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Work design work environment
The document provides an overview of ergonomics in workplace design, emphasizing the importance of equipment, workstation, and environmental factors to enhance human performance and safety. It highlights methods for hazard control including engineering, administrative, and personal protective equipment, along with strategies to reduce human error. Additionally, it discusses managing human error by creating a culture of security and involving employees in safety practices.
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Work design work environment
- 1. Tuesday, February 6,2018Tuesday, February 6, 2018SMS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bdSMS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd EQUIPMENTEQUIPMENT AND WORKAND WORK DESIGNDESIGN
- 2. Equipment andEquipment and WorkDesignWork Design Equipment and WorkEquipment and Work DesignDesign How to Design AHow to Design A WorkstationWorkstation DisplayDisplay Auditory DisplayAuditory Display Engineering ControlsEngineering Controls Administrative ControlsAdministrative Controls Hazard ControlsHazard Controls Tuesday, February 6, 2018Tuesday, February 6, 2018MS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bdMS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd
- 3. Equipment and WorkEquipmentand Work DesignDesign Enhance human abilities.Enhance human abilities. Overcome human limitations.Overcome human limitations. Foster user acceptance.Foster user acceptance. To achieve these objectives, there are several keyTo achieve these objectives, there are several key elements of ergonomics in the office to consider.elements of ergonomics in the office to consider. •EquipmentEquipment - video display terminals.- video display terminals. •Software designSoftware design - system design and screen design for- system design and screen design for greater usability.greater usability. •Workstation designWorkstation design - chairs, work surfaces and- chairs, work surfaces and accessories.accessories. •EnvironmentEnvironment - space planning, use of colors, lighting,- space planning, use of colors, lighting, acoustics, air quality and thermal factors.acoustics, air quality and thermal factors. •TrainingTraining - preparing workers to deal with technology- preparing workers to deal with technology Tuesday, February 6, 2018Tuesday, February 6, 2018MS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bdMS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd
- 4. How to DesignHowto Design WorkstationWorkstation Step 1Step 1 — Define the optimal height and— Define the optimal height and orientationorientation Step 2Step 2 — Identify a fixture or holder— Identify a fixture or holder Step 3Step 3 — Determine material handling— Determine material handling requirementsrequirements Step 4Step 4 — Define tool and material needs— Define tool and material needs and their locationand their location Step 5Step 5 — Review other issues for— Review other issues for applicability.applicability. Tuesday, February 6, 2018Tuesday, February 6, 2018MS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bdMS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd
- 5. DisplayDisplay For display haveto do -For display have to do - Identify what display screen equipment youIdentify what display screen equipment you have and which users and operators arehave and which users and operators are covered.covered. Assess all workstations and ensure they meetAssess all workstations and ensure they meet the minimum requirements for them.the minimum requirements for them. Plan the work so there are breaks or changesPlan the work so there are breaks or changes of activity.of activity. Provide eye and eyesight tests and specialProvide eye and eyesight tests and special corrective spectacles if they are necessary.corrective spectacles if they are necessary. Provide training and information.Provide training and information. Tuesday, February 6, 2018Tuesday, February 6, 2018MS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bdMS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd
- 6. Auditory DisplayAuditory Display Management or control of workplacesManagement or control of workplaces Consult with workers to ensure the workplaceConsult with workers to ensure the workplace Consult, cooperate and coordinate with otherConsult, cooperate and coordinate with other who also have a shared responsibility towho also have a shared responsibility to ensure work health and safetyensure work health and safety Implement appropriate procedures forImplement appropriate procedures for workers who work in remote or isolatedworkers who work in remote or isolated worksitesworksites Prepare, implement and practice emergencyPrepare, implement and practice emergency plansplans Management or control of fixtures, fittingsManagement or control of fixtures, fittings or plant at workplaces.or plant at workplaces. Tuesday, February 6, 2018Tuesday, February 6, 2018MS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bdMS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd
- 7. Engineering ControlsEngineering Controls Engineering controls are methods that areEngineering controls are methods that are built into the design of a plant, equipment orbuilt into the design of a plant, equipment or process to minimize the hazard.process to minimize the hazard. Engineering controls are a very reliable wayEngineering controls are a very reliable way to control worker exposures as long as theto control worker exposures as long as the controls are designed, used and maintainedcontrols are designed, used and maintained properly.properly. The basic types of engineering controls are -The basic types of engineering controls are - Process control.Process control. Enclosure and/or isolation of emission source.Enclosure and/or isolation of emission source. Ventilation.Ventilation. Tuesday, February 6, 2018Tuesday, February 6, 2018MS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bdMS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd
- 8. Administrative ControlsAdministrative Controls Methodsof administrative control include –Methods of administrative control include – Scheduling maintenance and other highScheduling maintenance and other high exposure operations for times when fewexposure operations for times when few workers are present (such as evenings,workers are present (such as evenings, weekends).weekends). Using job-rotation schedules that limit theUsing job-rotation schedules that limit the amount of time an individual worker isamount of time an individual worker is exposed to a substance.exposed to a substance. Using a work-rest schedule that limits theUsing a work-rest schedule that limits the length of time a worker is exposure to alength of time a worker is exposure to a hazard.hazard. Tuesday, February 6, 2018Tuesday, February 6, 2018MS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bdMS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd
- 9. Hazard ControlsHazard Controls Themain ways to control a hazard include –The main ways to control a hazard include – Elimination (including substitution)Elimination (including substitution) Engineering ControlsEngineering Controls Administrative ControlsAdministrative Controls Personal Protective EquipmentPersonal Protective Equipment Controls are usually placed –Controls are usually placed – At the source (hazard “comes from”).At the source (hazard “comes from”). Along the path (hazard “travels”).Along the path (hazard “travels”). At the worker.At the worker. Tuesday, February 6, 2018Tuesday, February 6, 2018MS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bdMS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd
- 10. Control WorkplaceControl Workplace ConflictConflict Plan for the FuturePlan for the Future PerspectivePerspective ResponsesResponses InvestmentInvestment Role in the ConflictRole in the Conflict ExpectationsExpectations EnergyEnergy Own StoryOwn Story CharacterCharacter Method for Processing EmotionsMethod for Processing Emotions Tuesday, February 6, 2018Tuesday, February 6, 2018MS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bdMS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd
- 11. Tuesday, February 6,2018Tuesday, February 6, 2018SMS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bdSMS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd SESSION TWOSESSION TWO CHAPTER – 4CHAPTER – 4 WORKWORK ENVIRONMENENVIRONMEN
- 12. WorkWork EnvironmentEnvironment Work EnvironmentWorkEnvironment Monotony, Boredom,Monotony, Boredom, Fatigue andFatigue and ProductivityProductivity Lighting inLighting in WorkplaceWorkplace Noise in WorkplaceNoise in WorkplaceTuesday, February 6, 2018Tuesday, February 6, 2018MS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bdMS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd
- 13. Clearance, e.g.headroom, legroom, elbow-Clearance, e.g. headroom, legroom, elbow- room, access;room, access; Arm reach, bearing on storage of materials;Arm reach, bearing on storage of materials; Posture bearing on the location of materials/Posture bearing on the location of materials/ equipment, heights of working surfaces;equipment, heights of working surfaces; Strength.Strength. NoiseNoise Lighting.Lighting. Ventilation (air & thermal comfort)Ventilation (air & thermal comfort) Radiation.Radiation. VibrationVibration Tuesday, February 6, 2018Tuesday, February 6, 2018MS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bdMS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd Work EnvironmentWork Environment
