world history for all level competative exams

American Revolution
French Revolution
Industrial Revolution
World war – 1 & 2
Important Areas

Why did the Europeans move to America and settle there?
After the discovery of the new continent, colonies of different European powers
such as Spain, British, French moved to America and settled there. The reasons
behind their migration are:
 Trade:
o People and traders moved to America with the intention of earning profit
o Southern colonies such as Virginia and Georgia developed due to rapid spread of
tobacco and cotton cultivation
o Jamestown settlement was started as a commercial venture
 Religion:
o To get religious freedom and get redemption from European prosecution.
o For instance, in Pennsylvania residents were free to worship as they pleased.

 Political:
o People migrated from Europe to get rid of the wars of genocide going on
constantly
in Europe.
o To escape political tortures
o Dynasties that lost in civil war during Charles I such as Stuart dynasty emigrated
to
America
o Autocratic rule of German rulers impelled the Germans to settle in American
colonies
 Social:-
o Poor were sold to the rich and the governing class and they were also used a
slaves
in war. To avoid such grievous fate people migrated to American colonies.

How British became the sole ruler of the thirteen colonies?
 The British colonies sprang up on the eastern part of the Present-day USA.
They were
promoted by chartered companies and were approved by the British crown.
 Jamestown in Virginia became the first British settlement in 1607.
 Many of the colonial settlements like New York which was New Amsterdam
under Dutch,
Delaware under Swedish control fell into the hands of the British
 With the exception of Connecticut and Rhode Island all the colonies had
governors who were
appointed by the King.
 All the colonies were under British protection

Reasons
Economic
1. America was completely under the control of England which led to economic
exploitation of
Americans which hampered growth and development.
2. Navigation Law of 1651 - Compulsory for American ships to attend British ports before
leaving
for other ports of the world.
3. Exim Policy - Britain had a trading monopoly in crucial products of America like Potato,
Tobacco,
Cotton etc
4. Industrial Policy - Americans were not allowed to establish big production units.
AMERICAN REVOLUTION (1765-1783)

Social
1. It became land of opportunity. Creation of new social structure which was different
from
Europe. It became melting pot of all sorts of people, ideas, religion and tradition. This
led to a
liberal attitude in society.
2. People were detached from their mother land. The large part of the population
consisted of
rebels, refugees, convicts who were in search for the future. Large scale migration took
place.
e.g Pilgrim Fathers - Protestant groups which had escaped to save itself from operation
of
catholic saints
3. Dynamism of society - Turned barren land into area of plantations and production
which forced
Europe to rely on American goods and products.
4. Dissatisfaction - Fruits of American labour were snatched away by Britain.

Intellectual Class
Intellectual class provides for reason for crisis and solution for it.
1. Thomas Paine: He published a journal called Common Sense. He explained the
economic
exploitation of America by Britain.
2. Benjamin Franklin: He established philosophical society of America to create awakening
and
awareness.
3. Henry Pattrick: Provoked the people when he said that give me death or independence.
External Events
1. 7 year war between France and Britain wrecked Britain economically. It gave promotion to
American goods and industry. For the first time America got free hand to take their product
directly to world marke. This increased the status of America and energised its people.
2. Defeat of French in the North. It ended the French fear for American colonies.

Important Events
Grenville Policy
• Britain was going under financial crisis after 7 years war and was desperately
needing money. Grenville (British PM) imposed new taxes on Americ e.g stamp
duty, sugar duty.
• Imposed old restrictions on American trade and commerce like navigation law
of 1651.
• Americans raised the issue of Englishman Resolution (1689) which promised
representation in parlimaent to tax paying section. Americans raised the
slogans of No Taxation Without Representation.
• Formation of organisations like Son's of Liberty and Daughter's of Liberty
which raided stamp vendors and burnt down stamps.

Ruckingham Declaration
• Britain failed to see the real cause for agitation and through this declaration abolished stamp duties.
Boston Massacre
• Samuel Adams led a mass protest in Boston. Britain committed the mistake of taking military action
which led to Boston Massacre.
• It was the beginning of new political phenomenon i.e. protest by the people for their rights from the
ruler. This was not possible in pre modern age because of the concept of divine rights.

