World Literature in the Age of Globalization: Reflections on an Anthology
Author(s): Waïl S. Hassan
Source: College English , Sep., 2000, Vol. 63, No. 1 (Sep., 2000), pp. 38-47
Published by: National Council of Teachers of English
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38
World Literature in the Age
of Globalization: Reflections
on an Anthology
Wa'il S. Hassan
ince the early nineteenth century, Weltliteratur (world literature) has been one
of the great Western humanistic ideas. Like many such ideas, it has both re-
produced and reinforced a specifically Western worldview. For a long time,
"world literature" was synonymous with European literature, but with the vig-
orous interrogation from a number of perspectives of the primacy of the Western
canon, the rise to global celebrity of scores of non-Western writers (including several
Nobel laureates and others equally canonized by the Western literary-critical estab-
lishment), and the increasing availability of English translations, the teacher of a world
literature course today faces an unprecedented abundance of texts from which to
choose. Yet this situation is fraught with difficulties of its own, for even as the "glob-
alization of literary studies" emerges as the topic of the hour, the selective inclusion
of non-Western texts in critical and pedagogical cadres often reveals new configura-
tions of power and domination. I shall be arguing in this essay that the pedagogical
application of the concept of "world literature" in the United States since WWII has
developed in step with the political, economic, and strategic remapping of global re-
lations, sometimes in subtle ways that tend to mask its affiliations with power.
The globalization of literary studies is articulated in several interrelated domains-
critical, curricular, pedagogical-all of which I cannot adequately address within the
scope of this essay. I would like, however, to limit my discussion to one aspect of ped-
agogy, namely the evolution of the single most authoritative and widely used text-
book in world literature courses in the United States, The Norton Anthology of World
M.
“Poetic Image and Tradition in Western European Modernism”, Comparative Literature and Culture (Purdue), 1.2, June 1999. ISSN: 1481-4374. https://doi.org/10.7771/1481-4374.1011.
What is Comparative Literature Today? - Article by Susan BassnettHetalPathak10
This PPT Made as a part of Pair activity in the context of Comparative Study. This Presentation based upon the article " What is Comparative Literature Today? By Susan Bassnett.
This document provides an overview of New Historicism and Queer Theory literary theories. It discusses how New Historicism views literary texts as situated within the totality of institutions, practices, and discourses that constitute the culture of a particular time and place. It also acknowledges that both the text and the critic's interpretation are influenced by their unique historical contexts. For Queer Theory, it notes how the term "queer" was originally derogatory but has been reclaimed to identify non-heterosexual lifestyles and areas of study, and discusses how views have evolved from seeing fixed gay/lesbian identities to being more complex and acknowledging a spectrum of diverse experiences.
World literature was traditionally defined as European masterpieces but now includes a broader global perspective. The book What Is World Literature? by David Damrosch examines how the definition and understanding of world literature has changed as works circulate between cultures and languages. Damrosch argues that world literature includes works that gain new meaning and popularity through translation. The concept of world literature has evolved over time from referring mainly to European works to encompassing literature from all time periods and cultures that reaches a global audience.
World Literature Essay. Bay Mills Community CollegeAmanda Anderson
This document discusses the challenges of writing a world literature essay. It notes that crafting such an essay requires a profound understanding of diverse literary traditions, cultures, and the human experience as expressed through literature. The essayist must conduct extensive research to uncover works from various literary canons and draw connections between them while navigating cultural and linguistic contexts. Synthesizing themes across different works and time periods is like solving a complex puzzle. Linguistic challenges also present obstacles in translating works without losing nuances. Additionally, the subjective nature of literature complicates the essay by requiring a balance of personal insights and scholarly objectivity. Overall, a world literature essay is an intellectually demanding task that requires research, cultural sensitivity, linguistic skills,
This document discusses the challenges of writing an essay on the topic of world literature. It notes that such an essay requires an understanding of diverse literary traditions, cultures, and historical contexts from a global perspective. The task is complex as it involves analyzing works from different eras, regions, and genres spanning the vast field of world literature. Choosing representative works and presenting a balanced perspective is difficult. Additionally, the essay must show a nuanced grasp of cultural contexts and craft a coherent narrative that connects disparate literary elements from around the world into a unified discussion. In summary, an essay on world literature necessitates extensive research, cultural sensitivity, and strong analytical abilities.
Essay On Western Culture. Washington & Jefferson CollegeLisa Taylor
The document discusses the challenges of writing an essay on Western culture. It notes that Western culture encompasses a vast and diverse history, art, philosophy, social norms, and technology. Capturing this complexity requires balancing depth and breadth without becoming too broad or narrow in focus. Additionally, the essay must provide historical context, consider cultural shifts over time, and analyze Western culture's influence on other regions in a nuanced way. Thorough research from primary and secondary sources is crucial to substantiate claims and provide a holistic perspective on the interconnected aspects of Western culture's development and global impact. While challenging, exploring this multifaceted subject that has shaped societies worldwide can be an intellectually rewarding experience.
Susan Bassnett describes how comparative literature has evolved over time. It challenges Eurocentric approaches and embraces more inclusive understanding of diverse literatures. Bassnett reviews comparative literature in the 1990s, noting how developments in critical theory have impacted the field. She views translation as crucial for cross-cultural understanding and questions comparative literature's current state and future. Bassnett argues the field must adapt to new technologies and globalization while resisting cultural homogenization by promoting nuanced understanding of different literary traditions.
“Poetic Image and Tradition in Western European Modernism”, Comparative Literature and Culture (Purdue), 1.2, June 1999. ISSN: 1481-4374. https://doi.org/10.7771/1481-4374.1011.
What is Comparative Literature Today? - Article by Susan BassnettHetalPathak10
This PPT Made as a part of Pair activity in the context of Comparative Study. This Presentation based upon the article " What is Comparative Literature Today? By Susan Bassnett.
This document provides an overview of New Historicism and Queer Theory literary theories. It discusses how New Historicism views literary texts as situated within the totality of institutions, practices, and discourses that constitute the culture of a particular time and place. It also acknowledges that both the text and the critic's interpretation are influenced by their unique historical contexts. For Queer Theory, it notes how the term "queer" was originally derogatory but has been reclaimed to identify non-heterosexual lifestyles and areas of study, and discusses how views have evolved from seeing fixed gay/lesbian identities to being more complex and acknowledging a spectrum of diverse experiences.
World literature was traditionally defined as European masterpieces but now includes a broader global perspective. The book What Is World Literature? by David Damrosch examines how the definition and understanding of world literature has changed as works circulate between cultures and languages. Damrosch argues that world literature includes works that gain new meaning and popularity through translation. The concept of world literature has evolved over time from referring mainly to European works to encompassing literature from all time periods and cultures that reaches a global audience.
World Literature Essay. Bay Mills Community CollegeAmanda Anderson
This document discusses the challenges of writing a world literature essay. It notes that crafting such an essay requires a profound understanding of diverse literary traditions, cultures, and the human experience as expressed through literature. The essayist must conduct extensive research to uncover works from various literary canons and draw connections between them while navigating cultural and linguistic contexts. Synthesizing themes across different works and time periods is like solving a complex puzzle. Linguistic challenges also present obstacles in translating works without losing nuances. Additionally, the subjective nature of literature complicates the essay by requiring a balance of personal insights and scholarly objectivity. Overall, a world literature essay is an intellectually demanding task that requires research, cultural sensitivity, linguistic skills,
This document discusses the challenges of writing an essay on the topic of world literature. It notes that such an essay requires an understanding of diverse literary traditions, cultures, and historical contexts from a global perspective. The task is complex as it involves analyzing works from different eras, regions, and genres spanning the vast field of world literature. Choosing representative works and presenting a balanced perspective is difficult. Additionally, the essay must show a nuanced grasp of cultural contexts and craft a coherent narrative that connects disparate literary elements from around the world into a unified discussion. In summary, an essay on world literature necessitates extensive research, cultural sensitivity, and strong analytical abilities.
Essay On Western Culture. Washington & Jefferson CollegeLisa Taylor
The document discusses the challenges of writing an essay on Western culture. It notes that Western culture encompasses a vast and diverse history, art, philosophy, social norms, and technology. Capturing this complexity requires balancing depth and breadth without becoming too broad or narrow in focus. Additionally, the essay must provide historical context, consider cultural shifts over time, and analyze Western culture's influence on other regions in a nuanced way. Thorough research from primary and secondary sources is crucial to substantiate claims and provide a holistic perspective on the interconnected aspects of Western culture's development and global impact. While challenging, exploring this multifaceted subject that has shaped societies worldwide can be an intellectually rewarding experience.
Susan Bassnett describes how comparative literature has evolved over time. It challenges Eurocentric approaches and embraces more inclusive understanding of diverse literatures. Bassnett reviews comparative literature in the 1990s, noting how developments in critical theory have impacted the field. She views translation as crucial for cross-cultural understanding and questions comparative literature's current state and future. Bassnett argues the field must adapt to new technologies and globalization while resisting cultural homogenization by promoting nuanced understanding of different literary traditions.
A Review Of World Literature Theories And ModelsLeonard Goudy
This document provides an overview of the theories and models surrounding the study of world literature. It discusses the origins of world literature dating back to Goethe in the 19th century and the many intellectuals who have attempted to define the term. The document then examines several influential theories on what constitutes world literature, including views that it involves the circulation of texts beyond borders, the global literary market, or interconnection of humanity. It also notes limitations in achieving a unified definition and challenges like the dominance of Western literature. Translation is highlighted as playing a key role in the circulation of world texts.
Literary theory is the systematic study of the nature of literature and methods of analyzing literature. It has roots in ancient Greece and Rome but modern literary theory emerged in the 1950s under the influence of structural linguistics. There are many schools of literary theory that take different approaches, including New Criticism, formalism, structuralism, post-structuralism, Marxism, feminism, deconstruction, and reader-response theory. The key differences between theories relate to their priorities, methods, and how they define a text. Literary theory remains an important part of literary scholarship today.
Introduction: what is comparative literature Today ?JanviNakum
Abstract
There have been various definitions of comparative literature, which greatly varies from one scholar to another, but they all agree that it is one of the most modern literary sciences. Throughout the past two decades, new critical theories, such as gender-based criticism, translation studies, deconstruction and Orientalism, have changed approaches to literature and accordingly have had a profound impact on the work of the comparatists.
Sooner or later, anyone who claims to be working in comparative literature has to try and answer the inevitable question : What is it ? The simplest answer is that comparative literature involves the study of texts across cultures, that it is interdisciplinary and that it is concerned with patterns of connection in literature across both time and space.( Bassnett, p.1). "Everywhere there is connection, everywhere there is illustration," as Matthew Arnold puts it. According to Susan Bassnett, everybody who is interested in books is on the path to comparative literature.