- 14. Psychological testsare used to locatePsychological tests are used to locate Introducing changeIntroducing change Making job more interestingMaking job more interesting Setting up clear short-term productionSetting up clear short-term production goalsgoals Social and recreational activitiesSocial and recreational activities Reducing interruptions of workReducing interruptions of work Introducing necessary changes in workIntroducing necessary changes in work situationssituations Tuesday, February 6, 2018Tuesday, February 6, 2018MS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bdMS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd Monotony, Boredom,Monotony, Boredom, Fatigue and ProductivityFatigue and Productivity
- 15. Replace bulbson a regular schedule.Replace bulbs on a regular schedule. Clean light fixtures regularly.Clean light fixtures regularly. Add more light fixtures in appropriateAdd more light fixtures in appropriate places.places. Paint walls and ceilings light colors soPaint walls and ceilings light colors so light can be reflected.light can be reflected. Use more reflected light and localUse more reflected light and local lighting to eliminate shadows.lighting to eliminate shadows. Do not positions work station with lightDo not positions work station with light fixture directly behind worker.fixture directly behind worker. Tuesday, February 6, 2018Tuesday, February 6, 2018MS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bdMS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd Lighting inLighting in WorkplaceWorkplace
- 16. Conduct aNoise AssessmentConduct a Noise Assessment Take steps to prevent or control theTake steps to prevent or control the risksrisks Where possible eliminate exposure toWhere possible eliminate exposure to noise at sourcenoise at source Control exposure to noiseControl exposure to noise Provide Personal Protective EquipmentProvide Personal Protective Equipment Provide information and trainingProvide information and training Regularly monitor and review theRegularly monitor and review the effectiveness of the measures.effectiveness of the measures. Tuesday, February 6, 2018Tuesday, February 6, 2018MS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bdMS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd Noise in WorkplaceNoise in Workplace
- 17. Avoiding BoredomAvoidingBoredom Avoiding InterruptionsAvoiding Interruptions Sense of Control andSense of Control and Identity MarkingIdentity Marking Combating Work StressCombating Work Stress Tuesday, February 6, 2018Tuesday, February 6, 2018MS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bdMS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd Music in WorkplaceMusic in Workplace
- 18. Tuesday, February 6,2018Tuesday, February 6, 2018SMS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bdSMS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd SESSIONSESSION THREETHREE CHAPTER – 5CHAPTER – 5 HUMAN ERRORHUMAN ERROR
- 19. Human ErrorHuman Error Human ErrorHuman Error Types of HumanTypes of Human ErrorError Principles inPrinciples in ManagingManaging Human ErrorHuman Error Tuesday, February 6, 2018Tuesday, February 6, 2018MS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bdMS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd
- 20. Tuesday, February 6,2018Tuesday, February 6, 2018MS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bdMS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd Knowledge-basedKnowledge-based - absence of knowledge of the- absence of knowledge of the requirement, expectation, or need.requirement, expectation, or need. Cognition-basedCognition-based - absence of ability to process the- absence of ability to process the knowledge necessary to fulfill the requirement,knowledge necessary to fulfill the requirement, expectation, or need.expectation, or need. Value-basedValue-based - absence of willingness to accept the- absence of willingness to accept the requirement, expectation, or need.requirement, expectation, or need. Reflexive-basedReflexive-based - absence of ability to immediately- absence of ability to immediately respond to a stimulus.respond to a stimulus. Error-Inducing Condition-basedError-Inducing Condition-based - absence of ability- absence of ability to counteract the error-inducing condition.to counteract the error-inducing condition. Skill-basedSkill-based - absence of manual dexterity.- absence of manual dexterity. Lapse-basedLapse-based - absence of attention.- absence of attention. Human ErrorHuman Error
- 21. Tuesday, February 6,2018Tuesday, February 6, 2018MS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bdMS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd Slips and lapsesSlips and lapses – made inadvertently– made inadvertently by experienced operators duringby experienced operators during routine tasks;routine tasks; MistakesMistakes – decisions subsequently– decisions subsequently found to be wrong, though the makerfound to be wrong, though the maker believed them to be correct at thebelieved them to be correct at the time; andtime; and ViolationsViolations – deliberate deviations from– deliberate deviations from rules for safe operation of equipment.rules for safe operation of equipment. Types of Human ErrorTypes of Human Error
- 22. Tuesday, February 6,2018Tuesday, February 6, 2018MS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bdMS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd Factors which contribute to human error include-Factors which contribute to human error include- JobJob – distractions, lack of time,– distractions, lack of time, inadequate procedures, poor lighting orinadequate procedures, poor lighting or extremes of temperature;extremes of temperature; HumanHuman – physical ability, competency,– physical ability, competency, fatigue, stress or drugs;fatigue, stress or drugs; OrganizationalOrganizational – work pressure, long– work pressure, long hours or insufficient supervision; andhours or insufficient supervision; and Plant and equipmentPlant and equipment – poor equipment– poor equipment design or workplace layout.design or workplace layout. Types of Human ErrorTypes of Human Error
- 23. Tuesday, February 6,2018Tuesday, February 6, 2018MS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bdMS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd Create a culture of security.Create a culture of security. Invite employees to get involved.Invite employees to get involved. Provide regular information security training.Provide regular information security training. At every opportunity, emphasize the responsibilityAt every opportunity, emphasize the responsibility of employees to protect confidential information andof employees to protect confidential information and company information.company information. Provide all of the latest and best IT support.Provide all of the latest and best IT support. Schedule regular information security audits toSchedule regular information security audits to identity problem areas – and solutions.identity problem areas – and solutions. Implement information management protocols.Implement information management protocols. Introduce a shred-all policy.Introduce a shred-all policy. Partner with like-minded companies that are equallyPartner with like-minded companies that are equally committed to data protection.committed to data protection. Principles in Managing HumanPrinciples in Managing Human ErrorError
- 24. Tuesday, February 6,2018Tuesday, February 6, 2018MS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bdMS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd Draw attention to dangerDraw attention to danger Shut down and “lock out” any hazardous itemsShut down and “lock out” any hazardous items Do not operate equipmentDo not operate equipment Look up, down, around and insideLook up, down, around and inside Clearly describe each hazardClearly describe each hazard Ask questions, but do not unnecessarily disrupt workAsk questions, but do not unnecessarily disrupt work activitiesactivities Consider the static (stop position) and dynamic (inConsider the static (stop position) and dynamic (in motion) conditions of the itemmotion) conditions of the item Discuss as a groupDiscuss as a group Determine what corrections or controls areDetermine what corrections or controls are appropriateappropriate Take a photograph if you are unable to clearlyTake a photograph if you are unable to clearly describe or sketch a particular situation.describe or sketch a particular situation. Workplace InspectionsWorkplace Inspections
- 25. MS Kabir, Psychologist,smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bdMS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd Tuesday, February 6, 2018Tuesday, February 6, 2018 ?QuestionsQuestions ?AnswersAnswers Tuesday, February 6, 2018
- 26. TThhaannkkTuesday, February 6,2018 SMS Kabir, Psychologist, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd
Editor's Notes
- #4 EQUIPMENT AND WORK DESIGN Equipments should be designed to facilitate task performance, minimize fatigue and injury by fitting equipment to the body size, strength and range of motion of the user. Office furnishings, which are generally available, have adjustable components that enable the user to modify the workstation to accommodate different physical dimensions and the requirements of the job. Ergonomically designed furniture can reduce pain and injury, increase productivity, improve morale, and decrease complaints. The purchase of equipment should be task specific to eliminate - (a) static or awkward posture, (b) repetitive motion, (c) poor access or inadequate clearance and excessive reach, (d) display that are difficult to read and understand, and (e) controls that are confusing to operate or require too much force. Therefore, equipment that is selected should be suitable for the types of tasks performed and be adaptable to multi-purpose use. Office workstations must be designed carefully to meet the need of the staff and to accomplish the goals of the facility. Design objectives should support humans to achieve the operational objectives for which they are responsible. There are three goals to consider in human-centered design. Enhance human abilities. Overcome human limitations. Foster user acceptance To achieve these objectives, there are several key elements of ergonomics in the office to consider. Equipment - video display terminals. Software design - system design and screen design for greater usability. Workstation design - chairs, work surfaces and accessories. Environment - space planning, use of colors, lighting, acoustics, air quality and thermal factors. Training - preparing workers to deal with technology
- #5 HOW TO DESIGN A WORKSTATION The workstation is a central focal point for optimizing human factors in production areas, whether a stationary work bench or a flexible position on a moving line. Common shortcomings to be overcome are – Positioning the work item at a height and orientation not suitable for efficient work. Inadequate fixturing of the item. Suboptimal provisions for handling parts and materials. A variety of layout issues. The traditional approach for setting up a workstation is to start with a generic workbench and more or less plunk down the equipment, materials, and tools needed to do the job. A workbench like this can be fine in some settings, like a maintenance shop where a variety of different tasks are performed on different types of items. However, when the work involves high-volume production, intricate tasks, or specialized operations, the traditional approach can create hindrances that waste time, lead to defects, and even create long-term disorders like back injuries or shoulder problems. It is normally better to design a specialized workstation in these circumstances. The first rule of design - form follows function - applies. Understand the task and then design for that. Applying the Principles: Workstations You must understand the basic principles of human-friendly design to evaluate or design a workstation. Common issues and applications include – Working position: Awkward positions that reduce efficiency and accuracy of work, plus increase fatigue and strain on the employee, including: Working with a bent or twisted back, elbows away from the body, bent or twisted wrists, bent neck. Force: Exertion needed to handle materials and use tools. Height and reach: In this context, these issues are often the root cause of awkward positions. Motions: Excessive motions to handle materials and operate equipment. Fatigue: Constant bending, reaching out with the arms, and gripping materials. Pressure points: Hard edges, such as front of work surface or other protrusions. Clearance: Sufficient room especially for legs and knees. Environmental: Quality of lighting, temperature extremes, etc. Steps Step 1 — Define the optimal height and orientation The first step, which is the one most often neglected, is to understand the optimal orientation for the product relative to the employee who does the work. Sometimes the best position for the product is horizontal, but more commonly a product is best accessed when it is on a slant. Likewise, sometimes the product can stay in the same orientation for all the steps of the job, but more commonly different tasks are best done with the product in a different orientation, especially when the product is complex. It may not be feasible to provide optimal orientation for each and every step of a job. However, knowing how the product can best be positioned provides your objective. If you don't know what you're aiming for, you can end up creating a workstation that contains inadvertent barriers to production and quality, and in addition causes wear-and-tear injuries among employees. Consequently, for each step of the job, ask these questions – Access — Can employees access what they need in order to do the job efficiently? Visibility — Is it possible to see what they need? Working position — Will employees be in the optimal working position to do the work? As you start out, do not be overly concerned about how to actually support or move the item - that comes next. The point here is to define the ideal height and orientation to do the work. Assume you have supernatural powers and can manipulate the product in the air with mental telepathy. Envision what you need to do. Think through all the different orientations that are possible and the logical implications of each. Create a mock workstation with a highly adjustable test fixture for the item you're working on. You (and others) can work at this station and test different orientations to help identify the best positions. Watch videotapes of the work as it is being performed. It is common to see things on a video that you don't see in the workplace, especially if you watch the video clip several times in succession. The difficulties that people have when doing the job help you determine how best to position the work. It can be very helpful to involve employees and supervisors in this process. Step 2 — Identify a fixture or holder Once you understand the optimal height and orientation of your specific situation, then turn to the practicality of how to achieve it. It could be a type of bench top fixture, a floor fixture, a conveyor workstation, or anything that you can think of. You may need height adjustment. If you need a work surface, the surface size may be smaller than you think, or it might be a slanted surface. Surprisingly, you may not need an actual surface at all. You may need to brainstorm a bit (or a lot, depending upon the circumstances). The purpose for providing the various options in the linked pages is to help you think outside the box. You want to make sure you identify what works best for the situation, rather than what is familiar. Step 3 — Determine material handling requirements Determine requirements and options for parts movement at the workstation. Consider parts movements within the individual workstation and between workstations, including loading and unloading methods, parts presenters, and height relationships within the equipment. Your goal is minimize the time and effort needed to move items around. Equalizing heights can especially be helpful, since it may allow you to slide materials from place to place, rather than needing to pick them up. Step 4 — Define tool and material needs and their location What tools and materials do you need to do the job? What workstation layout do you need so that each item is handy? What storage features right at the workstation do you need, i.e. supports, holders, racks, etc.? You need to define a place for everything and make sure it is in the right place. Step 5 — Review other issues for applicability The final step involves reviewing of a series of other ergonomics issues. Evaluate each of these topics as appropriate for your task - Visual access is part of Step 1 for the item being worked on, but can include other parts of the workstation such as dials and computer monitors. The question is if what you need to see is in your line of sight. Lighting is closely related to visual access, but has to do with issues like darkness and glare rather than line of sight. Magnification is again related to visual access, but the question is if it would be helpful to enlarge the view of items. Arm supports may be needed to provide proper support for the arms and hands in certain tasks. Surface material - depending on the task, different types of surface material can be helpful: slippery, high friction, non-glare, etc. Clearance is needed for your arms, legs, and other parts of the body. Additionally, there must be room for tools, headgear, gloves, and similar items that are used. Sit-stand — in stationary jobs, it is best to alternate between sitting and standing, rather than doing either all day long. In sum, you start with the orientation of the product and the fixture needed to enable this orientation. Then you move “outward” to how the materials are moved in and out of the fixture, then to the tools and storage items that you need, and then to the other aspects of the workstation. Everything is based on the ability of the employee to do the job well, with minimal time and effort.