Boston Tea Party
• Britain imposed tax on tea imports in America. This was widely resented. Samuel Adams disguised
himself and others as native Indians, entered the port and threw all Tea into the Atlantic Ocean.
Britain closed the Boston port and this led to further protests.
Philadelphia Convention of 1774
1. Formation of American Union. Unity of American colonies against exploitation of Britain.
2. Americans sent Olive Branch Petition. They were still ready to be under the parentage of Britain
on the condition that restriction on trade should be remove and representation in parliament.
2nd Philadelphia Convention
1. America declared itself independent

Battle of Lexington and Concord
• The $ army was led by George Washington. After some initial reverses they were able to defeat
English.
• They were helped in this cause by French who wanted to seek revenge from old foe. Later Spain
also joined hands in defeating Britain.
• Cornwallis surrendered.
Paris Treaty
Britain accepted the independence of America.
3rd Philadelphia Convention (1787)
1. American Colonies turned into American Union which was later called as United States.
2. It was a Republic. Head of the state was to be elected.
3. Birth of man made constitution based on the principle of humanism providing liberty and
equality of the people.

REASONS FOR THE SUCCESS OF THE COLONISTS
• Unity and Determination:.
• Military Support:.
• Leadership: George Washington,.
• Familiarity with the Terrain:.
• Popular Support:.
• British Strategic Mistakes:.

OUTCOMES
6.4.1. Political Outcomes:
• establishment of the United States of America as a sovereign nation.
• In 1787, the Constitution of the United States.
6.4.2. Social Outcomes:
• concepts of individual rights, democracy, and equality.
• abolition of slavery in the United States.
• women's roles and rights, laying groundwork for the future women's rights movement.
6.4.3. Economic Outcomes:
• freeing it from British trade restrictions.
• significant economic power.
6.4.4. International Outcomes:
• world history, inspiring revolutionary movements worldwide.
• French Revolution influenced by the principles of the American Revolution and the Enlightenment.

Evaluation
1. Modern democratic set up.
2. IR -> Economic Revolution | AR -> Political Revolution
3. Promotion to modern political ideology like liberty, equality.
Fundamental Rights. Beginning of
demand of rights from common people.
4. Dominance of common man in admin and politics. Slogan of govt of the
people, by the people
and for the people
5. Inspiration to other colonies. Soon colonies in South America revolted
against Spain and got
independence.
6. Inspiration for French Revolution

FRENCH REVOLUTION
Reasons?
Economic Causes
1. Disastrous policies of Louis XVI. Participation of French forces in the American war of
Indpendence had completely ruined the French economy.
2. Louis XIV declared himself the state and fought innumerable wars. The king was interested in
worldly pleasures and did not care for the welfare of the people.
3. Irresponsible expenditure of royal households worsened the situation. The palace of Versailles
was called as the graveyard of the national income. The government resorted to borrowing from
public and defaulted on its debt.
4. The Queen Marie Antoinette lived in luxury and did not care for the plight of the masses. She is
associated with the famous remark - "If they don't have bread let them eat cakes?"
5. To meet expenditure Louis XVI tried to impose new taxes on people which met wide resistance.
6. Church owned 20% of land in France and enjoyed its revenues. Any attempt to levy tax on
church was threatened met with reply : "Do not make us choose between God and the King, for
you know what are answer will be."
7. Peasants paid close to 86% of their income in the form of taxes.

Political
1. Weakening administration led to anarchy in the country.
2. No representation of Third Estate in the governance of the country. The upper middle
resented
being left out of the civilian and military administration.
3. The first two estates i.e. nobility and clergy did not have to pay any taxes.
4. The king enjoyed power over life by issuing the notorious letter de catchet by which persons
were imprisoned without any trial.
Social
1. Differences between privileged and non privileged class. Clergy, Nobles and Common man.
The
Church formed the 1st estate and enjoyed all the privileges, the nobles the second state and the
common man the third estate.
2. A majority of bishops lived a life of luxury.