Key Arguments
A comparative analysis you should have already read for different prominent writer for instance Chaucer, Shakespeare, Baudelaire, Poe, Joyce.
●Comparative Literature revolves around the study of literature outside the borders of one particular culture, the study of relations between literature on the one hand and other areas of human expression such as philosophy on the other hand. Critics have also related it to history as it examines the convergence (junction) of different literatures and its historical aspects of influence, considering that Comparative Literature is the essence of the history of literature, beyond the scope of one culture or language
●Another arguments is there west students of 1960 claimed that comparative literature could be put in single boundaries for comparative literature study, but she says that there is no particular method used for claiming.
●Critics at the end of the twentieth century, in the age of postmodernism, still wrestle with the same questions that were posed more than a century ago :
What is the object of the study in comparative literature?
How can comparison be the objective of anything?
If individual literatures have canon, what might a comparative canon be?
How can be comparatist select what to compare ?
Is comparative literature a discipline? Or is it simply a field of study ?
Introduction: What is comparative Literature Today ?
Susan Bassnett says that most of the people do not start with comparative literature but they end up with it in some way or other. Generally, we, first start reading the text and then we arrive at comparison. I mean to say, we start comparing that text with another that has similarities and dissimilarities. Comparative Literature emerged in 19th century. Comparative Literature is different from national literature, general literature and world literature. It was begun as “Literature Compare” in 1860 in Germany.
Literary theory is the systematic study of the nature of literature and methods for analyzing literature. It has roots in ancient Greece and Rome but emerged as a modern academic discipline in the 1950s influenced by structuralist linguistics. There are many different schools and approaches to literary theory that take different views on defining literature and interpreting texts, including New Criticism, formalism, structuralism, post-structuralism, Marxism, feminism, deconstruction, and reader-response theory. These schools draw on diverse intellectual traditions and often have conflicting views.
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Writing an essay on what literature is presents several challenges. It requires navigating the diverse genres and cultural contexts of literature over time. Additionally, it must balance objective analysis with acknowledging subjective reader experiences. Further complicating factors include exploring cultural and historical influences on literary forms, and integrating global perspectives. Most difficult is crafting a clear thesis and coherent argument to provide a comprehensive yet insightful exploration of literature that goes beyond definition into critical analysis.
This document discusses cultural globalization at the beginning of the 21st century. It defines cultural globalization as the proliferation of global cultural trends, generated by new technologies and powerful non-state actors. Cultural globalization represents various forms of connecting cultures globally and establishing different types of relationships between world cultures. The document examines concepts of culture, civilization, and values in understanding cultural globalization.
This document provides an overview of comparative literature as a discipline. It discusses several key points:
1. Comparative literature is an interdisciplinary field that studies literature across national borders, languages, genres, and also examines relationships between literature and other arts/fields.
2. There are various definitions of comparative literature provided, including that it is the study of literature without borders, and the comparison of one literature with another and with other human experiences.
3. The scope of comparative literature includes linguistic and cultural dimensions, analyzing similarities/differences between literatures through themes, modes, and use of folktales/myths.
4. The history and development of comparative literature as a discipline is discussed,
10. Teaching World Literature For The 21St Century Online Resources And Inte...Michelle Shaw
This document discusses challenges and strategies for teaching contemporary world literature. It begins by outlining key challenges, including competing definitions of terms like "world literature" and "contemporary"; barriers to accessing international literature due to limited publishing and translation; and students' limited knowledge of other cultures and histories. It then proposes using online resources like literary websites, blogs, wikis and social media to address these challenges. These resources can provide access to new and emerging writers, primary sources for historical context, and forums for students to actively engage with and contribute to discussions of literature from around the world. The document argues this dynamic, collaborative approach makes world literature more inclusive and relevant to students' lives.
Take the quiz to discover what poem you have been assigned to discus.docxbriankimberly26463
Take the quiz to discover what poem you have been assigned to discuss this week;
"On Being Brought From Africa to America" By: Phillis Wheatley
2.Look through the critical approaches in the Week 4 lesson, and CHOOSE 2 that you think could be used to analyze the poem you chose.
Literary Critical Theory:
Interpretive Strategies
1. Historicism considers the literary work in light of "what really happened" during the period reflected in that work. It insists that to understand a piece, we need to understand the author's biography and social background, ideas circulating at the time, and the cultural milieu. Historicism also "finds significance in the ways a particular work resembles or differs from other works of its period and/or genre," and therefore may involve source studies. It may also include examination of philology and linguistics. It is typically a discipline involving impressively extensive research.
2. New Criticism examines the relationships between a text's ideas and its form, "the connection between what a text says and the way it's said." New Critics/Formalists "may find tension, irony, or paradox in this relation, but they usually resolve it into unity and coherence of meaning." New Critics look for patterns of sound, imagery, narrative structure, point of view, and other techniques discernible on close reading of "the work itself." They insist that the meaning of a text should not be confused with the author's intentions nor the text's affective dimension--its effects on the reader. The objective determination as to "how a piece works" can be found through close focus and analysis, rather than through extraneous and erudite special knowledge.
3. Archetypal criticism "traces cultural and psychological 'myths' that shape the meaning of texts." It argues that "certain literary archetypes determine the structure and function of individual literary works," and therefore that literature imitates not the world but rather the "total dream of humankind." Archetypes (recurring images or symbols, patterns, universal experiences) may include motifs such as the quest or the heavenly ascent, symbols such as the apple or snake, or images such as crucifixion--all laden with meaning already when employed in a particular work.
4. Psychoanalytic criticism adopts the methods of "reading" employed by Freud and later theorists to interpret what a text really indicates. It argues that "unresolved and sometimes unconscious ambivalences in the author's own life may lead to a disunified literary work," and that the literary work is a manifestation of the author's own neuroses. Psychoanalytic critics focus on apparent dilemmas and conflicts in a work and "attempt to read an author's own family life and traumas into the actions of their characters," realizing that the psychological material will be expressed indirectly, encoded (similar to dreams) through principles such as "condensation," "displacement," and "symbolism."
5. Femini.
The document summarizes Antony Easthope's critique of the paradigm of literary studies and his argument for a transition to cultural studies. Some key points:
1. Easthope argues the traditional paradigm of literary studies, which separated high/canonical texts from popular culture, has collapsed due to postmodern and post-structuralist challenges to notions of a unified self and text.
2. The paradigm was based on an empiricist view of literary texts as self-contained works expressing an author's imagination, and a method of "modernist reading" that sought to demonstrate a text's unity.
3. Easthope contends cultural studies must consider all signifying practices, not just canonical texts, and study the disc
This document provides an overview of literary theory. It discusses how literary theory aims to reveal what literature can mean by describing the underlying principles and tools used to interpret literature. The document outlines several major theoretical approaches including formalism, New Criticism, Marxism, structuralism, poststructuralism, new historicism, feminist theory, queer theory, and cultural studies. It explains how these theories have shaped the interpretation of literature and expanded literary studies into a broader field of cultural theory.
This document provides an overview of literary theory. It discusses how literary theory aims to reveal what literature can mean by describing the underlying principles and tools used to interpret literature. The document outlines several major theoretical approaches including formalism/New Criticism, Marxism, structuralism/poststructuralism, new historicism, gender studies, and cultural studies. It explains that literary theory has become more interdisciplinary and now incorporates cultural theory by analyzing various human discourses as constructed systems of knowledge.
Abstracts of the workshop, Interrogating Change: Central Asia between Timeles...Encyclopaedia Iranica
This workshop aims to reimagine Central Asia as an interconnected region by bringing together scholars from different disciplines to interrogate portrayals of the region as either timeless or vulnerable to external change. The workshop will feature three panels on topics related to Central Asia: the first on Persian literary influences; the second on environmental history and pastoral nomadism; and the third on academic and bureaucratic approaches to studying Islam in the region. Presenters will explore how indigenous concepts and practices in Central Asia have adapted to and shaped social and cultural life over time.
The document discusses the key differences between literary criticism and literary theory. Literary criticism involves the practical study and interpretation of specific literary works, while literary theory is a more general and systematic study of the nature of literature and methods of analyzing it. The document also outlines some of the major cultural movements in the West that shaped approaches to literature, including the Renaissance, Enlightenment, Modernism, and Postmodernism. Different schools of literary theory may interpret the same text in different and sometimes conflicting ways based on their perspectives and commitments.
This document provides an overview of New Historicism and the work of Hayden White. It discusses key ideas of New Historicism, such as reading texts in their historical context and acknowledging the role of power and ideology. It outlines White's argument that history involves narrative structures and literary devices like plots and tropes. White identified four potential plot structures (tragic, comic, romantic, ironic) that correspond to four master tropes (metaphor, metonymy, synechdoque, irony). The document examines White's view that historians construct narratives and meanings from raw data through emplotment, rather than objectively representing reality.
This article seeks to demonstrate that cultural nationalism has been a significant ideological force in African literary writings in general and poetry in particular. It endorses a distinctive communitarian vision of the nation and has repeatedly been espoused by many a literary academic as a remarkable effort towards the re-establishment of coherence and integrity in African traditional life and institutions. While recognising the beauty of traditional life, this approach turns a blind eye to the endemic challenges that these nations are grappling with. Taking Okot’s Song of Lawino and Song of Ocol as the literary points of reference, I have delineated the character of cultural nationalism, the leadership role of the colonised intellectual, and its recurring emergence in alternation with escapist idealism. Using Fanonian theory, I have argued that rather than idolise the past in what may be largely interpreted as idealist escapism, Okot’s intent in the two poems selected for this study is to offer a truthful, accurate and objective representation of the real African world. He divorces his poems, Sengorian and Negritudist as they may seem, from rigid cultural historicism and espouses the marginalised perspective that Africa’s culture is a product of shared heritage and the desire for liberation should not blind us to the dynamism of our culture and the reality that neocolonialism has ushered in a new political culture that should worry us more than the coloniser’s. It is not enough for us to look only backwards in our quest for cultural revolution.
This presentation gives introductory information regarding whar is comparative studies, what and how to compare along with case study on Comparative studies.
Christian Schussele Men of ProgressOil on canvas, 1862Coope.docxtroutmanboris
Christian Schussele Men of Progress
Oil on canvas, 1862
Cooper Union, New York, New York
Transfer from the National Gallery of Art; gift of Andrew W. Mellon, 1942
NPG.65.60
Edward Sorel, “People of Progress” 1999, Cooper Union, New York, New York
Syllabus
The clerks of the Department of State of the United States may be called upon to give evidence of transactions in the Department which are not of a confidential character.