- #6 DISPLAY You must assess the risks to employees (users) and self-employed contractors (operators) who work at employer workstations and regularly use display screen equipment like computers and laptops as a significant part of their normal work (daily for continuous periods of an hour or more). Some workers may experience posture problems and pain, discomfort or injuries, e.g. to their hands/arms, from overuse or improper use or from poorly designed workstations or work environments. Headaches or sore eyes can also occur, for example if the lighting is poor. The use of visual display to relay information to employees and guide their actions. The workplace is usually set up with signs, labels, color-coded marking etc., so that anyone unfamiliar with the assets or the process can readily identify what is going on, understand the process, know what’s being done correctly and what is out of place. For display you have to do - Identify what display screen equipment you have and which users and operators are covered. Assess all workstations and ensure they meet the minimum requirements for them. Plan the work so there are breaks or changes of activity. On request, provide eye and eyesight tests and special corrective spectacles if they are necessary. Provide training and information. If they use ‘hot-desking’, workers will still need to check their workstation and adjust it to their requirements. It may be helpful to provide a checklist of what they need to consider, and this could be attached to the desk or workstation
- #7 AUDITORY DISPLAY The displays that characterise human-machine interfaces are predominantly visual in nature. However, other sensory modalities provide additional resources for the transmission of information. Auditory signals provide a number of advantages particularly in complex visual environments. While visual displays require direct observation, humans are sensitive to sounds from any direction. Auditory displays can be used to orient attention to events outside the user's field of view. Auditory displays can also utilise speech to communicate information. Speech can be perceived directly or through communication systems, e.g., radios or telephones, from recordings, e.g., telephone message tapes or digital recordings, or from synthesized speech from computers. In addition to these sources, a wide variety of signals can be used to give us information. The invention of the bell is perhaps a good example of early technology that fulfilled a particular purpose. The ringing of bells in religious buildings would be one way of drawing attention of an individual or group to a key event. Messages can in turn be codified in terms of the way in which a bell or bells are used. Newer technology gives rise to various buzzers, hooters, sirens, etc. These can transmit information by manipulating a variety of attributes including the amplitude (volume), frequency (pitch) and timing between component parts of the signal. An intermittent signal that increases in amplitude, pitch and the number of pulses per minute provides a powerful means of communicating the time course of a particular process. Like the whistle on steam kettle, such alarms can be considered the auditory analogue of an egg timer, providing information about the occurrence of a forthcoming event as well as signalling the requirement for a timely response. Although there is a tendency to think of auditory displays in terms of alarms, it is also important to be familiar with the way auditory signals are utilised by everyday office equipment and domestic appliances. Sound provides a particularly useful mechanism for feedback, indicating that an accepted input has been made to a device. Auditory icons are now used to signal particular events such as a key stroke, the selection of a file or the opening of a new application. Auditory events such as a whoosh to signal the sending of a message provide a medium that is intuitively simple as well as computationally less demanding than a visual equivalent. Like the visual icons traditionally used in computer interfaces, auditory icons are designed to map virtual events to the sounds associated with similar objects in the real-world (Brewster, 2002). The tendency of the auditory system to integrate separate sounds into a coherent percept (a series of tones is often perceived as a rhythmic pattern) also provides a basis for effective pattern recognition. Adaptation or ‘habituation’ means an auditory sequence that signifies the routine functioning of a particular system will quickly become background noise as long as it’s presented at a comfortable volume. Sounds that are at odds with the established pattern provide a highly salient cue to changes in routine function and provide the user an easily detectable cue to potential problems. Effective auditory displays require signal-to-noise ratios that are appropriate to the context and environment in which they are used. Producing a startle reflex may be desirable for fire alarms but the same reaction to an in-car alarm might have disastrous consequences. The temporal structure of sound also produces certain limits on its use in displays. Speech for example, is sequentially organised so the listener has to attend the whole message for accurate comprehension. Maintaining information that is no longer present in the display entails a working memory load that may be absent in visual displays. The spatial resolution of the auditory system is also less than that of the visual system, with objects tending to merge when they are not highly discriminable on non-spatial dimensions. Masking and the reflection of sound off different surfaces can also render the localisation of auditory signals difficult. In open country, it is easy to discern the direction of an approaching emergency vehicle from its siren. In built up areas, however, where the sound will echo from buildings and other vehicles, discerning the direction from which an emergency vehicle is coming can be difficult. To counter this, modern sirens are often interspersed with a loud broad-band noise. Sounding like an old fashioned fog horn, these sounds include frequencies that are more easily localised than the high pitched wails or alternating tones traditionally used. Emergency sirens are also prone to masking, with individuals often listening to loud music within sound-proofed cars. Emergency vehicle drivers often complain about being ignored by people who clearly are not aware of their presence, even though they are sounding a very loud alarm. The useful principles of auditory display is provided by Sanders and McCormick (1993) - Management or control of workplaces - Effective management or control of a workplace means ensuring (so far as is reasonably practicable) that there are no health and safety risks to anyone from the workplace or when entering or exiting a workplace. A workplace can include a vehicle, vessel, aircraft, mobile structure or any installation on water that a worker might be at while at work. If you are an employer or business with management or control of a workplace you should - consult with workers to ensure the workplace, consult, cooperate and coordinate with other duty holders who also have a shared responsibility to ensure work health and safety, maintain the workplace and facilities in a safe condition, implement appropriate procedures for workers who work in remote or isolated worksites, prepare, implement and practise emergency plans for controlled evacuations in emergencies, management or control of fixtures, fittings or plant at workplaces. If you’re an employer or business with management or control of fixtures, fittings or plant you must ensure the safety of any person in the workplace.