Age of Reason / Role of Intellectuals
1. Voltaire: Creativity is the biggest force. Freedom of expression. Newton and Galileo are bigger
than Alexander and Caesar. The best way to promote creativity is through Freedom of
Expression.
2. Montesquieu: Rejected autocratic government and called for responsible government. This
could only be achieved through separation of power.
3. Rousseau: His Social Contract theory caused a sensation. He gave a stirring slogan - "Man is born
free but everywhere in chains". Kingship is not the gift of the God to the kings. It is the outcome of
the contract between the rulers and the ruled and king should respect the will of the people.
This can be only respected by giving Liberty, Equality and Fraternity to the people.
4. Didrouet: He prepared the encyclopaedia of the problem faced by France alongwith solution to
those problem. He denounced the role of religion in polity and administration. He gave the
promotion to the concept of secularism.
The intellectuals of France not only acted as a guide for France but they provided the fundamental
philosophy of modern polity and administration.

Immediate Cause
1. The drought of 1788-89 broke the peasant's back. A
loaf of bread now cost his full day's wage.
Peasants left their villages for cities in the hope of
getting their problems resolved.
2. The success of American Revolution inspired the
French. Many of the French generals had
participated in American war.

Important Events during French Revolution
Estates General: King Louis XVI convened the Estates General in May 1789,
which included representatives from the three estates of French society
(nobility, clergy, and commoners). The Third Estate, demanding more
representation, formed the National Assembly.
• Storming of the Bastille: The revolution's commencement is marked by the
storming of the Bastille prison in Paris by a mob on July 14, 1789.
• Reign of Terror: From 1793-1794, the radical government, headed by
Maximilien Robespierre, launched a campaign of violence, executing
thousands accused of counter-revolutionary activities.
• Rise of Napoleon: Napoleon Bonaparte emerged as a dominant military
leader during the revolution, ultimately becoming France's emperor in 1804.

Peasant Revolt
1. Peasants rose against the nobles and burnt their castles.
2. Municipal governments were formed on the Paris model in all towns.
3. Feudalism, titles, serfdom stood abolished.

Drafting of Constitution (1791)
The power centre in France after the Fall of Basille was National Assembly and it drafted the first
constitution of France in 1791.
The important features were:
1. It included the "Declaration of the Rights of Man". It asserted that "all men are free and
equal". Freedom of expression, Judicial Rights, Liberty, Equality and Fraternity.
2. Constitutional Monarchy: People were not against monarchy but against inequality and
exploitation.
3. A single assembly instead of bicameral legislature was formed. The members were elected by
indirect election through electoral college. King became only the nominal head and had limited
veto right.
4. There was no universal suffrage and voting rights were restricted to those who paid taxes.
5. A decentralised system of government was introduced.
6. Religion was subordinated to the state as people got the right to elect the priestly class and they
took the oath of loyalty to the state. Pope became the superficial religious head and church
property was nationalised.
7. Mixed Economy: Equal respect for capitalism and socialism. It started the new
currency Assignats (paper currency)

Political Clubs
1. Two prominent clubs Jacobians and Cordelier was born.
2. Jacobians consisted of assembly members and local politicians.
Maxmillian Robospierre was the most influential leader of Jacobian
club. Jacobians gained control over the assembly and forced it to obey
their wishes.
3. It had more than 2000 branches all over France.
4. The members of Cordelier were from lower strata of society. It
thought of establishing a republic with the worker's support. Danton
was its popular leader. It remained restricted to Paris only and did not
have any branches.

Revolutionary Wars
1. European countries like Prussia, Austria declared war
against France as they did not want to meet the same fate
as Louis XVI. They wanted to contain the spread of the
nationalist movement and restore monarchy in France.
2. They made a declaration of Pilnitz (1791). It threatened
the success of revolution and led to dangerous situation.

National Convention (1792 - 95)
1. France became Constitutional republic as there was no king in France.
2. The country was to have 2 houses: Upper House and Lower House. The proposals were to be made in the
upper house but they can be only passed in the lower house.
3. Religion became the personal affair and lost all support from the state.
4. Prices of food grains and goods were fixed by the "laws of maximum".
5. Complete abolition of feudal custom and manners and everybody was addressed as citizen.
6. Capitalist were declared enemies and prices of commodities were fixed. Emphasis on communism.
7. Slavery was eradicated.
8. Compulsory military service and a code of law for the whole country was introduced.
However, the convention had several shortcomings.
1. The interference of state in personal lives of people was resented.
2. Doing away with the authority of the church irritated the catholic population.
3. Emphasis on communism frightened the capitalist class

Importance of French Revolution
1. It was a landmark event in the history of mankind. It was an attempt to
build a new society on the principles of liberty, equality and fraternity.
2. It rejected tyranny, divine right and feudalism.
3. It wished to establish an egalitarian society.
4. Total separation of religion from the state was brought about. It laid the
foundation of modern secular state. The education system was built on
secular foundations.
5. It ushered in the era of nationalism and liberalism and paved the way
for revolutions in other parts of Europe.