The Secretary of State cannot be called upon as a witness to state transactions of a confidential nature which may have occurred in his Department. But he may be called upon to give testimony of circumstances which were not of that character.
Clerks in the Department of State were directed to be sworn, subject to objections to questions upon confidential matters.
Some point of time must be taken when the power of the Executive over an officer, not removable at his will, must cease. That point of time must be when the constitutional power of appointment has been exercised. And the power has been exercised when the last act required from the person possessing the power has been performed. This last act is the signature of the commission.
If the act of livery be necessary to give validity to the commission of an officer, it has been delivered when executed, and given to the Secretary of State for the purpose of being sealed, recorded, and transmitted to the party.
In cases of commissions to public officers, the law orders the Secretary of State to record them. When, therefore, they are signed and sealed, the order for their being recorded is given, and, whether inserted inserted into the book or not, they are recorded.
When the heads of the departments of the Government are the political or confidential officers of the Executive, merely to execute the will of the President, or rather to act in cases in which the Executive possesses a constitutional or legal discretion, nothing can be more perfectly clear than that their acts are only politically examinable. But where a specific duty is assigned by law, and individual rights depend upon the performance of that duty, it seems equally clear that the individual who considers himself injured has a right to resort to the laws of his country for a remedy.
The President of the United States, by signing the commission, appointed Mr. Marbury a justice of the peace for the County of Washington, in the District of Columbia, and the seal of the United States, affixed thereto by the Secretary of State, is conclusive testimony of the verity of the signature, and of the completion of the appointment; and the appointment conferred on him a legal right to the office for the space of five years. Having this legal right to the office, he has a consequent right to the commission, a refusal to deliver which is a plain violation of that right for which the laws of the country afford him a remedy.
To render a mandamus a proper remedy, the officer to whom it is directed must be one to who.
Christian EthicsChristian ethics deeply align with absolutism. E.docxtroutmanboris
Christian Ethics
Christian ethics deeply align with absolutism. Ethical absolutism claims that moral principles do exist. According to Christians, God created moral absolutes. These absolutes can be seen in God’s revelation. God’s special and general revelation reveal his moral truths. This does not mean that only Christians can understand moral truths. Because humans are made in God’s image, they can recognize moral truths even if they do not believe in God
[1]
. These absolutes were instated by God. Therefore, they apply to all of humanity. This worldview is in direct opposition to the idea of relativism. Christian ethics cannot be viewed through a relativistic point of view. According to relativism, there is no moral truths. There is no absolute distinction between right and wrong within this way of thinking. Right and wrong can be decided by individuals or groups of people. Cultures decide what is right for themselves and their way of life. Even individuals have the ability to decide their own personal moral code. This can seem somewhat reasonable at times. Some things that were considered moral or immoral in the past are viewed differently today. Even with this understanding, Christians deny the idea of relativism. Christians hold to the belief that moral truths come from God. Therefore, these truths do not change. God himself never changes; therefore, his moral truths remain the same. According to Christian ethics, mankind is expected to hold to the moral absolutes mandated by God himself. This understanding is not compatible with relativism. Relativism makes no place of a God. From a relativistic point of view, mankind decides their own morality. Right and wrong are not fixed. In Christian ethics, right and wrong are permanently decided by the God of the universe.
The subjective aspects of Christian ethics can look similar to relativism. The areas that are somewhat subjective in Christian aspects are referred to as the liberties of a Christian. There are some matters that are not said to be morally wrong in the Bible. Some see these issues to be wrong; therefore, they are. Others do not find certain issues to be morally wrong. These individuals are claiming their Christian liberty. One of these issues is drinking alcohol. Some Christians believe that ingesting any amount of alcohol is morally wrong. According to the idea of Christian liberty, it would be wrong for the individuals who hold to this belief to drink alcohol. Others do not have this conviction and are not doing wrong by consuming alcohol. On the surface, the idea of Christian liberty can seem to be related to relativism, but upon closer inspection these ideas are not closely related. Christian liberty is a Biblical concept that harmonize well with the overall message of the Bible. Relativism is nowhere found in the Bible. The Bible is clear that there are universal moral laws. These laws are placed upon humanity by God himself. There are some areas where the Bible remain.
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●Comparative Literature revolves around the study of literature outside the borders of one particular culture, the study of relations between literature on the one hand and other areas of human expression such as philosophy on the other hand. Critics have also related it to history as it examines the convergence (junction) of different literatures and its historical aspects of influence, considering that Comparative Literature is the essence of the history of literature, beyond the scope of one culture or language
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How can comparison be the objective of anything?
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How can be comparatist select what to compare ?
Is comparative literature a discipline? Or is it simply a field of study ?
Introduction: What is comparative Literature Today ?
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An Overview Of The World Literature Theories And ModelsErin Taylor
This document provides an overview of theories and models of world literature. It discusses how scholars like Goethe, Tagore, Marx, and others contributed different perspectives on defining world literature. It also examines challenges like the dominance of English and a few Western languages that has limited world literature's scope. Theories have focused on circulation and reception of texts internationally through translation as a key criteria for a work to be considered world literature. However, the definition remains complex with no consensus on what constitutes world literature.
Writing an essay on what literature is presents several challenges. It requires navigating the diverse genres and cultural contexts of literature over time. Additionally, it must balance objective analysis with acknowledging subjective reader experiences. Further complicating factors include exploring cultural and historical influences on literary forms, and integrating global perspectives. Most difficult is crafting a clear thesis and coherent argument to provide a comprehensive yet insightful exploration of literature that goes beyond definition into critical analysis.
This document discusses cultural globalization at the beginning of the 21st century. It defines cultural globalization as the proliferation of global cultural trends, generated by new technologies and powerful non-state actors. Cultural globalization represents various forms of connecting cultures globally and establishing different types of relationships between world cultures. The document examines concepts of culture, civilization, and values in understanding cultural globalization.
This document provides an overview of comparative literature as a discipline. It discusses several key points:
1. Comparative literature is an interdisciplinary field that studies literature across national borders, languages, genres, and also examines relationships between literature and other arts/fields.
2. There are various definitions of comparative literature provided, including that it is the study of literature without borders, and the comparison of one literature with another and with other human experiences.
3. The scope of comparative literature includes linguistic and cultural dimensions, analyzing similarities/differences between literatures through themes, modes, and use of folktales/myths.
4. The history and development of comparative literature as a discipline is discussed,
10. Teaching World Literature For The 21St Century Online Resources And Inte...Michelle Shaw
This document discusses challenges and strategies for teaching contemporary world literature. It begins by outlining key challenges, including competing definitions of terms like "world literature" and "contemporary"; barriers to accessing international literature due to limited publishing and translation; and students' limited knowledge of other cultures and histories. It then proposes using online resources like literary websites, blogs, wikis and social media to address these challenges. These resources can provide access to new and emerging writers, primary sources for historical context, and forums for students to actively engage with and contribute to discussions of literature from around the world. The document argues this dynamic, collaborative approach makes world literature more inclusive and relevant to students' lives.
Take the quiz to discover what poem you have been assigned to discus.docxbriankimberly26463
Take the quiz to discover what poem you have been assigned to discuss this week;
"On Being Brought From Africa to America" By: Phillis Wheatley
2.Look through the critical approaches in the Week 4 lesson, and CHOOSE 2 that you think could be used to analyze the poem you chose.
Literary Critical Theory:
Interpretive Strategies
1. Historicism considers the literary work in light of "what really happened" during the period reflected in that work. It insists that to understand a piece, we need to understand the author's biography and social background, ideas circulating at the time, and the cultural milieu. Historicism also "finds significance in the ways a particular work resembles or differs from other works of its period and/or genre," and therefore may involve source studies. It may also include examination of philology and linguistics. It is typically a discipline involving impressively extensive research.
2. New Criticism examines the relationships between a text's ideas and its form, "the connection between what a text says and the way it's said." New Critics/Formalists "may find tension, irony, or paradox in this relation, but they usually resolve it into unity and coherence of meaning." New Critics look for patterns of sound, imagery, narrative structure, point of view, and other techniques discernible on close reading of "the work itself." They insist that the meaning of a text should not be confused with the author's intentions nor the text's affective dimension--its effects on the reader. The objective determination as to "how a piece works" can be found through close focus and analysis, rather than through extraneous and erudite special knowledge.
3. Archetypal criticism "traces cultural and psychological 'myths' that shape the meaning of texts." It argues that "certain literary archetypes determine the structure and function of individual literary works," and therefore that literature imitates not the world but rather the "total dream of humankind." Archetypes (recurring images or symbols, patterns, universal experiences) may include motifs such as the quest or the heavenly ascent, symbols such as the apple or snake, or images such as crucifixion--all laden with meaning already when employed in a particular work.
4. Psychoanalytic criticism adopts the methods of "reading" employed by Freud and later theorists to interpret what a text really indicates. It argues that "unresolved and sometimes unconscious ambivalences in the author's own life may lead to a disunified literary work," and that the literary work is a manifestation of the author's own neuroses. Psychoanalytic critics focus on apparent dilemmas and conflicts in a work and "attempt to read an author's own family life and traumas into the actions of their characters," realizing that the psychological material will be expressed indirectly, encoded (similar to dreams) through principles such as "condensation," "displacement," and "symbolism."
5. Femini.
The document summarizes Antony Easthope's critique of the paradigm of literary studies and his argument for a transition to cultural studies. Some key points:
1. Easthope argues the traditional paradigm of literary studies, which separated high/canonical texts from popular culture, has collapsed due to postmodern and post-structuralist challenges to notions of a unified self and text.
2. The paradigm was based on an empiricist view of literary texts as self-contained works expressing an author's imagination, and a method of "modernist reading" that sought to demonstrate a text's unity.
3. Easthope contends cultural studies must consider all signifying practices, not just canonical texts, and study the disc
This document provides an overview of literary theory. It discusses how literary theory aims to reveal what literature can mean by describing the underlying principles and tools used to interpret literature. The document outlines several major theoretical approaches including formalism, New Criticism, Marxism, structuralism, poststructuralism, new historicism, feminist theory, queer theory, and cultural studies. It explains how these theories have shaped the interpretation of literature and expanded literary studies into a broader field of cultural theory.
This document provides an overview of literary theory. It discusses how literary theory aims to reveal what literature can mean by describing the underlying principles and tools used to interpret literature. The document outlines several major theoretical approaches including formalism/New Criticism, Marxism, structuralism/poststructuralism, new historicism, gender studies, and cultural studies. It explains that literary theory has become more interdisciplinary and now incorporates cultural theory by analyzing various human discourses as constructed systems of knowledge.