- #8 ENGINEERING CONTROLS Engineering controls are methods that are built into the design of a plant, equipment or process to minimize the hazard. Engineering controls are a very reliable way to control worker exposures as long as the controls are designed, used and maintained properly. The basic types of engineering controls are - Process control. Enclosure and/or isolation of emission source. Ventilation. Process Control Process control involves changing the way a job activity or process is done to reduce the risk. Monitoring should be done before and as well as after the change is implemented to make sure the changes did result in lower exposures. Examples of process changes include to – Use wet methods rather than dry when drilling or grinding. “Wet method” means that water is sprayed over a dusty surface to keep dust levels down or material is mixed with water to prevent dust from being created. Use an appropriate vacuum or “wet method” instead of dry sweeping (e.g. with a broom) to control dust and reduce the inhalation hazard. Never use a regular “household” vacuum cleaner, especially when cleaning toxic material such as lead, or asbestos. Use a vacuum specifically designed for industrial workplaces and be sure to use appropriate filters, etc. Use steam cleaning instead of solvent degreasing (but be sure to evaluate the potential high temperature hazard being introduced such as heat stress). Use electric motors rather than diesel ones to eliminate diesel exhaust emissions. Float “balls” on open-surface tanks that contain solvents (e.g. degreasing operations) to reduce solvent surface area and to lower solvent loss. Instead of conventional spray painting, try to dip, paint with a brush, or use “airless” spray paint methods. These methods will reduce the amount of paint that is released into the air. Decrease the temperature of a process so that less vapor is released. Use automation - the less workers have to handle or use the materials, the less potential there is for exposure. Use mechanical transportation rather than manual methods. Enclosure and Isolation These methods aim to keep the chemical “in” and the worker “out” (or vice versa). An enclosure keeps a selected hazard “physically” away from the worker. Enclosed equipment, for example, is tightly sealed and it is typically only opened for cleaning or maintenance. Other examples include “glove boxes” (where a chemical is in a ventilated and enclosed space and the employee works with the material by using gloves that are built in), abrasive blasting cabinets, or remote control devices. Care must be taken when the enclosure is opened for maintenance as exposure could occur if adequate precautions are not taken. The enclosure itself must be well maintained to prevent leaks. Isolation places the hazardous process “geographically” away from the majority of the workers. Common isolation techniques are to create a contaminant-free booth either around the equipment or around the employee workstations. Ventilation Ventilation is a method of control that strategically “adds” and “removes” air in the work environment. Ventilation can remove or dilute an air contaminant if designed properly. Local exhaust ventilation is very adaptable to almost all chemicals and operations. It removes the contaminant at the source so it cannot disperse into the work space and it generally uses lower exhaust rates than general ventilation (general ventilation usually exchanges air in the entire room). Local exhaust ventilation is an effective means of controlling hazardous exposures but should be used when other methods (such as elimination or substitution) are not possible. A local exhaust ventilation system consists of these basic parts- A hood that captures the contaminants generated in the air (at the source). Ductwork (exhaust stack and/or recirculation duct) that carries the contaminated air to the air cleaning device, if present or to the fan (away from the source). A fan which draws the air from the hood into the ducts and removes the air from the workspace. The fan must overcome all the losses due to friction, hood entry, and fittings in the system while producing the intended flow rate. Air cleaning devices may also be present that can remove contaminants such as dust (particulates), gases and vapors from the air stream before it is discharged or exhausted into the environment (outside air), depending on the material(s) being used in the hood.
- #9 ADMINISTRATIVE CONTROLS Administrative controls limit workers’ exposures by scheduling shorter work times in contaminant areas or by implementing other “rules”. These control measures have many limitations because the hazard itself is not actually removed or reduced. Administrative controls are not generally favored because they can be difficult to implement, maintain and are not a reliable way to reduce exposure. When necessary, methods of administrative control include – Scheduling maintenance and other high exposure operations for times when few workers are present (such as evenings, weekends). Using job-rotation schedules that limit the amount of time an individual worker is exposed to a substance. Using a work-rest schedule that limits the length of time a worker is exposure to a hazard. Work practices are also a form of administrative controls. In most workplaces, even if there are well designed and well maintained engineering controls present, safe work practices are very important. Some elements of safe work practices include – Developing and implementing standard operating procedures. Training and education of employees about the operating procedures as well as other necessary workplace training. Establishing and maintaining good housekeeping programs. Keeping equipment well maintained. Preparing and training for emergency response for incidents such as spills, fire or employee injury.
- #10 HAZARD CONTROLS A hazard control program consists of all steps necessary to protect workers from exposure to a substance or system, the training and the procedures required to monitor worker exposure and their health to hazards such as chemicals, materials or substance, or other types of hazards such as noise and vibration. A written workplace hazard control program should outline which methods are being used to control the exposure and how these controls will be monitored for effectiveness. In situations where there is not a clear way to control a hazard, or if legislation does not impose a limit or guideline, you should seek guidance from occupational health professionals such as an occupational hygienist or safety professional about what is the “best practice” or “standard practice” when working in that situation. The main ways to control a hazard include – Elimination (including substitution): remove the hazard from the workplace, or substitute (replace) hazardous materials or machines with less hazardous ones. Engineering Controls: includes designs or modifications to plants, equipment, ventilation systems, and processes that reduce the source of exposure. Administrative Controls: controls that alter the way the work is done, including timing of work, policies and other rules, and work practices such as standards and operating procedures (including training, housekeeping, and equipment maintenance, and personal hygiene practices). Personal Protective Equipment: equipment worn by individuals to reduce exposure such as contact with chemicals or exposure to noise. These methods are also known as the “hierarchy of control” because they should be considered in the order presented (it is always best to try to eliminate the hazard first, etc). Controls are usually placed – At the source (where the hazard “comes from”). Along the path (where the hazard “travels”). At the worker. It is important to monitor both the hazard and the control method to make sure that the control is working effectively and that exposure to the hazard is reduced or eliminated. Some tools include physical inspection, testing, exposure assessment, observations, injury and illness tracking, accident/incident investigations reports, employee feedback/input, occupational health assessment and other methods. Be sure to answer the following questions – Have the controls solved the problem? Is the risk posed by the original hazard contained? Have any new hazards been created? Are new hazards appropriately controlled? Are monitoring processes adequate? Have workers been adequately informed about the situation? Have orientation and training programs been modified to deal with the new situation? Are any other measures required? Has the effectiveness of hazard controls been documented in your committee minutes? What else can be done? A review will identify areas that may need more improvement or refinement. It is important to know if all workplace hazards are identified, assessed and appropriately controlled. Communication about the hazards and how to control them must be done for all employees of the organization.