REFORMS BY NAPOLEAN BONAPARTE
Napoleonic Code: Provided equality before the law, protected private property, and established
religious freedom.
• Centralized Administration: Strengthened the central government's control and facilitated
the efficient implementation of policies.
• Education Reforms: Established a comprehensive education system and promoted scientific
and technical education.
• Meritocracy and Careers: Opened up opportunities for individuals based on their abilities
rather than their social status.
• Economic Reforms: Stimulated France's economy, promoted infrastructure development, and
implemented protective tariffs.
• Religious Reforms: Stabilized religious affairs in France and ensured religious freedom for all
faiths.
• Codification of Laws: Provided clarity and uniformity in legal matters.
• Public Works: Initiated several public works projects to improve infrastructure across France.

Impact of Napolean
1. Took the ideas of FR to different parts of Europe through his 40 wars.
He gave promotion to Nationalism in these countries.
2. Promotion to Education and Law.
3. Defeated and wiped out smaller states which ultimately became the
cause for unification of Germany and Italy.

CAUSES OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
• Technological Innovations: Pioneering inventions like the steam engine fuelled industrial
growth by accelerating production processes.
• Changes in Agricultural Practices: The British Agricultural Revolution improved farming
efficiency, freed up labour for industrial jobs, and provided raw materials for industries.
• Population Growth: A burgeoning population generated increased demand for goods, driving
the need for mass production.
• Natural Resources: Britain's wealth in coal and iron reserves enabled energy-intensive
industrial processes.
• Stable Government and Banking System: A supportive political and economic environment
in Britain promoted industrial development and investment.
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Inventions which led to Industrial revolution
• James Hargreaves developed the spinning jenny in 1764
• James Watt created the first truly reliable steam engine in 1775
• Use of coke to produce iron
• Edmund Cartwright invented the power loom in 1785
• Eli Whitney patented the cotton gin (short for cotton engine) in 1794
• Samuel F. B. Morse created the telegraph in 1836
• Elias Howe created the sewing machine in 1844
• Jean Lenoir invented the internal combustion engine in 1858
• alexander Graham Bell created the telephone in 1876
• Thomas Edison created the phonograph in 1877
• Brothers Orville and Wilbur Wright created the first airplane in 1903

Why England dominated and not other countries?
1. England enjoyed a stable political system.
2. It had a strong navy and shipbuilding industry.
3. Large empire. A popular saying went that "Sun never sets in British Empire"
4. It had abundant natural resources which provided raw materials for its industries.
5. Colonies served as ready made market for its goods. Import duties on British goods were
abolished while export duties on native goods were raised.
6. It was the birthplace of many scientific discoveries and technogies. It had a progressive attitude
towards science. There were organisations like Royal Society of London focused on R & D.
7. Enclosure Movement led to eviction of small farmers which led to increased labour supply in
cities.

FEATURES OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
• Transition to Machine Production.
• Emergence of New Technologies
• Use of Steam Power.
• Infrastructure.
• Urbanization
• Mass Production.
• The Factory System.

Role of Industrial revolution in other countries?
 France: It had unstable political sytem and there was wide unrest among people. The situation
therefore was not conducive for industrial advancement. By 1850 it was the second largest
producer of iron, but it was far behind than England.
 Germany : It was a latecomer as it had to wait till its unification in 1870. But after it it made rapid
progress and became the main rival of Britain.
 Japan : It was initially known only for silk, porcelain and toys. However, by the end of 19th century
it became a global player in steel, machinery, metal goods and chemicals. It was the first country
to industrialize in Asia
 USA: It had abundant natural resources. It introduced machines and started factories even before
1800. It had well developed textile, steel and shoe industries

Impact of industrialisation?
Society
1. Feudal society transformed into Industrial Society
2. It also led to gross inequality. The British PM Disraeli spoke of 'existence of two nations in England
- rich and the poor'
3. Means of production were controlled by factory owners. Landless, toolless workers were now
dependent on employer. He could be hired or fired at will and enjoyed no rights, job security or
social benefits. Their plight is well illustrated by Charles Dickens in his novels. Their working
conditions were deplorable and they lived in filthy conditions.
4. Emergence of new order which clashed with the old order. It gave new dimension to economy,
polity, society, religion.