Abstracts of the workshop, Interrogating Change: Central Asia between Timeles...Encyclopaedia Iranica
This workshop aims to reimagine Central Asia as an interconnected region by bringing together scholars from different disciplines to interrogate portrayals of the region as either timeless or vulnerable to external change. The workshop will feature three panels on topics related to Central Asia: the first on Persian literary influences; the second on environmental history and pastoral nomadism; and the third on academic and bureaucratic approaches to studying Islam in the region. Presenters will explore how indigenous concepts and practices in Central Asia have adapted to and shaped social and cultural life over time.
The document discusses the key differences between literary criticism and literary theory. Literary criticism involves the practical study and interpretation of specific literary works, while literary theory is a more general and systematic study of the nature of literature and methods of analyzing it. The document also outlines some of the major cultural movements in the West that shaped approaches to literature, including the Renaissance, Enlightenment, Modernism, and Postmodernism. Different schools of literary theory may interpret the same text in different and sometimes conflicting ways based on their perspectives and commitments.
This document provides an overview of New Historicism and the work of Hayden White. It discusses key ideas of New Historicism, such as reading texts in their historical context and acknowledging the role of power and ideology. It outlines White's argument that history involves narrative structures and literary devices like plots and tropes. White identified four potential plot structures (tragic, comic, romantic, ironic) that correspond to four master tropes (metaphor, metonymy, synechdoque, irony). The document examines White's view that historians construct narratives and meanings from raw data through emplotment, rather than objectively representing reality.
This article seeks to demonstrate that cultural nationalism has been a significant ideological force in African literary writings in general and poetry in particular. It endorses a distinctive communitarian vision of the nation and has repeatedly been espoused by many a literary academic as a remarkable effort towards the re-establishment of coherence and integrity in African traditional life and institutions. While recognising the beauty of traditional life, this approach turns a blind eye to the endemic challenges that these nations are grappling with. Taking Okot’s Song of Lawino and Song of Ocol as the literary points of reference, I have delineated the character of cultural nationalism, the leadership role of the colonised intellectual, and its recurring emergence in alternation with escapist idealism. Using Fanonian theory, I have argued that rather than idolise the past in what may be largely interpreted as idealist escapism, Okot’s intent in the two poems selected for this study is to offer a truthful, accurate and objective representation of the real African world. He divorces his poems, Sengorian and Negritudist as they may seem, from rigid cultural historicism and espouses the marginalised perspective that Africa’s culture is a product of shared heritage and the desire for liberation should not blind us to the dynamism of our culture and the reality that neocolonialism has ushered in a new political culture that should worry us more than the coloniser’s. It is not enough for us to look only backwards in our quest for cultural revolution.
This presentation gives introductory information regarding whar is comparative studies, what and how to compare along with case study on Comparative studies.
Similar to World Literature in the Age of Globalization Reflections on a.docx (20)
Christian Schussele Men of ProgressOil on canvas, 1862Coope.docxtroutmanboris
Christian Schussele Men of Progress
Oil on canvas, 1862
Cooper Union, New York, New York
Transfer from the National Gallery of Art; gift of Andrew W. Mellon, 1942
NPG.65.60
Edward Sorel, “People of Progress” 1999, Cooper Union, New York, New York
Syllabus
The clerks of the Department of State of the United States may be called upon to give evidence of transactions in the Department which are not of a confidential character.
The Secretary of State cannot be called upon as a witness to state transactions of a confidential nature which may have occurred in his Department. But he may be called upon to give testimony of circumstances which were not of that character.
Clerks in the Department of State were directed to be sworn, subject to objections to questions upon confidential matters.
Some point of time must be taken when the power of the Executive over an officer, not removable at his will, must cease. That point of time must be when the constitutional power of appointment has been exercised. And the power has been exercised when the last act required from the person possessing the power has been performed. This last act is the signature of the commission.
If the act of livery be necessary to give validity to the commission of an officer, it has been delivered when executed, and given to the Secretary of State for the purpose of being sealed, recorded, and transmitted to the party.
In cases of commissions to public officers, the law orders the Secretary of State to record them. When, therefore, they are signed and sealed, the order for their being recorded is given, and, whether inserted inserted into the book or not, they are recorded.
When the heads of the departments of the Government are the political or confidential officers of the Executive, merely to execute the will of the President, or rather to act in cases in which the Executive possesses a constitutional or legal discretion, nothing can be more perfectly clear than that their acts are only politically examinable. But where a specific duty is assigned by law, and individual rights depend upon the performance of that duty, it seems equally clear that the individual who considers himself injured has a right to resort to the laws of his country for a remedy.
The President of the United States, by signing the commission, appointed Mr. Marbury a justice of the peace for the County of Washington, in the District of Columbia, and the seal of the United States, affixed thereto by the Secretary of State, is conclusive testimony of the verity of the signature, and of the completion of the appointment; and the appointment conferred on him a legal right to the office for the space of five years. Having this legal right to the office, he has a consequent right to the commission, a refusal to deliver which is a plain violation of that right for which the laws of the country afford him a remedy.
To render a mandamus a proper remedy, the officer to whom it is directed must be one to who.
Christian EthicsChristian ethics deeply align with absolutism. E.docxtroutmanboris
Christian Ethics
Christian ethics deeply align with absolutism. Ethical absolutism claims that moral principles do exist. According to Christians, God created moral absolutes. These absolutes can be seen in God’s revelation. God’s special and general revelation reveal his moral truths. This does not mean that only Christians can understand moral truths. Because humans are made in God’s image, they can recognize moral truths even if they do not believe in God
[1]
. These absolutes were instated by God. Therefore, they apply to all of humanity. This worldview is in direct opposition to the idea of relativism. Christian ethics cannot be viewed through a relativistic point of view. According to relativism, there is no moral truths. There is no absolute distinction between right and wrong within this way of thinking. Right and wrong can be decided by individuals or groups of people. Cultures decide what is right for themselves and their way of life. Even individuals have the ability to decide their own personal moral code. This can seem somewhat reasonable at times. Some things that were considered moral or immoral in the past are viewed differently today. Even with this understanding, Christians deny the idea of relativism. Christians hold to the belief that moral truths come from God. Therefore, these truths do not change. God himself never changes; therefore, his moral truths remain the same. According to Christian ethics, mankind is expected to hold to the moral absolutes mandated by God himself. This understanding is not compatible with relativism. Relativism makes no place of a God. From a relativistic point of view, mankind decides their own morality. Right and wrong are not fixed. In Christian ethics, right and wrong are permanently decided by the God of the universe.
The subjective aspects of Christian ethics can look similar to relativism. The areas that are somewhat subjective in Christian aspects are referred to as the liberties of a Christian. There are some matters that are not said to be morally wrong in the Bible. Some see these issues to be wrong; therefore, they are. Others do not find certain issues to be morally wrong. These individuals are claiming their Christian liberty. One of these issues is drinking alcohol. Some Christians believe that ingesting any amount of alcohol is morally wrong. According to the idea of Christian liberty, it would be wrong for the individuals who hold to this belief to drink alcohol. Others do not have this conviction and are not doing wrong by consuming alcohol. On the surface, the idea of Christian liberty can seem to be related to relativism, but upon closer inspection these ideas are not closely related. Christian liberty is a Biblical concept that harmonize well with the overall message of the Bible. Relativism is nowhere found in the Bible. The Bible is clear that there are universal moral laws. These laws are placed upon humanity by God himself. There are some areas where the Bible remain.
Christian Ethics BA 616 Business Ethics Definiti.docxtroutmanboris
Christian Ethics
BA 616 Business Ethics
Definition of Christian Ethics
A system of values based upon the Judeo/Christian Scriptures
Principles of behavior in concordance with the behaviors of Christian teachings
Standards of thought and behavior as taught by Jesus.
Discussion
What are some of the “ethical” attributes presented in the teachings of Jesus?
What are some ethical attributes presented in the teachings of other religious persons?
Quotes about Christian Ethics
Quotes on Christian Ethics
Recognize the value of work
“And when you reap the harvest of your land, you shall not reap your field right up to its edge, nor shall you gather the gleanings after your harvest. You shall leave them for the poor and for the sojourner: I am the Lord your God.” (Leviticus 23:22).
Do not give the poor the food, rather allow the poor to work for themselves
Discussion
What are examples of the value of work?
Today, some U.S. state governors are trying to get those “able bodied” individuals to work for welfare. They are meeting great resistance politically, why do you think this is?
The value of work
Confirmed by Elton Mayo
Fulfills social, psychological and economic needs of the individual
“If a man will not work, he shall not eat” (2 Thessalonians 3:10)
Christian Ethics
The fruit of a people that have inwardly committed their lives to Christ and are outwardly aligning their actions with His teachings.
“May the favor of the Lord our God rest on us; establish the work of our hands for us— yes, establish the work of our hands” (Psalms. 90:17).
Employees with a Christian Code of Ethics
Welcome accountability
Happy to show their efforts
A system of checks and balances
Sees possible training moment
Fosters collaboration with management
“Those who work their land will have abundant food, but those who chase fantasies have no sense” (Proverbs 12:11)
Employees with a Christian Code of Ethics
Not motivated by greed
Work is its own reward
Measure success in a non-monetary way
Seek payment for the work they do
Money is second to obedience
“Whatever you do, work at it with all your heart, as working for the Lord, not for human masters” (Colossians 3:23).
Employees with a Christian Code of Ethics
Are highly productive
Are work focused
Work hard throughout the day
Find value in completing assigned tasks
Understand that they are there to work
“Diligent hands will rule, but laziness ends in forced labor” (Proverbs 12:24).
Employees with a Christian Code of Ethics
Have a strong work ethic
Believe in a Biblical perspective of work
Reliable
Recognize the value of work
Relate their job to their faith
“All hard work brings a profit, but mere talk leads only to poverty” (Proverbs 14:23)
Employees with a Christian Code of Ethics
Bring a cooperative spirit to the workplace
Supportive of management
Strong contribu.
CHPSI think you made a really good point that Howard lacks poli.docxtroutmanboris
CH/PS
I think you made a really good point that Howard lacks political aspects-especially for presidency. I have no heard his speeches quite yet (since I tend to stray away from politics altogether because people are so aggressive), do you think he is a great leader-type and is he charismatic at all? Great leaders, especially for presidency, should be honest, charismatic, and not only cater to the audience's needs but to the entire country's needs without sugar coating things.
Also, I am not sure what you mean by "In order to improve his leadership style, Jeff should change his model of carrying out business activities. This is because it can be copied and imitated by other companies (Mauri, 2016)".- how can it be imitted by other companies? In what way?
Do you think Jeff Bezos is a bad leader? and why?
CH/AR
I found your comparison of Howard Schultz and Jeff Bezos interesting and compelling. When I was looking at the list of leaders to select from, it was staggering to me how many of the corporate leaders have run or are planning to run for political office. I'm not sure, given our current political environment, that running a large corporation is the right background and experience for the leader of the United States. We'll see what happens in the next year and a half!