- #11 CONTROLS IN WORKPLACE CONFLICTS What can you do if a workplace conflict is still raging out of control, despite your every effort to resolve it? While your emotions may be in knots over the situation, the best strategy isn’t to focus on what you can’t control, but on what you can. Here are the areas within your control. Plan for the Future: Consider what’s important and follow a strategy for a period of time that feels comfortable. Your plan may include leaving your current work environment, or you may decide staying is the best thing to help meet your goal for a secure retirement, health benefits or a good letter of recommendation. Knowing what you want your future to look like helps you look past the current situation and focus beyond your temporary problems. Perspective: It’s easy to get so wrapped up in a disagreement that you lose all perspective about the situation. This is especially true when the conflict is at work and you’re experiencing it every day. Dealing with a persistent difficulty can become the routine - until you decide to change how you look at it. Stop and reassess your point of view. See if you can find a learning opportunity in the situation. Maybe this is a chance for you to step outside yourself and extend a little compassion to the other person. Or maybe if you purposefully and mindfully examine what’s going on, you can honestly say the issue isn’t that important to you. Responses: I’m sure you know from experience that you can’t control the other person’s actions, thoughts, or feelings. Try as you might - and I suspect you’ve tried a lot of different things - your coworker’s behavior remains unchanged. It’s frustrating, challenging, and disappointing to feel like you’re the only one making an effort, but the good news is that no matter what he’s doing, you always have the option to control your own responses. Try changing how you react to what’s happening, and look for ways to respond to him pushing your buttons that won’t escalate your anxiety or cause your blood pressure to spike through the roof. Consider how you want to be seen by others and choose your responses accordingly. Investment: How long have you lived with this conflict and how much effort are you putting into it? Do you really want to be more emotionally invested than everyone else? If your answer is no (or even a shaky maybe), then try to reduce your investment in the drama. Spend less time thinking about it, talking about it and engaging in it. Role in the Conflict: As difficult as it is to admit, you probably have some responsibility in the conflict. Consider how your actions and reactions look to others. Ask yourself, “What have I said or done - or not said or done - that has kept this conflict going?” It may take the assistance of friends, family or professionals to help you realize it, but you don’t need to continue being the bully or the victim. If it takes two to tango and you’re no longer willing to dance, the conflict has to diminish. Expectations: When your expectations don’t fit the situation, even though you’ve tried everything you can imagine to make them fit, change your expectations. Notice that I said change, not lower. Is it possible that your expectations are what are causing your frustration and the conflict to continue? I’m not talking job performance issues here, but rather personal preferences for how another person behaves. Your frustrations will decrease when you stop holding others to standards they don’t know they’re being measured against. It may be time to get a new yardstick. Energy: Changing where you focus your energy can be a huge stress reliever. Unresolved conflict (and unresolved emotions) can be a black hole for energy; you can give and give without any guarantee you’ll see that energy investment returned to you. Instead of putting 110 percent of yourself into the conflict, put your energy into a different outlet. Cleaning a closet, putting together a proposal for a creative project at work or hitting the gym are all great ways to channel energy and emotions. Own Story: When I read a good book, I create the movie in my head. I’m the casting director, set designer and director. When it comes to a conflict at work, you can essentially do the same by choosing how you depict the scene to yourself and others. When you’re not emotionally involved in a problem, you can see both sides, so be objective and apply it to your own situation. Decide how this particular story will play out and how you’ll speak about it. Give an account without elevating or victimizing anyone. When a coworker or supervisor asks about specifics, consider an honest but hopeful response such as, “It’s a difficult time right now, but I’m learning a valuable lesson about expectations,” rather than, “Yet again I’m the victim and no one cares.” Method for Processing Emotions: You can keep the impact of a conflict to yourself and stuff your emotions away, or you can find constructive ways to process what’s happening. Talking with a mentor, family member, friend, clergy or therapist can be helpful. Keeping a journal, writing letters you’ll never send (my personal favorite), exercising or even slinging rocks at a tree are all productive ways to process the emotions and perspective associated with an otherwise unproductive situation. Character: You may follow directions and have job responsibilities, but no one can make you do anything. When you say, “He just makes me so (fill in the blank) that I had to (fill in the terrible past response or action you took),” you’re giving the other person control over your moral fiber. Take personal responsibility and don’t give anyone else the power to make you behave in a way that is unbecoming, unethical or dishonorable. Show your best side -- not an unchecked series of poor reactions.
- #14 WORK ENVIRONMENT The aspects of a workplace environment can have a direct impact on the productivity, health and safety, comfort, concentration, job satisfaction and morale of the people within it. Important factors in the work environment that should be considered include building design and age, workplace layout, workstation set-up, furniture and equipment design and quality, space, temperature, ventilation, lighting, noise, vibration, radiation, air quality. When assessing the workplace environment, consideration should be given to individual human characteristics such as age, sex, experience, physical stature etc., and how well these human characteristics match the physical environment. Appropriate design of workplace environments will ensure that they accommodate a broad variety of human characteristics. The work environment should satisfy the physical and mental requirements of the people who work within it. The necessary adjustments to the work area, in terms of the heights and angles of furniture and equipment, should be made for the comfort and safety of each person. The four main categories of physical characteristic that need to be considered in the work environment are - clearance, e.g. headroom, legroom, elbow-room, access; arm reach, which has a bearing on storage of materials; posture, which has a bearing on the location of materials/equipment, heights of working surfaces; strength. Physical environmental factors can have an adverse impact on people. The specific physical factors that limit performance will vary depending on both the work environment and individual differences. Those people who are working within an environment are the ones best able to identify factors that affect their work. It is important to involve these ‘hands-on’ people in consultations with supervisors, managers and occupational health and safety personnel when considering options for controlling the risks in question. The following environmental hazards may require consideration in your workplace - Noise. Excessive exposure to loud noise can irreversibly damage the ear, resulting in noise-induced hearing loss. ‘Nuisance’ noise can be annoying and distracting and result in reduced job performance and satisfaction. Noise may also be unsafe if it impairs communication in the work environment, such as by overpowering auditory alarms. Lighting. Lighting levels need to be appropriate to the task and must comply with Australian Standard 1680. Working in dim or overbright work environments can result in eyestrain, headaches, irritability and, inevitably, reduced productivity. Light sources, including the sun, can create unwanted reflections, glare and shadows in the workplace that can cause discomfort and distraction, and can interfere with the performance of visual tasks. Low levels of lighting can cause depression, which for some people may be severe. Ventilation, air quality and thermal comfort. Ventilation is important for the control of dust, fumes, gases, aerosols, climate and thermal comfort factors. Exposure to different types of dust can result in fibrosis of the lung, allergic reactions and asthma attacks. Various vapors, gases and aerosols have the ability to cause respiratory and skin damage. Extremes of heat can reduce concentration and motivation and cause a number of heat-related illnesses. Extremes of heat can also reduce tolerance to chemical and noise exposure, and increase the risk of heart attacks. Vibration. Whole body vibration, e.g. from riding a mower, can affect comfort and performance even at low levels and can cause damage to the spine, stomach pain and gastrointestinal complaints. Hand-arm vibration, such as from hand tools, can have negative effects on muscles and the skeleton, and can contribute to carpal tunnel syndrome, low-back pain and vibration white finger, for example. Radiation. Exposure to ultraviolet radiation from the sun can induce potentially lethal skin cancers. Exposure to direct sun, particularly between the hours of eleven and two, can result in sunburn, headaches and fatigue. Different people have varying degrees of sensitivity to the sun, e.g. fair freckled skin often burns more quickly than olive skin. Precautions for avoiding sun exposure should be followed diligently by everybody. The work area should be set up according to ergonomic design principles. For each task, the following should be considered: frequency and flow of work; materials and equipment required; and the priority of different tasks. Basic guidelines to follow in the design of the work area to enable the efficient management of tasks include – importance — placing the most important items in the most advantageous or accessible locations; frequency of use — placing the most frequently used items within the easiest reach; function — materials and equipment with closely related functions should be grouped together; sequence of use — materials and equipment that are commonly used in sequence should be grouped together; work/rest schedules — work tasks should be varied to change body position and mental activities; optimal positioning — positioning materials and equipment to reduce physical hazards and increase usability, e.g. placing a document holder in front of a person, if it is viewed more frequently than the monitor, eliminating glare on computer screens by positioning monitors parallel to light fittings and at right angles to windows. Each employee should be conscious of their health in their work environment and record any pain, discomfort, injury or illness that they believe is work-related. This information should be reported to supervisors as soon as possible to allow appropriate corrective action to reduce the risk to health and safety to be taken. A determination then needs to be made whether the employee and/or supervisor can assess the situation with the available information, or whether information and advice needs to be sought from the district office.
