly transient
environments. The braided channels are unstable through time
and gravel bars are formed and destroyed continuously.
Shifting bars and channels cause wide variations in local flow
conditions resulting in varied depositional assemblages.
Common features in braided stream deposits include irregular
bed thicknesses, restricted lateral and vertical variations within
the sediments, and abundant evidence of erosion and re-
deposition.
EXPLORATION
In alluvial deposits diamonds occur in clusters formed by
natural traps such as gullies, potholes and gravel bars.
Diamonds constitute discrete units of varying size (weight) and
usual parameters of grade measurements are not entirely
applicable. Individual diamonds are not evenly or uniformly
distributed throughout an alluvial deposit; neither are they
randomly distributed. Rather, their distribution has been
described as a random distribution of clusters of points
Consequently, in order to be effective and reliable, individual
sample sizes may need to be relatively large. Due to the
nature of the distribution of diamonds throughout a deposit the
grade estimated from any individual sample can vary widely. A
single sample provides only a limited amount of information
and the conclusions drawn are, correspondingly, uncertain.
DRILLING
Since 2007, some 1,763 (+14,000m) drilling has been
completed by Rockwell as part of the resource estimation
programme
SAMPLING
During the period March – November 2008 the resources
outlined above were depleted by mining activities. All of
these gravels were mined from previously identified,
Indicated Resource areas on the C terrace (no bulk-samples
have yet been taken from the higher B terraces). Some
100,000m3
of Rooikoppie and 452,293m3
of calcreted fluvial-
alluvial gravel (for a total of 552,293m3
was processed to
recover 3,896.42carats at an average grade of
0.71ct/100m3
.
MINERAL MINING AND PROCESSING
The mining of the gravels at Wouterspan was undertaken
using mechanised, shallow opencast earthmoving
techniques, virtually identically to the bulk-sampling
operation:
• The topsoil is removed and stored separately for later
rehabilitation.
• The 1-1.5 m of Rooikoppie is then removed from the
uneven calcrete substrate by an excavator.
• Having removed any calcrete overburden, the Primary
(palaeochannel) calcreted gravels are mined. Where
the bedrock is soft, approximately 20cm of bedrock is
excavated with the gravels, so that any diamonds in the
weathered rock will be recovered.
• The Primary gravels are screened in the pit to -40mm,
before transport to the diamond recovery plants.
The gravel samples were processed through a bank of 16-
foot rotary pan plants. Highly magnetic gravel clasts were
removed from the gravels prior to processing. The
concentrate was processed, on-site, through X-Ray
FLOWSORT machines, prior to grease and final hand sorting.
MINERAL RESOURCE ESTIMATES
The resource statement for Wouterspan reflects the situation as
at 15 May 2013. Note that:
• No production has taken place on this mine since end
November 2008 when the mine was put on Care &
Maintenance.
• The diamond value (at 2mm) given in the statement is the
average received for +5,500 of diamonds sold from the
adjacent Saxendrift mine during 2010. Since this does not
represent a parcel derived from the Wouterspan mine itself,
the confidence level on this estimate is not as high as it would
be after the recovery of 3,000-5,000cts from the mine. This
figure will be adjusted accordingly, once the mine is re-
commissioned.
All of the identified resources are located on the (lower) C
terraces. Although drilling has been initiated on both the B
terraces, no bulk-samples have been completed at these
locations. Additional prospecting, to increase the amount of
data on the higher terraces, is necessary to improve the
representativeness of the information. Current reconnaissance
drilling highlights exploration targets of some 14Mm3
and an
additional area of some 40Mm2
.
E X P L O R A T I O N S U N L I M I T E D Page 3
4. ROCKWELL DIAMONDS INC. NI 43-101 Technical Statement
(as at 30 November 2010)
WWOOUUTTEERRSS--
PPAANN
IDENTIFIED RESOURCES ON WOUTERSPAN MINE
MINING
AREA
TERRACE COMPLEX
Bottom Cut-
off
VOLUME
(m³)
GRADE
(ct/100m³)
Value
(USD/ct)
INDICATED RESOURCES
Wouterspan
Rooikoppie
B terrace
2mm
5mm
614,400
0.70
0.62
2,029
2,300
Fluvial-Alluvial
B terrace
2mm
5mm
3,858,800
0.70
0.62
2,029
2,300
INFERRED RESOURCES
Wouterspan
Rooikoppie
B terrace
2mm
5mm
5,911,000
0.70
0.62
2,029
2,300
Fluvial-Alluvial
B terrace
2mm
5mm
31,863,000
0.70
0.62
2,029
2,300
PRELIMINARY ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT
During 2012, Rockwell progressed with an updated Preliminary
Economic Assessment (“PEA”) on Wouterspan through
mining/processing engineering and economic studies. The PEA
is preliminary in nature, and includes Inferred mineral
resources that are considered too speculative geologically to
have economic considerations applied to them that would
enable them to be categorized as mineral reserves. There is no
assurance that the PEA will be realized.
The economic model (based on 100% interest) yielded an
internal rate of return (“IRR”) of 74% for the base case. The
net present value ("NPV") for the base case is USD99.2 million
at a 15% discount rate, yielding a project payback period of 2.3
years from the start of construction (1.3 yrs from start of
production). The project is most sensitive to revenue with a
5% variance in the total revenue over the 10 year life of mine,
impacting the NPV by 15%. The operation is expected to
employ some 300 people.
Key assumptions of the study:
• A plant with a capacity of 1,200 tonnes per hour (“tph”)
(or 354,000m3
per month), a rate that lowers the
sensitivity of diamond production to the nature of the
resource being mined.
• The bottom cut-off is 5mm
• A plant design comprising of three processing streams: two
Bourevestnik Bulk X-ray systems such as those that have
been successfully implemented by the Company at its
Saxendrift Hill operations to handle the coarse and mid-
sized gravels; and the third stream being a dense media
separation (“DMS”) stream to process fine material.
• A reduced water consumption rate that is suited to the
environmental conditions in the Middle Orange River
region.
• The use of contract mining at a fixed unit cost that reduces
the capital requirements and enables Rockwell to focus on
mine planning and processing.
• The net present values in the table below are shown pre-
tax. The Wouterspan property is registered in H C Van
Wyk Diamonds Limited, which has material assessed
losses. Consequently, in addition to the allowance for
capital investment to develop the mine, Wouterspan will
not be liable for tax for at least the period of the PEA.
Summary of financial model and results
Proposed mining rate 1,200 tph
Project life of mine 10.1 years
Grade (modelled at 5mm
bottom cut off)
0.62 ct/100m3
Average carat value (modelled
at 5mm bottom cut off)
USD 2,300/ct
Initial Capital cost (including
25% contingency)
Total Capital Investment (over
10 years)
USD42M (ZAR 357M)
USD54M (ZAR 460M)
Exchange Rate USD = ZAR 8.5
Unit cost (using contract
mining)
USD 8.90/m3
(ZAR 75.7/m3
)
Net present value (at 10%)
USD135M
(ZAR 1,150M)
Net present value (at 15%)
USD99M
(ZAR 843M)
Net present value (at 25%)
USD55M
(ZAR471M)
Net present value (at 30%)
USD42M
(ZAR 356M)
Internal Rate of Return at
15%
74%
E X P L O R A T I O N S U N L I M I T E D Page 4