Amazon is an amazing, transformative company to watch. I work in the financial services industry and one of our leaders recently described our competition not as other financial services firms but as Amazon. Financial services firms pretty much all offer the same products and services and at a very reasonable price point. Amazon, however, has excelled in service delivery. I would imagine that at sometime in the future, Amazon will partner with a financial service firm to deliver products and services. I'll admit that I was and still am skeptical about Amazon's purchase of Whole Foods, but Bezos seems to be up for trying just about anything.
In your analysis of the two leaders, you didn't mention directly the challenges faced by either the leaders or the organization. Last year, Starbucks was all over the news regarding the incident involving two African American gentlemen and how they were treated by a manger at Starbucks. I'm curious how you or others in the class through about how Schultz led the organization through that crisis. Bezos, as well, has not been immune to controversy with his recent affair and divorce becoming public. How do the personal lives and behaviors of leader impact the organizations they lead? Should it matter?
SO
The first leader I chose to research is Sundar Pichai, the CEO of Google. Sundar began to show in interest in technology at an early age, and eventually earned a degree in Metallurgy, and an M.B.A from the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania. He then began working at Google in 2004 as the head of product management and development (Shepherd). From there, he assisted in the development of many different departme.
Chosen brand CHANELStudents are required to research a fash.docxtroutmanboris
Chosen brand:
CHANEL
Students are required to research a fashion brand of their choice and analyze its positioning strategy in the market.
● The report will assess students’ ability to collect data, in an efficient manner and use this data to scrutinise the marketing aspects of a fashion brand.
● The report will be covering the following subjects:
1. Analysis Of The Macro And Micro-environment of the brand.
2. Positioning Strategy Of The Brand: Target Customer(Pen Portrait)
3. Competitor Analysis.
4. Critical evaluation of the marketing communications strategy of the brand
supporting the development of the individual report, using relevant PRIMARY and SECONDARY RESEARCH.
NB: Please kindly devise a survey (Google forms) and make up some responses to it so as to then incorporate PRIMARY results into the report. Thanks
see attached file
word count: 2000 words
.
Chose one person to reply to ALBORES 1. Were Manning’s acti.docxtroutmanboris
Chose one person to reply to:
ALBORES
1. Were Manning’s actions legal under the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act, and what are the possible penalties for violating the act?
The Foreign Corrupt Practices Act states (1977) “It shall be unlawful for any issuer...to offer, payment, promise to pay, or authorization of the payment of any money, or offer, gift, promise to give... “. Manning assumed the duty of an issuer because he attended dinner with the prime minister to discuss the contract. Then, Manning offered to fly the prime minister to New York, which he then promised to pay for all of the prime minister's expenses. However, according to the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (1977) a promise or offer is acceptable if the expense was ”reasonable and bona fide expenditure, such as travel and lodging expenses, incurred by or on behalf of a foreign official… was directly related to the promotion, demonstration, or explanation of products or services”. Manning promised to fly out the prime minister because he wanted to “discuss business further” (UMUC, 2019). Further, Manning used company funds to take the prime minister to luxurious activities and restaurants because he wanted to retain the contract from the prime minister.
Even though Manning did not directly give money to the prime minister, he authorized payment for the prime minster’s two-week stay, which did not involve discussing the contract. Out of the two weeks, business was only conducted for a day. In addition, Manning can be held responsible for bribing the customs officials at Neristan. According to the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (1977), it is unlawful to influence “any act or decision of such foreign official in his official capacity... omit to do any act in violation of the lawful duty of such official”. Manning influenced the customs officials because Manning gave each custom official $100 to clear the shipment. Custom officials act on behalf of the Neristan government and sometimes require large shipments to be inspected. Manny will likely be held responsible for offering payment to the customs officials in exchange for expediting the company’s shipment.
If Manning violated the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act, he could face imprisonment. Also, the company may have to pay the penalty. The penalty for violating the act is “a fine of up to $2 million per violation. Likewise, an individual may face up to five years in prison and/or a fine of $250,000 per violation of the anti-bribery provision” (Woody, 2018, p. 275).
2. Were Manning’s actions legal under the UK Bribery Act and what are the possible penalties for violating the act?
Based on the UK Bribery Act (2010), an individual is guilty of bribing an official if “intention is to influence F (government official) in F's capacity as a foreign public official...intend to obtain or retain business, or an advantage in the conduct of business.”. Manning bribed the prime minister because he stated: “If, after we are done conducting busi.
Choosing your literary essay topic on Disgrace by J. M. Coetzee .docxtroutmanboris
Choosing your literary essay topic on
Disgrace
by J. M. Coetzee is the first step to writing your literary analysis paper.
After reading the novel, you should be able to decide in which direction you'd like to take your paper.
Topics/ approaches
(Focus on only one of the following, though some may overlap):
Analyze one of the minor characters, such as Petrus.
Example
: Analyze not only the chosen characters' personality but also what role they played in advancing the overall theme of the novel.
The protagonist's conflict, the hurdles to be overcome, and how he resolves it.
Examples:
It could be hope for change, both in South Africa and in David Lurie. OR: the disgrace David Lurie has suffered over the affair with a student and how that matches the disgrace South Africa has suffered through apartheid.
The function of setting to reinforce theme and characterization.
Example
: post-apartheid South Africa is a setting arguably more important than anything else in the novel. Your outside sources would be a bit of history concerning apartheid.The use of literary devices to communicate theme: imagery, metaphor, symbolism, foreshadowing, irony
Symbolism in the novel--
Examples:
Determine if David Lurie represents the old, white authorities of South Africa, while Lucy represents the new white people of South Africa. OR: Analyze what dogs symbolize in this story. Another example: What is symbolized by the opera David Lurie is writing on Byron?
Careful examination of one or more central scenes and its/their crucial role in plot development, resolution of conflict, and exposition of the theme.
Example:
Analyze one or more scenes in which hope that change for the better is possible through a character's remorse and subsequent action, for example, the scene in which David Lurie apologizes to the parents OR the scene in which Lucy gets raped.
The possible issue to be addressed in introduction or conclusion:
Characteristics that make the work typical (or atypical) of the period, the setting, or the author that produced it. For this information, you must go to a library database (you must read "How to Access Miami Dade Databases" if you don't know how) or a valid search site, such as Google Scholar (there is often a fee for this one).
Do
not
open or close with biographical material on the author. Biographical material is important as it influences the author’s writing only and should not be a focus of your paper.
Guidelines for Literary Essay
Be aware that you will be writing about a novel, which in its broadest sense is any extended fictional narrative almost always in prose, in which the representation of character is often the focus. Good authors use the elements of fiction, such as plot, theme, setting etc. purposefully, with a very clear goal in mind. One of the paths to literary analysis is to discover what the author's purpose is with each of his choices. Avoid the problem th.
Choosing your Philosophical Question The Final Project is an opp.docxtroutmanboris
Choosing your Philosophical Question
The Final Project is an opportunity for you to investigate one of the discussion questions to a much greater degree than in the forums. For your Final Project you will choose a philosophical question (stage 1), conduct an analysis of the claims and arguments relevant to the question by reading the primary texts of the philosopher (stage 2), and then take a position on the chosen question and offer an argument in support of your position (stage 3).
For this first stage of your Final Project assignment, (a) choose a question that appears as a discussion question (listed below, with some exceptions). You may choose one that you have previously begun to answer in the discussion forums, or one that you have yet to consider, then (b) explain briefly why you are interested in exploring this philosopher, the primary text and the question further. Submit this assignment on a Word .docx.
Week Four: Philosopher: Thomas Aquinas, Primary Text: Summa Theologica, Part 1, Question 2, Article 1-3
Q1. Does God really exist?
Question to write on, and answer the question fully in all its parts. Be mindful of the question. You are making a claim about something and offering support for it. Try to use examples from the Primary Texts you have read and/or your own experiences in that support.
DISCUSSION QUESTION CHOICE #1: Philosophy of Religion. Study Aquinas' five "ways" of demonstrating God's existence in the learning resources then engage in the study of ontology by examining your belief in God:
Answer the question: Does God really exist?
Use Aquinas and your own reasoning in your argument.
Kreeft, Peter. A Shorter Summa: The Essential Philosophical Passages of St. Thomas Aquinas'
Summa Theologica, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, 1993), chapter II.
Summa Theologica, Part 1, Question 2, Articles 1-3
The Existence of God
Because the chief aim of sacred doctrine is to teach the knowledge of God, not only as He is in
Himself, but also as He is the beginning of things and their last end, and especially of rational
creatures, as is clear from what has been already said, therefore, in our endeavor to expound this
science, we shall treat: (1) Of God; (2) Of the rational creature’s advance towards God; (3) Of
Christ, Who as man, is our way to God.
In treating of God there will be a threefold division: For we shall consider (1) Whatever concerns
the Divine Essence; (2) Whatever concerns the distinctions of Persons; (3) Whatever concerns the
procession of creatures from Him
Concerning the Divine Essence, we must consider: (1) Whether God exists? (2) The manner of His
existence, or, rather, what is not the manner of His existence; (3) Whatever concerns His
operations — namely, His knowledge, will, power.
Concerning the first, there are three points of inquiry: (1) Whether the proposition “God exists” is
self-evident? (2) Whether it is demonstrable? (3) Whether God exists?-
FIRST ARTICLE
Whether the Existence .
Choosing Your Research Method in a NutshellBy James Rice and.docxtroutmanboris
Choosing Your Research Method in a Nutshell
By James Rice and Marilyn K. Simon
Research Method Brief Type
Action research Participatory ‐ problem identification, solution,
solution review
III
Appreciative inquiry Helps groups identify solutions III, IV
Case Study research Group observation to determine how and why a
situation exists
III
Causal‐comparative research Identify causal relationship among variable that
can't be controlled
IV
Content analysis Analyze text and make inferences IV
Correlational research Collect data and determine level of correlation
between variables
I
Critical Incident technique Identification of determining incident of a critical
event
III
Delphi research Analysis of expert knowledge to forecast future
events
I, IV
Descriptive research Study of "as is" phenomena I
Design based research/ decision analysis Identify meaningful change in practices II
Ethnographic Cultural observation of a group
Evaluation research Study the effectiveness of an intervention or
program
IV
Experimental research Study the effect of manipulating a variable or
variables
II
Factor analysis Statistically assess the relationship between large
numbers of variables
I
Grounded Theory Produce a theory that explains a process based on
observation
III, IV
Hermeneutic research Study the meaning of subjects/texts (exegetics is
text only) by concentrating on the historical
meaning of the experience and its developmental
and cumulative effects on the individual and society
III
Historical research historical data collection and analysis of person or
organization
IV
Meta‐analysis research Seek patterns in data collected by other studies and
formulate principals
Narrative research Study of a single person's experiences
Needs assessment Systematic process of determine the needs of a
defined demographic population
Phenomenography Answer questions about thinking and learning
Phenomenology Make sense of lived experiences of participants
regarding a specified phenomenon.