- #15 MONOTONY, BOREDOM, FATIGUE AND PRODUCTIVITY Monotony means dull. Monotonous means dry, unvarying, tedious and uninteresting. The terms monotony and boredom are usually used to indicate the undesirable effects of repetitive work. British researchers use the terms tedium and monotony to describe the state of mind caused by repetitive work. Monotony is the first stage which rapidly develops into boredom when a person finds it hard to stand monotonous repetition of the same operations. The term boredom is more inclusive and refers to unfavorable attitude and feeling the worker may have for the task he is performing. Monotony and boredom are subjective phenomena in the sense they are caused by the way a person views his task from time, causing the output to fluctuate and to decline progressively. Three factors that product Monotony and Boredom are – Repetitive nature of the task, Intellectual level of the person and Personality characteristic of the individual (mal-adjustment and introversion). Fatigue means tired. It means work that makes one tired. Fatigue refers to wearingness from labour of body or of mind. Mental Fatigue is a phenomenon which is far more illusive than physical Fatigue. For example, a student reading of several hours feels mentally exhausted and goes to sleep. The largest components of mental Fatigue at any rate seem to be tension and attitude. A student, after a three-hour examination, may feel totally exhausted because of the tension but he may show no such signs after writing lengthy letters to his friends because there is no tension. The manner in which a job is perceived or experienced (as pleasant or unpleasant) is an individual matter. However, certain kinds of task (for example, repetitive work) and work atmosphere are more likely to induce monotony and boredom than other. The boredom is related to personality factor that is two individuals may reveal different reactions to the same task, one calling it boring and the other calling it interesting. The same individual may also show more boredom one day than another. And some people may become adjusted readily to boring tasks than repetitive ones. Many studies revealed that production was slow and variable when workers experienced boredom and monotony. During the period of boredom, workers complained of restlessness. The loss of production is associated with the feeling of boredom, monotony and fatigue by repetitive nature of work. The effects of Monotony, Boredom and Fatigue are – Psychological tests are used to locate certain personality factors related with boredom, so that careful selection and placement can solve the problem to a certain extent. Introducing change in the jobs that are highly repetitive. Making job more interesting, by attaching some meaning to them. Setting up clear short-term production goals so that the worker is greatly motivated to reach them. Another way of combating monotony is providing social and recreational activities during and outside the working hours. Reducing interruptions of work. Introducing necessary changes in work situations to make workers feel that they have their tasks completed. The working environments determine the industrial productivity. The following favorable working environments will increase industrial productivity- Proper illumination in the work place. Noise may lead to curtailment of production and deafness in some situations. The harmful effects of noise should be prevented or eliminated. Atmospheric conditions like temperature, air flow, humidity, color and music may have favorable or unfavorable impact on working efficiency of the employees. Hence, good atmospheric conditions should be maintained in the work place. Alterative work schedule options should be introduced. They have the effect of improving employee motivation, productivity and satisfaction. The different types of work schedules are- (a) Compressed work week (e.g., 4 days a week-10 hours a day). (b) Shorter work week (e.g., work for 8 hours a day 4 days a week). (c) Flexible working hours (allow an employee, within specific parameters, to decide when to go to work and when to leave). (d) Job sharing (two or more individuals share a job). One of them may work in the morning shift and the other one may work in the evening shift (or they can work on alternative days). (e) Telecommuting (employee work at their homes on computers that are linked to the office). Shift work (shift rotation, day shift and night shift). Rest pauses (it is that period in which the worker is neither called upon to work nor expected to work).
- #16 LIGNTING IN WORKPLACE Poor lighting can cause several problems such as – Insufficient light - not enough (too little) light for the need. Glare - too much light for the need. Improper contrast. Poorly distributed light. Flicker. Poor lighting can be a safety hazard - misjudgment of the position, shape or speed of an object can lead to accidents and injury. Poor lighting can affect the quality of work, specifically in situation where precision is required, and overall productivity. Poor lighting can be a health hazard - too much or too little light strains eyes and may cause eye discomfort (burning, etc.) and headaches. The amount of light we need varies and depends on- Type of task being done (such as demands for speed and accuracy). Type of surfaces (does it reflect or absorb light). General work area. Individual’s vision. The amount of light falling on a surface is measured in units called lux. Depending on the factors noted above, adequate general lighting is usually between 500 and 1000 lux when measured 76 cm (30 inches) above the floor. To reach proper light levels and uniform light distribution in the visual environment, many light fixtures are designed to reflect light off walls, ceilings and objects. The amount of light reflected off a surface can be measured. Suggestions for the percent of light reflected off surfaces in a typical office include – Window blinds (40-50%). Walls (50% maximum). Business machines (50% maximum). Ceiling (70-80%). Floor (20-40%). Furniture (25-45%). To correct insufficient light – Replace bulbs on a regular schedule. Old bulbs give less light than new ones, so replace them before they burn out. Follow manufacturers’ instructions. Clean light fixtures regularly. Dirt on light fixtures reduces the amount of light given off. Light fixtures with open tops allow air currents to move dust up through the fixtures so dust and dirt do not accumulate on them. Add more light fixtures in appropriate places. Paint walls and ceilings light colors so light can be reflected. Use more reflected light and local lighting to eliminate shadows. For example, a covered light mounted under a transparent guard on a grinding wheel provides the added light needed to clearly see the task. Do not positions work station with light fixture directly behind worker. A complete lighting survey may be needed to identify and solve more subtle or complicated problems. A complete lighting survey requires complex equipment and practical experience. Illuminance: Illuminance is the amount of light falling on a surface. The unit of measurement is lux (or lumens per square metre = 10.76 foot candles). A light meter is used to measure it. Readings are taken from several angles and positions. Luminance: Luminance is the amount of light reflected from a surface. The unit of measurement is candela per square metre (equals 0.29 foot-lamberts). An illuminance meter is used to measure it. Several measurements are made and averaged. Luminance tables are consulted for reference values. Contrast: Contrast is the relationship between the brightness of an object and its background. A luminance meter is used to measure it. The following formula is used to calculate contrast and provides a number between 0 and 1. The average contrast should be above 0.5: Reflectance: Reflectance is the ratio of light falling on a surface to the light reflected from a surface, expressed as a percentage. A light meter is used to measure it. Reflectance can also be measured using a reflectometer or by comparing the surface of interest with color chips of known reflectance.