International
1. Race for new colonies started. This led to the policy of colonialism and
imperialism.
2. Brought countries and people together. World became interconnected and
growth
of international consciousness took place. The events in one part in the world
affected another.
For example, slowdown in England in 1830 led to the revolutions in other parts
of Europe.

Economy
1. Emergence of Laissez Faire doctrine.
2. Centre of economy shifted from rural to urban areas, connection with land severed and the self
sufficiency of village was broken.
3. Growth of trade, commerce, means of transportation, communication, banking.
Religion
1. Broke the monopoly of religion. It was relegated to private affair.
2. Some country like France totally prohibited any show of religion in public affairs.

Major industrial reforms undertaken?
1. Formation of trade union was allowed.
2. Factory Act was passed in 1802.
3. Restriction on number of hours for kids to 12. Later kids below 9 years of age could not be
employed.
4. Chartist Movement was launched for the demand of right to vote for industrial workers. Earlier
they were denied.
5. Socialist consciousness development. Reordering of social system.
6. State's role in regulating the economy also came to be realised.

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN RUSSIA
• Late Start: The Industrial Revolution in Russia started later than in Western Europe, with a
focus on heavy industries like iron and steel. This period marked Russia's transformation
from a primarily agrarian society to an industrial power.
State-led Industrialization: Industrialization in Russia was state-driven, with Tsarist
policies supporting industrial growth. The government controlled significant parts of the
economy, particularly railways and large industries.
• Impact: Despite initial growth, Russia's industrial sector faced challenges due to limited
domestic demand and heavy state control. However, industrialization played a key role in
transforming Russia's economy and society.
• Social Impact: Industrialization in Russia also led to significant social changes, with the
emergence of a new working class and the growth of cities.

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN JAPAN
State-led industrialisation:
o The Japanese government played a central role in promoting and guiding industrialisation.
o The government provided subsidies, established industrial standards, and protected domestic industries
through tariffs and trade restrictions.
• Cooperation between government and industry:
o The Japanese government and private industries formed close partnerships and cooperated closely.
o This collaboration, known as the "iron triangle," involved close ties between government officials, industry
leaders, and bureaucrats.
o It facilitated the implementation of industrial policies and the allocation of resources.

Geopolitical Factors:
o Japan's position as an island nation with limited natural resources influenced its
industrial development.
o The scarcity of resources forced Japan to import raw materials, which led to the
development of industries focused on processing and manufacturing.
o Japan's lack of natural resources also contributed to its drive for technological innovation
and efficiency to compensate for resource limitations.
• Emphasis on human capital:
o Due to the lack of natural resources, Japan focused on developing its human capital as a
key driver of industrial growth.
o The Japanese government invested heavily in education, training, and skill development
to create a highly educated and skilled workforce.

Emphasis on Learning and Adaptation:
o Japanese engineers and entrepreneurs traveled to Western countries to learn about their
industrial processes and brought that knowledge back to Japan.
o They then modified and improved upon Western technologies to suit Japan's specific
needs and conditions.
o Japan studied and adapted Western technology, knowledge, and industrial practices
through a process known as "reverse engineering.”
• Focus on critical industries:
o Japan focused on some critical industries these included textiles, shipbuilding, coal
mining, steel production, and later, electronics and automobiles.
o The government provided support and incentives to these industries to stimulate their
growth and competitiveness.
• Socio-cultural and local factors:
o The Japanese society's strong work ethic, discipline, and emphasis on collective goals
played a crucial role in Japan's industrial success.

Impact on India:
De-industrialisation
Ruralisation of India
Commercialisation of Agriculture
Development of industry and Lopsided industrial development
Rise of Indian bourgeoisie
Economic drain

WORLD WAR I
political situation during this time.
1. USA, Britain and France had democracy.
2. Germany had an elected lower house (Reichstag) but real power was in the hands of
Chancellor.
3. Italy was a monarchy with elected parliament but the franchise was restricted to wealthy
people.
4. Japan also had elected lower house but the real power was in the hands of the emperor.
5. The government in Russia and Austria - Hungary were very different from the democracy of the
west. The Tsar (Russia) and Emperor (Austria) were autocratic rulers.