III, IV
Quasi‐experimental Manipulation of variables in populations without
benefit of random assignment or control group.
II
Q‐method A mixed‐method approach to study subjectivity ‐
patterns of thought
I
Regression‐discontinuity design (RD) Cut‐off score assignment of participants to group
(non‐random) used to study effectiveness of an
intervention
II
Repertory grid analysis Interview process to determine how a person
interprets the meaning of an experience
I
Retrospective record review Study of historic data collected about a prior
intervention (both effected and control group)
II
Semiology Studies the meaning of symbols II, III
Situational analysis Post‐modernist approach to grounded theory
(holistic view rather than isolated variables) by
studying lived experiences around a phenomenon
Trend Analysis research Formulate a f.
Choose two of the systems (education, work, the military, and im.docxtroutmanboris
Choose
two
of the systems (education, work, the military, and immigration). Explain how they fit into the domain of social work and the social justice issues social workers should be aware of in these systems.
How does the education, military, workplace, or immigration system rely on social workers?
What is one social justice issue found in education, the military, the workplace, or immigration that influences the practice of social work?
.
Choose two disorders from the categories presented this week.C.docxtroutmanboris
Choose
two disorders from the categories presented this week.
Create
a 15- to 20-slide Microsoft® PowerPoint® presentation that includes the following:
Describes the disorders and explains their differences
Discusses how these disorders are influenced by the legal system
Discusses how the legal system is influenced by these disorders
Include
a minimum of two peer-reviewed sources.
Format
your presentation consistent with APA guidelines.
Submit
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.
Choose ONE of the following topics Length 750-900 words, .docxtroutmanboris
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ONE
of the following topics
Length:
750-900 words, double spaced, 12 pt. font
Identify the different forms of religious groups that are comprised in the typology outlined by the classic sociologists of religion. Explain the basic characteristics of each and provide examples.
Establish a distinction between the popular misuses of the term "myth" and its meaning in the scholarly context of Religious Studies. Explain the functions of myth according to the scholar Joseph Campbell.
.
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one
of the following topics
America: A Narrative History
notes Thomas Jefferson's election to the presidency set the tone of "republican simplicity". In what ways was this still true in 1850 following the "Market Revolution" and in what ways was it not?
Connect the technological improvements in water transportation of the early 19th century to the territory acquired in the LA Purchase.
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one
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Compare/contrast the role women played in Puritan Society in colonial Massachusetts with their role in the Great Awakening of the 18th century.
Why is the Declaration of Independence considered historically as a product of the Age of Enlightenment?
500 words
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Choose one of the following topics below. Comparecon.docxtroutmanboris
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one
of the following topics below.
Compare/contrast the role women played in Puritan Society in colonial Massachusetts with their role in the Great Awakening of the 18th century.
Why is the Declaration of Independence considered historically as a product of the Age of Enlightenment?
requirement of this assignment
Write a 500 word essay
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Choose one of the states of Racial/Cultural Identity Developmental Model and reflect on how you will intervine with a client in that stage.
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Introspection
Integrative Awareness
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Choose one of the following topicsNative AmericansWomenEnvi.docxtroutmanboris
Choose
one of the following topics:
Native Americans
Women
Environment
Latin Americans
Sexual liberation
Read
at least three different newspaper articles between 1968 and 1980 that cover important changes affecting your topic. In the University Library, use the ProQuest
®
historical newspaper archive (available under
General Resources > ProQuest >
Advanced Search
>
Search Options
>
Source Type
), which includes the following major newspapers, among others:
New York Times
Washington Post
Wall Street Journal
Los Angeles Times
Christian Science Monitor
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.
Choose one of the following films for review (with faculty’s appro.docxtroutmanboris
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•
Secret Lives of Bees
•
Chocolate
•
Under the Same Moon
•
Maid in Manhattan
•
Walk in the Clouds
•
Get Rich or Die Trying (Gang Culture
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Mississippi Burning
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A Time to Kill - "
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Only Fools Rush In
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a state, local, or federal policy that impacts your organization or community.
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Describe how forecasting can be used to implement this policy and highlight any limitations of the usage of forecasting.
Compare and contrast the different forms of forecasting used to aid decision-makers when evaluating policy outcomes.
Discuss the types of information needed to ensure forecasts are accurate.
Analyze the relationship between forecasting, monitoring of observed policy outcomes, and normative futures in goals and agenda setting.
Include
speaker notes with each slide. The presentation should also contain and at least four peer-reviewed references from the University Library.
I live in Lawrence, KS if you can find a policy within this community.
.
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
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World Literature in the Age of Globalization Reflections on a.docx
1. World Literature in the Age of Globalization: Reflections on an
Anthology
Author(s): Waïl S. Hassan
Source: College English , Sep., 2000, Vol. 63, No. 1 (Sep.,
2000), pp. 38-47
Published by: National Council of Teachers of English
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2. https://www.jstor.org/stable/379030
38
World Literature in the Age
of Globalization: Reflections
on an Anthology
Wa'il S. Hassan
ince the early nineteenth century, Weltliteratur (world
literature) has been one
of the great Western humanistic ideas. Like many such ideas, it
has both re-
produced and reinforced a specifically Western worldview. For
a long time,
"world literature" was synonymous with European literature,
but with the vig-
orous interrogation from a number of perspectives of the
primacy of the Western
canon, the rise to global celebrity of scores of non-Western
writers (including several
Nobel laureates and others equally canonized by the Western
literary-critical estab-
lishment), and the increasing availability of English
translations, the teacher of a world
3. literature course today faces an unprecedented abundance of
texts from which to
choose. Yet this situation is fraught with difficulties of its own,
for even as the "glob-
alization of literary studies" emerges as the topic of the hour,
the selective inclusion
of non-Western texts in critical and pedagogical cadres often
reveals new configura-
tions of power and domination. I shall be arguing in this essay
that the pedagogical
application of the concept of "world literature" in the United
States since WWII has
developed in step with the political, economic, and strategic
remapping of global re-
lations, sometimes in subtle ways that tend to mask its
affiliations with power.
The globalization of literary studies is articulated in several
interrelated domains-
critical, curricular, pedagogical-all of which I cannot
adequately address within the
scope of this essay. I would like, however, to limit my
discussion to one aspect of ped-
agogy, namely the evolution of the single most authoritative
and widely used text-
book in world literature courses in the United States, The
Norton Anthology of World
Masterpieces. I shall begin by revisiting the notion of "world
literature" itself by way
4. Wai'l S. H a s s a n is Assistant Professor of English at Western
Illinois University. He has taught a num-
ber of world literature courses there and at the University of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, where he re-
ceived a Ph.D. in comparative literature in 1998. He has
written a dissertation on the Sudanese novelist
Tayeb Salih and a number of articles on postcolonial, Arabic,
and French literatures and on the teaching
of non-Western literatures.
College English, Volume 63, Number 1, September 2000
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World Literature in the Age of Globalization 39
of setting up the following question: Has the Norton Anthology
provided those of us
who are committed to the teaching of world literature from
non-Eurocentric per-
spectives with a useful tool, or does the anthology more subtly
than ever reproduce
the canon's ideological underpinnings? My attempt to answer
this question, in turn,
leads to a consideration of the extent to which the new notion
of the "globalization
5. of literary studies" departs from older concepts of "world
literature" and whether
multiculturalism has contributed something to this
globalization that the Eurocen-
tric assumptions of the traditional canon precluded. These
issues, I believe, are cen-
tral to any consideration of the teaching of world literature.
When Goethe coined the term Weltliteratur in 1827, he was
envisioning a future
state rather than naming a contemporary canon. As Rend
Wellek writes, for Goethe
"the term world literature . .. suggests a historical scheme of
the evolution of national
literatures in which they will fuse and ultimately melt into a
great synthesis" (221). For
Goethe, that ideal future was to be marked by open dialogue
between "nations"-in
Herder's sense of a nation as a collective cultural and linguistic
community with a dis-
tinctive spiritual essence, or a Volksgeist. In this dialogue,
each nation would be rep-
resented by its major writers, whose works would continue to
reflect each nation's
Volksgeist while achieving, as a result of the increased cross-
cultural understanding
fostered by reading foreign literatures, such breadth of vision
6. as to express the uni-
versality of the human experience. In that sense, world
literature was for Goethe an op-
portunity, not for the imposition of cultural hegemony by one
nation over others, but
rather for greater understanding of one's neighbors and of
oneself that would foster
harmony and lead to reducing conflict (Lawall, "Introduction"
13). Goethe's optimism
about the future of humanity may not have permitted him to
articulate the notion of
world literature in the context of contemporary historical forces
shaping Europe's im-
perialist expansion throughout the globe. His idealistic notion
of Weltliteratur was a
far cry from the cultural imperialism of Macaulay's grimly
pragmatic program (advo-
cated a few years later in the infamous "Indian Education:
Minute of the 2nd of Feb-
ruary, 1835") for the re-education of Indian youth in English
literature on the grounds
of its "intrinsic superiority" to the literatures of the "Orient"
(722).
Rooted as it is in Enlightenment universalism, the concept of
Weltliteratur was also
in a sense Goethe's response to the greatly increased volume of
7. trade and communica-
tion occasioned by the Industrial Revolution (Aldridge 9).
Goethe's notion of world lit-
erature, therefore, is linked in an important way to the
internationalization of culture
that resulted from the emergence of capitalism as the dominant
mode of production
in modern Europe. Similarly, our contemporary notion of the
globalization of literary
studies is affiliated with the globalization of capital, or late
capitalism in the post-Cold
War era. This new paradigm for literary studies is articulated
along the various trajec-
tories of postmodernism, the poststructuralist critique of
universalism and founda-
tional philosophy, and the multiculturalist interrogation of the
traditional Eurocentric
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40 College English
canon from Third World, feminist, minority, and class
perspectives. This kind of glob-
8. alization encompasses a wide range of neoliberal and
oppositional projects, all of which
I cannot hope to discuss here. However, I wish to emphasize
that they are far from
being uniform either in their histories or in their content and
that, in fact, consider-
able ambivalence and contradiction exist between them and the
parallel-sometimes
enabling-movement of corporate globalization. For example,
the multiple and dis-
tinct histories of national liberation worldwide, women's
movements, and Civil Rights
struggles may have converged with poststructuralism in their
interrogation of the Eu-
rocentric bias of enlightenment universalism, but at the same
time their projects may
conflict in profound ways with postmodernism when it is
understood, in FredricJame-
son's compelling argument, as "the cultural logic of late
capitalism."
What I do want to identify on this wide spectrum of positions is
the tendency, in
the sphere of culture in general and literary pedagogy in
particular, of some strands
of globalization to reproduce uncritically the logic of global
capitalism as the latest
9. form of imperialism while at the same time posing as counter-
hegemonic projects.
This tendency often results in idealized notions of
multiculturalism that superficially
celebrate difference and diversity while commodifying cultural
production. There
are, however, other non-hegemonic conceptions of difference
that self-consciously
historicize their understanding of world cultures and literatures
while maintaining
"critical vigilance" (to use Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak's term)
toward their own af-
filiations with power. Such conceptions should, in my view,
inform our efforts to con-
struct a framework for the interpretation of culture and for
teaching world literature
that resists cultural imperialism, whether of Macaulay's or of
the more subtle, late
capitalist variety.
The Norton Anthology of World Masterpieces lacks such a
framework. A brief his-
tory of the anthology's eight editions will show how its
Eurocentric definition of
"world literature" itself has come to embody some of the most
problematic aspects of
multiculturalism. W. W. Norton's dozen or so anthologies are
10. the most widely used
textbooks in introductory and survey literature courses in
American universities.
Those anthologies are expertly edited by teams of highly
distinguished scholars whose
decisions are often informed by questionnaires sent out to
hundreds of professors re-
garding what they teach and how they do so. The often
excellent introductions, help-
ful footnotes, and useful "Instructor's Guides" all contribute to
making Norton's
anthologies by far the most convenient textbooks available,
and, therefore, the most
concrete embodiment of the canon.
The World Masterpieces anthology, under the general
editorship of Maynard Mack,
first appeared in two volumes in 1956, then in successive
editions in 1965, 1973, 1979,
1985, 1992, 1995 (the "Expanded Edition" of the sixth), and
most recently 1999 (with
Sarah Lawall succeeding Mack as general editor). On the title
page of all seven regu-
lar editions (but not the "Expanded Edition"), the subtitle
"Literature of Western Cul-
ture" (emphasis added) tellingly sports the Eurocentric bias of
the collection: Not only
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World Literature in the Age of Globalization 41
is "world literature" fully coterminous with "Western"
literature, but the unabashed
proclamation in the subtitle, reiterated in the preface of each
edition, demonstrates just
how normalized that Eurocentrism has been. Not surprisingly,
those seven editions
have followed the standard periodization of Western literature-
classical, medieval, Re-
naissance, and so on-and contained, in the first four editions,
other than extracts from
the Old Testament, no non-Western works. Curiously, however,
the third (1973),
fourth (1979), and fifth (1985) editions announced inside the
front cover that a "com-
panion volume" entitled Masterpieces of the Orient was
available as a supplement to the
main anthology. This appendage to the 4,000-page anthology
was advertised as con-
veniently available in an abridged version of 379 pages and an
enlarged version of 834
12. pages. Even more than the subtitle of the anthology itself, this
strange, optional sup-
plement at an additional cost uneasily, and grudgingly,
acknowledged the Eurocen-
trism of the anthology. At the same time, this supplement
revealed the uneven division
of world literature into mainly Western, housed in the main
anthology, and Oriental,
available upon request in two "convenient" sizes. Shopper suit
thyself.
Nor was that all. The fifth edition of 1985 listed the Indian R.
K. Narayan, the
Japanese Mishima Yukio, and the Nigerian Wole Soyinka-not
in the "Companion
Volume," as one would expect, but in the main anthology under
the heading "Con-
temporary Explorations." It is not clear why these three writers
were placed in the
main anthology and not in the companion volume, nor is it
clear why these three par-
ticular writers, and no others, were thus Westernized by
association. Even more in-
terestingly, and with no explanation, the sixth edition of 1992
dropped all three, adding
in their place the Nigerian Chinua Achebe and the Egyptian
Naguib Mahfouz. The
sixth edition also included the epic of Gilgamesh in the
13. "Ancient World" section and
a selection from the Qur'an in the "Middle Ages" section (note
here the problematic
positing of a transcultural medievalism: the period from the
sixth to the fourteenth
centuries C.E., which witnessed the emergence of Arab
civilization, is subsumed in
the Norton Anthology under the rubric of what became known
in Europe as the Dark
Ages). The most recent, seventh edition (1999) has maintained
the non-Western se-
lections of the sixth, adding three short Arabic "medieval"
lyrics and a selection from
The Thousand and One Nights. (Meanwhile, the seventh edition
has grown to include
some 600 pages of works by Western women writers.) In this
way, Gilgamesh, the
Qur'an, The Thousand and One Nights, Achebe's Things
FallApart, and Mahfouz's "Za-
balaawi" simply become Western texts.
Obviously, this confusion would not have occurred had Norton
avoided the uni-
versalist pretensions of the title "World Masterpieces," and
named its anthology for what
it is: a library of Western literature. Yet the editors explain in
the preface to the sixth
edition that "for a very long time we have been experimenting
14. with ways to expand this
anthology into a collection of'world' masterpieces in the fillest
contemporary sense" (1992,
xviii; emphasis added). One cannot help but wonder at the
increasing elasticity of
Norton's notion of"world." Short of a Copernican revolution in
literary studies, which
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42 College English
is yet to come, what logic justifies the need for periodical
revision of the definition of
"'world' literature," or for including or excluding this or that
foreign text, other than
that of market trends? Consequently, the experience of reading
becomes truly a "con-
temporary exploration" for the reader-tourist-consumer with a
short attention span
and thirst for exotic commodities. Reading and teaching world
literature become a
leisurely stroll in a global literary mall that is structured at
once to satisfy and to re-
15. inforce Western modes of consumption and interpretation:
Western periodization,
Western thematics, and Western postmodern sensibilities.
Nevertheless, to market its anthology successfully, Norton
must walk the fine line
between pleasing both the "advocates of 'canonicity' and
'multiculturalism.' " This
means assuring the former that the sixth and subsequent
editions "will continue as in
the past to evolve and grow, responding to the needs and
preferences of those who
wish to stress in the limited time at their disposal the Judaic-
Greek-Roman-European-
American traditions of thought and feeling" (1992, xviii), a
promise that the seventh
edition of 1999 has honored. As for the multiculturalists, the
editors announced a
new "expanded edition," which was published in 1995 and
contained the entire sixth
edition plus 2,000 pages ofnon-Western works. Here, finally, is
globalization at work:
no fundamental structural changes reflecting a new vision of
global reality, but sim-
ply "expansion" (the term unambiguously implying territorial
"colonization" or "an-
16. nexation") by adding more and more foreign "masterpieces" to
a consolidated Western
canon. Yet this increase is emphatically, even apologetically,
presented as only an op-
tion: Norton is happy to offer to each his or her own preferred
version of the world.
In this "expanded edition," the editors removed the categories
of European lit-
erary history from the major section headings within the
anthology and used instead
a temporal scheme within which literary movements are clearly
marked as culture-
specific (e.g., "India's Heroic Age" or "China's Middle
Period"). Nevertheless, it will
be noticed that the temporal scheme itself (Vol. 1: Beginning to
A.D. 100, 100 to
1500, 1500 to 1650; Vol. 2: 1650 to 1800, 1800 to 1900, and
the twentieth century)
coincides with the standard periodization used in structuring
literature curricula in
most Western literature departments in the United States:
classical, medieval, Re-
naissance, Enlightenment, the nineteenth century, and the
twentieth century. Not
surprisingly, the editors felt that some justification was
necessary when this temporal
framework failed, for example, to showcase more than a
17. handful of non-Western
works, totaling 390 pages, in the sections covering 1500-1900
C.E., which consist of
1400 pages of Western literature. This is, of course, the period
when the world was
rapidly being subjugated by the colonial powers of Europe on
an unprecedented scale
in history, so that by the end of World War I Europe not only
dominated about 85%
of the earth's surface, but also imposed its languages and
curricula in ways that per-
manently changed countless non-Western cultures. Yet this
unpleasant fact is not
mentioned by the editors, who simply state that "selections
from non-Western liter-
ature diminish [in those sections] because in any culture the
upwellings of creativity
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World Literature in the Age of Globalization 43
that produce works of great stature obey no time schedule"
(1995). Whose time sched-
ule, one might ask, and whose criteria determine whether,
which, and when such
"works of great stature" ("timeless masterpieces") are
produced? Without question-
ing the sincere efforts of the editors, who seem to be trying
18. their best to amend an old
and embarrassing notion of the canon, update their anthology in
the light of new
knowledge, and also sell their product, I cannot help detecting
in that statement the
implicit logic of the argument that colonialism affected peoples
who were not simply
weaker militarily than the European colonizers, but who were
culturally bankrupt.
Obviously, no single course can ever hope to incorporate all of
the contents of
the anthology, or even a single volume of it, but the point is
that the anthology au-
thoritatively manufactures and imposes a fundamentally slanted
vision of world liter-
ature that has always obeyed the logic of imperialism. As
Kristin Ross argues, "[w]hen
we speak about breaking out of a Western bourgeois model in
our teaching, we can-
not speak merely of adding on or integrating cultures . .. into a
better, more repre-
sentative totality, a fuller globe. For we will then merely
reproduce what is essentially
a Western bourgeois sociology of culture: Western civilization
as world civilization"
(670). This is precisely the paradigm of "expansion" that
Norton used in the 1995 ex-
19. panded edition. Furthermore, the evolutionary trajectory of the
anthology in its suc-
cessive editions, with its reverential treatment of the Western
canon and random
inclusion and exclusion of non-Western writers, parallels the
historical trajectory of
Western European and North American enunciations of global
relations. Thus the
"world" of "world literature," as represented in the early
editions of the anthology,
was coterminous with the "West," while the so-called "Orient"
and its cultural pro-
duction occupied an ancillary status, only slightly more
ambivalent than Macaulay al-
lowed. Then the category of "Third World Literature" emerged
in the 1960s as a
sort of alternative canon (Ahmad 78-86), the mere existence of
which begins, two
decades later, to be tacitly conceded by the Norton Anthology.
At the height of decol-
onization movements and the Cold War, the Three Worlds
Theory-at least insofar
as it opposed First World to Third World-could be seen
retrospectively as the new
model for this institutionalized split between Western and non-
Western literatures
in the curriculum. With the end of the Cold War and the advent
of what George
Bush celebrated as a "New World Order," heralded by the
20. dramatic affirmation of U.S.
military supremacy in the Gulf War, the horizon of late-
capitalist global market econ-
omy expands freely, aided by a hegemonic form of
multiculturalism that has informed
the anthology's development in the 1990s.