What were the two alliance systems prevailing in Europe then?
 The Triple Alliance:
o Germany
o Austria-Hungary
o Italy
 The Triple Entente:
o Britain
o France
o Russia
• The two major groups termed as ‘the armed camps’ had already brought Europe on verge of
war numerous times.

CAUSES
● Complex Alliances: The intricate network of alliances between nations promised mutual
support in the event of conflict with other powers, complicating global diplomacy.
● The German Factor: Germany's unconditional support for Austria-Hungary following the
assassination of Franz Ferdinand sought military and political dominance in the Balkans.
● Serbian Nationalism: Serbian nationalism was a potent political force leading up to World
War I.
● European Expansion: As nations like Britain and France grew their empires, tensions rose
among European countries.
● Colonial Competition: Germany, eyeing Britain's and France's colonial possessions, believed
itself capable of overpowering both nations.
● Imperialism: The desire for more markets and colonies to bolster capitalism was a significant
catalyst for the war.

CONSEQUENCES
● Formation of New States: Several new countries emerged from the disintegration of old
empires, including the breakup of Austria-Hungary.
● Treaty of Versailles: The Treaty required Germany and the Central Powers to pay reparations
and undergo demilitarization.
● League of Nations: The League was established as a global forum for nations to collaborate
and prevent another worldwide conflict.
● Rise of Communism: The post-war period witnessed a surge in far-left, often explicitly
Communist, revolutions in several European countries, including Germany and Hungary.
● Foundation of World War II: Germany's humiliation fuelled Hitler's motivation to instigate
World War II two decades later.
● Rise of the US: The US emerged as a global force following its involvement in World War I.

TREATY OF VERSAILLES
Terms of the Treaty:
• Disarmament: The Treaty imposed significant military restrictions on Germany. It limited
the German army to 100,000 men, prohibited the use of heavy artillery, military aircraft, and
battleships, and outlawed conscription.
• Territorial Concessions: Germany lost about 13% of its pre-war territory. Key regions such
as Alsace-Lorraine were returned to France, while significant portions of eastern Germany
were given to the newly independent Poland.
• Reparations: Germany was required to pay reparations to the Allies to compensate for war
damages. The amount, set at 132 billion gold marks (about $31.4 billion at the time), was
considered extraordinarily high.
War Guilt Clause: Article 231, also known as the "War Guilt Clause", placed full blame
for the war on Germany and Austria-Hungary. This clause was a primary justification for the
reparations that Germany was ordered to pay.

Effects of the Treaty:
• Political Instability: The harsh terms of the Treaty created political discontent in Germany,
leading to instability and contributing to the rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party.
• Economic Hardship: The obligation to pay reparations imposed a severe financial burden
on Germany, contributing to hyperinflation in the early 1920s and economic depression in
the early 1930s.
• Resentment and Desire for Revision: The Treaty was widely perceived as unjust within
Germany, fueling resentment and a desire for revision of the terms. This sentiment played a
crucial role in the build-up to World War II.

LEAGUE OF NATIONS
Achievements of the League:
• Health and Social Issues: The League made significant strides in improving global health
standards, working against diseases like leprosy and malaria. It also led efforts in
combating human and drug trafficking.
• Resolving International Disputes: The League had some success in settling minor
international disputes, such as the Aaland Islands dispute between Sweden and Finland.
• Promoting International Cooperation: The League encouraged cooperation among nations
in various areas, including labour rights, intellectual cooperation, and humanitarian aid for
refugees.

Failures and Criticisms:
• Lack of Universal Membership: The absence of key powers, most notably the United States,
significantly undermined the League's authority and reach.
• Inability to Prevent Aggression: The League was ineffective in preventing military
aggression by its members, as seen in Italy's invasion of Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in 1935 and
Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931.
• Lack of Enforcement Power: The League did not have a military force of its own and relied
on member states for enforcement, which proved ineffective in preventing conflicts.
• Great Depression: The global economic crisis of the 1930s exacerbated international
tensions and hampered the League's work.