What does this symptomatic development tell us, then, about
multiculturalism,
the controversial movement cited by the Norton editors as the
spur for "expanding"
the anthology? Leftist analyses and critiques of
multiculturalism (Zizek, San Juan,
Gates, and others), postmodernism (Jameson), and
globalization (Sivanandan, San
Juan, Lazarus, Dirlik)-notwithstanding the sometimes radically
distinct specificity
of their positionalities-distinguish themselves from
neoliberalism by stressing the
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44 College English
continuities between the hegemonic tendency of global
capitalism and its cultural
cognates, postmodernism and multiculturalism. The argument
21. goes like this: "If im-
perialism is the latest stage of capitalism, globalism is the
latest stage of imperialism"
(Sivanandan 5). Postmodernism, then, is described as the
"cultural logic of late capi-
talism" (Jameson), and multiculturalism as the "positive guise"
of the "cultural frag-
mentation" precipitated by global capitalism (Dirlik 30). The
most radical form of this
critique describes multiculturalism as a new kind of racism. In
an essay with strong
Jamesonian echoes entitled "Multiculturalism, or the Cultural
Logic of Multinational
Capitalism," Zizek's argues that
the ideal form of ideology of this global capitalism is
multiculturalism ... [which] is a
disavowed, inverted self-referential form of racism, a "racism
with a distance"-it "re-
spects" the Other's identity, conceiving the Other as a self-
enclosed "authentic" com-
munity towards which he, the multiculturalist, maintains a
distance rendered possible
by his privileged universal position. Multiculturalism is a
racism which empties its own
position of all positive content (the multiculturalist is not a
direct racist, he doesn't op-
pose to the Other the particular values of his own culture), but
nonetheless retains this
position as the privileged empty point of universality from
which one is able to appreci-
22. ate (and depreciate) properly other particular cultures-the
multiculturalist respect for
the Other's specificity is the very form of asserting one's own
superiority. (44)
The multiculturalist, in other words, is one who has
"transcended" or "moved beyond"
racial prejudice and into a privileged realm of late capitalist
development that no longer
depends on older forms of exploitation based on race; the
multiculturalist has "left be-
hind" those (mostly in parts of the world which have not
attained complete capitalist
development) who are still mired in ethnic, racial, and religious
strife. The implicit ref-
erence here is to the history of capitalism, which depended in
an earlier phase on colo-
nial expansion, which in turn spurred the development of post-
Enlightenment racial
theory, Orientalism, and similar discourses on Europe's Others.
Now, in a late phase
of capitalism that depends on globalization rather than colonial
expansion, racism ac-
cordingly assumes a more subtle form.
Taken together with its professed model, Jameson's reading of
postmodernism
as "the cultural logic of late capitalism," Zizek's critique places
23. multiculturalism
squarely within the imperialist project of multinational
capitalism; paradoxically, mul-
ticulturalism's professed anti-racism and acknowledgment of
the validity of other cul-
tural values and norms itself becomes an efficient vehicle for
undermining the integrity
of other cultures and a new form of racism. What enables this
sleight of hand is cap-
italism's drive toward maximizing profit by any means
necessary, so that the new racism
is not so much directed by one ethnic group against another,
but by global capitalism
(as an "empty point of universality") against its victims. In a
slightly different but re-
lated argument, Dirlik writes that "the apparent end of
Eurocentrism is an illusion,
because capitalist culture as it has taken shape has
Eurocentrism built into the very
structure of its narrative, which may explain why even as
Europe and the United States
lose their domination of the capitalist world economy,
culturally European and Amer-
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24. World Literature in the Age of Globalization 45
ican values retain their domination" (30). Thus, if not strictly
racist in the conventional
sense, multiculturalism as the cultural logic of the
globalization of capital is funda-
mentally Eurocentric and exploitative, despite its claims to the
contrary.
To illustrate, take the billboard multiculturalism of "The
United Colors of Benet-
ton" and MCI's claim to have built a "seamless global network"
of business commu-
nication. Benetton manufactures a kind of multiculturalist chic
(translated into images
of groups of stylish multiracial youngsters) designed to appeal
to liberal-minded youth
who can afford Benetton's expensive garments.
Multiculturalism here mobilizes no-
tions of racial equality that exist only in the eye of the
beholder (and consumer), mask-
ing not only the social and global realities of inequality but
also the very mechanism
by which capitalist culture depends on exploitation and
inequality.1 The MCI exam-
ple articulates a utopian vision of global capitalism in a series
of television advertise-
25. ments featuring Sam Neill as a corporate mogul standing in a
grayish, metallic,
high-walled enclosure that appears to be an abstract rendition
of a corporate board-
room. He peeps stealthily through a small aperture in the wall-
not a keyhole, he as-
sures us in one of the commercials-but apparently some sort of
cyper-panopticon
from which he spies at one time on robotic, expressionless
corporate employees danc-
ing in a (vicious?) circle. "They seem rather happy," says Neill
with confident au-
thority. Both the claustrophobic abstract setting and the
dehumanized state of the
otherwise privileged employees ironically underscore the
viciousness of this vision of
homogenized global culture (in another advertisement, dozens
of men uniformly clad
in spotless white suites and hats, who ostensibly represent
"local carriers and inter-
national carriers," exchange briefcases as they march
mechanically in circles). In such
a world of streamlined communications and global capitalist
access, there is simply no
place for the "unhappy": the poor, the women and children
shamefully exploited in
Third World sweatshops, and the underprivileged masses who
26. constitute the func-
tional waste of the "seamless global network." Within this New
World Order, "four-
fifths of the global population ... are simply marginalized"
(Dirlik 32).
Such representations by MCI and Benetton reveal the
depoliticizing, homoge-
nizing, and idealizing dynamics of global capitalism. In much
the same way, Norton
has been idealizing and depoliticizing the globalized canon, in
which the unpleasant
realities of colonial history and exploitation are sanitized
within an ever-expanding
pantheon of "timeless masterpieces."
This is not the place to restate the argument for
multiculturalism. From Rush
Limbaugh to Dinesh D'Souza and their ilk, the Right has been
busy demonizing and
stereotyping multiculturalism, which it sees, with reason, as a
menace to its parochial-
ism. The project of multiculturalism is unquestionably valid,
important, and ethical
insofar as it challenges both the realities and the philosophical
justifications (from
Platonic monism to Enlightenment universalism) of cultural,
racial, religious, sexual,
class, and other forms of hegemony. The pressing question that,
to my mind, Zizek's
compelling argument forces us to confront, is this: How and
when does multicultur-
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46 College English
alism turn into a superficial celebration of diversity that
sanitizes difference and ef-
fectively co-opts it into the "seamless global network" ideal for
corporate expansion?
To tackle the issue from this angle, I think, is to begin to clear
a space for an alterna-
tive model for the globalization of literary studies that carries
within it the recogni-
tion that the world is a closely knit, although extremely
diverse, human community
that superficial forms of multiculturalism tend to homogenize
and that the dynamics
of global capitalism attempt to transform into a seamless global
supermarket built on
Eurocentric assumptions, norms, and attitudes.
As Aijaz Ahmad observes, "Internationalism ... has been one of
the constitutive
traditions of the Left, but in this age of late capitalism it is best
28. to recognize that cer-
tain kinds of internationalism also arise more or less
spontaneously out of circuits of
imperialist capital itself, and the lines between the
internationalism of the Left and the
globalism of capitalist circuits must always be demarcated as
rigorously as possible" (45).
This distinction, also implicit in Zizek's critique of
multiculturalism, is more critically
important today than ever before and will become, I suspect,
more so in the future.
I would like to conclude by offering a few suggestions to those
who, like myself,
find themselves forced to use the Norton Anthology in their
world literature courses
for lack of a viable alternative, since it is the only anthology
available that attempts,
however unsatisfactorily, the admittedly daunting task of
bridging Western and non-
Western literatures. (I am emphatically not saying that one
should ignore Western lit-
erature.) Other anthologies either focus exclusively on the
West (Wilkie and Hurt)
or on Asia, Africa, and Latin America combined (Barnstone
and Barnstone).2 The
29. challenge one faces, therefore, involves not only balancing the
content of the course,
but also correcting the Eurocentric image of the world which
the Norton Anthology sug-
gests to the students who so much as read its table of contents.
One obvious solution to the shortcomings of this, or any,
anthology is to sup-
plement it with other texts and to devise creative ways of
structuring a course. More
important, I think, is that we engage our students in discussing
the history of the an-
thology, its affiliation with imperialist discourses on the non-
Western world, and the
cultural and political implications today of reproducing their
logic. Further, let us
make explicit to our students our philosophies of teaching
something as formidably
vast as world literature. Let us also explain to them that, since
we could not possibly,
in the space of one or two semesters, introduce them to a tiny
fraction of four mil-
lenia of world literature, we are offering them a particular
selection that, while it can-
not hope to represent, at least it could begin to suggest the
infinite, irreducible
diversity of the world in which we all live.3
30. NOTES
1. For an extended treatment of the politics of Benetton's brand
of multiculturalism, see Giroux.
2. Prentice Hall's new anthology, The World ofLiterature,
edited by Louise Westling et al., was pub-
lished in 1999, after this article was completed. This anthology
offers a more balanced selection of Asian,
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World Literature in the Age of Globalization 47
African, European, and North and South American texts than
the Norton while avoiding the latter's Euro-
centric periodization, thus promising to be a valuable textbook.
I have also learned that at least two other
anthologies are in preparation at Macmillan and Bedford.
3. I am indebted to many people who have generously offered
encouragement or valuable com-
ments on earlier drafts of this article: Stephanie Hilger,
Jonathan Hunt, James Hurt, Thomas Joswick,
R. S. Krishnan, Michael Palencia-Roth, Zohreh Sullivan,
Ronald Walker, and the anonymous reviewers
at College English. An earlier version of this essay was
presented at the 2nd Annual Red River Conference
31. on World Literature held at North Dakota State University in
April 1999 and appeared in its proceedings.
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Contents38394041424344454647Issue Table of ContentsCollege
English, Vol. 63, No. 1 (Sep., 2000), pp. 1-121Front Matter [pp.
1-8]Reading "Whiteness" in English Studies [pp. 9-37]World
Literature in the Age of Globalization: Reflections on an
Anthology [pp. 38-47]Limping or Flying? Psychoanalysis,
Afrocentrism, and Song of Solomon [pp. 48-70]On Reading
Differently: Through Foucault's Resistance [pp. 71-
94]ReviewReview: Roses in December: Cultural Memory in the
Present [pp. 95-101]Comment & ResponseA Comment on
"Historical Studies and Postmodernism: Rereading Aspasia of