How did the war end?
• Few socialist parties proposed the convening of an international socialist conference to draft
proposals for ending the war without annexations and recognise the right of the people to self
determination.
• The proposals were rejected.
• Pope also made proposals for peace but these were rejected. There was unrest among people
and anti war agitation took place following the success of the Russian revolution.
• Britain, France and USA launched an offensive in 1918. Bulgaria withdrew from the war and
Turkey surrendered.
• The emperor of AH surrendered. Revolution broke out in Germany and the emperor Kaiser
William II fled to Holland.
• The new German govt signed an armistice on 11 Nov 1918 and the war was over.

Reasons for loss of Germany?
1. Germany had to face war on two fronts.
2. Allied sea power was decisive.
3. German submarine campaign failed in the face of convoys protected by British.
4. Entry of USA brought new resources.
5. Allied political leaders Lloyd George and Clemenceau were more competent.
6. Germany was badly let down by here allies and had to constantly help out the Austrians and
Bulgarians

WORLD WAR II
CAUSES
The onset of World War II was a complex interplay of several factors:
● German Invasion of Poland: The immediate trigger for the war, leading Britain and France
to declare war on Germany.
● Hitler’s Expansionism: His aggressive annexations and violations of the Treaty of Versailles
were key catalysts.
● Aftermath of WWI: The resentment towards the perceived injustice and humiliation Germany
suffered in WWI and the Treaty of Versailles fuelled expansionist sentiments.
● Great Depression: The economic hardship amplified by war reparations imposed on Germany
led to ineffective governments and slow reconstruction in many European states.
● Failure of League of Nations: The League's inability to effectively mediate international
disputes and its perceived Western bias further eroded faith in peaceful resolutions.
● Rise of Fascism: The advent of hyper-nationalism, led by figures like Hitler and Mussolini,
set the stage for war.

The war was fought chiefly between - II
major alliances:
• The Axis
• The Allies

Reasons for Defeat of Germany?
1. Shortage of Raw materials: Both Italy and Japan had to import supplies and Germany was short
of rubber, cotton, nickel and oil. On the other hand Britain received supplies from USA
2. Allies learnt from their mistakes: By 1942 they understood the mechanism of Blitzkreig. They
built up an air and naval superiority which won them battles in Atlantic and Pacific
3. Axis Powers simply took on too much: By attacking Britain Germany had spread its troops too
far and too thin. It was fighting war on all fronts (East - Russia, both sides of mediterranean,
western coastline of France)
4. Combined resources of Britain, USA and USSR: The Russian rapidly moved their industry east of
Ural mountains and were able to continue production even when German attacked on western
front. By 1945 they had 4 times as many tanks as Germans. With help from America, Germany
and Japan could not match.
5. Serious Tactical mistakes: Japan relied too much on battleships and did not focus on
aircraft. Hitler should have called back his army from Russian front but his obstinacy cost him
the war.
6. Incompetent Allies: In Europe Germany alone had to deal with Russia, France and Britain. Italy
under Mussolini proved to be a liablility than asset.

CONSEQUENCES
The war had numerous significant consequences:
● Allied Occupation: The victorious Allies occupied the territories of former Nazi Germany and
Japan, steering them towards democratic governance.
● Age of Superpowers: The development of nuclear weapons heralded an era dominated by
superpowers, with the US at the helm.
● Europe in Ruins: The war left Europe economically devastated, necessitating immediate funds
for reconstruction.
● Formation of UN: The UN was established as a global forum for negotiations and conflict
resolution.
● Cold War: The US and USSR initiated an arms race that escalated into a global geopolitical
struggle.
● End of Colonial Age: The war precipitated the decolonization process, leading to the
independence of nations like India.
● Division of Europe: Europe was divided along ideological lines into Communist East and
Liberal West, symbolized by the Iron Curtain.

How did the First World War lead to the Second World War?
• The main way in which the peace settlement after World War I led to World War II was by
making Germany feel a strong desire for revenge.
• After WWI, the Treaty of Versailles was imposed on Germany.
• The treaty was very harsh. It took away much of Germany’s territory, including all of its
colonies.
• It made Germany admit the war was its fault and it made them pay reparations to the
French and the British.
• When Hitler came to power, he promised to make them strong again. This led people to
support him.
• The desire for revenge and greater power caused Hitler to do things like taking
Czechoslovakia and, eventually, invading Poland.
• The peace settlement after WWI made Germany want revenge and that desire for revenge
led to WWII.

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