- #17 NOISE IN WORKPLACE Noise means unwanted sound or loud discordant or disagreeable sound or sounds. The effect of noise on hearing can be temporary or permanent. Temporary deafness is often experienced after leaving a noisy place. Although hearing recovers within a few hours, this should not be ignored as it is a sign that continued or regular exposure to such noise could cause permanent damage. Hearing loss is usually gradual due to prolonged exposure to noise. It may only be when damage caused by noise over the years combines with normal hearing loss due to ageing that people realize how deaf they have become. Hearing damage can also be caused immediately by sudden, extremely loud noises, though this is not common. Exposure to noise may also cause tinnitus, which is a sensation of noises (such as ringing or buzzing) in the ears. This can occur in combination with hearing loss. Apart from damage to hearing, exposure to constant and excessive noise can cause other health problems including – Headache Elevated blood pressure Fatigue Irritability Digestive disorders Increased susceptibility to colds and other minor infections. Most workplaces expose us to noise. The louder the noise, the more damage it can cause. Noise and vibration can cause long-term damage to our senses. Excessive noise causes permanent damage to hearing. Loud noises can cause hearing loss either progressively, or by exposures over a long period of time. Damage can be caused immediately by exposure to peak sound waves produced by explosive sounds such as gunfire, explosions or cartridge operated tools. Anyone can be exposed to excessive noise levels. Those working in noisy workplaces, factories, foundries, working with power tools, plant and machinery, and in noisy environments such as road works, airports and construction sites are among those most at risk. The Control of Noise at Work Regulations (2005) requires employers to take action if daily or weekly exposure to noise is at or in excess of certain Exposure Action Levels. It is recommended employers take the following steps – conduct a Noise Assessment take steps to prevent or control the risks where possible eliminate exposure to noise at source control exposure to noise provide Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) provide information and training regularly monitor and review the effectiveness of the measures. Exposure Action Values and Limit Values Regulations specify Exposure Action Values in decibels (dB) – lower exposure action value - daily or weekly personal noise exposure of 80dB, or a peak sound pressure of 135dB upper exposure action value - daily or weekly personal noise exposure of 85dB, or a peak sound pressure of 137dB. There are also levels of noise exposure that must not be exceeded, these are called Exposure Limit Values and take into account reductions provided by hearing protection – daily or weekly exposure of 87dB peak action level - peak sound pressure of 140dB. The Noise Assessment is the start of the process, not the end. Assessments shouldn’t just be filed away, but used to carry out the employer’s duties to reduce the risk of hearing loss and control noise exposure. At the Lower Action Values, employers must- assess the noise exposure eliminate noise exposure at source or reduce to a minimum level provide information instruction and training on risks and how to minimize risk, including how they can obtain hearing protection ensure that all necessary maintenance is carried out to hearing protection and equipment. At the Upper Action Values, employers must also – mark hearing protection zones with prominent notices provide everyone exposed with suitable hearing protection and ensure that it is worn. There are many ways to reduce noise levels. Introduce the methods that protect the maximum number of those exposed first. Control measures include – implementing a quieter way of doing the work using quieter pieces of equipment introducing a low-noise purchasing policy for new equipment improving maintenance procedures – good maintenance can reduce noise from friction and moving parts fitting silencers to exhausts isolating or damping vibrating machinery by fitting anti-vibration mounts adding sound absorbing material to vibrating panels to reduce vibration enclosing noisy machinery erecting barriers and screens around noisy machinery and processes positioning noisy machinery and processes well away from workers using sound absorbing materials to reduce reflection of sound within buildings limiting access by keeping people out of noisy areas limiting time spent in noisy areas. Hearing protection should only be considered as a temporary measure, or as a last resort where a risk remains after steps have been taken to reduce noise levels. Hearing protection comes in two main types – those that are inserted in the ear and those that cover the ear. The Noise Assessment should indicate which is most suitable for each situation. As a guide, in-ear plugs can reduce the noise level by 10-15 dB(A) and ear muffs by 20-25 dB(A), provided that they are fitted correctly.
- #18 MUSIC IN WORKPLACE Music listening at work can be useful to employees, as well as to managers and whole organizations. Because music can be so important to employees, it is also important to managers and the organization as a whole. Music listening at work is clearly beneficial for the organizations. Avoiding Boredom: Many music listening employees find that music gives them something else to think about. It provides a diversion and prevents employees from engaging in other distracting behaviors. In this way, music is a strategy to manage internal interruptions, such as day dreams or other thoughts – which could lead to a loss of work flow which could lead to the employee starting to do something else (fiddling with papers, browsing the internet, find a colleague to chat to, send some e-mails and so on). Avoiding Interruptions: One frequently mentioned function of music at work is to manage interruptions, and through this function music can also help to improve task concentration. Being able to manage interruptions is by employees described as a way to cope with stress, through having control over the auditory environment. Headphones in particular help to improve concentration in two ways – (a) Blocking other sounds: Employees often use headphones to block out surrounding noise from the environment or other colleagues by using headphones. (b) Signaling withdrawal to colleagues: Employees also use headphones to send a visual ‘do not disturb’ signal to others. Sense of Control and Identity Marking: There is a wealth of research indicating that lack of control can induce stress at work. For example, noise at work can negatively impact on both physical and psychological well-being (North & Hargreaves 2008). When people can choose what to hear at work, they find it more relaxing and their work becomes more productive. Music listening is also strongly connected to identity display, and the workplace is no exception. Lack of opportunities to display personal distinctiveness in offices can undermine self-identity (Baldry, 1997; Elsbach, 2003), and music may therefore be particularly important in open-plan workspaces as a means for employees to assert their identities. Combating Work Stress: Work-related stress is related to ill-health (Donald et al., 2005; Smith, 2001) and stress in the workplace can also reduce productivity, in particular when stress manifests itself as a reduction in psychological well-being (Donald et al., 2005). This also has a very real and clear financial impact on organizations and their budgets. It is obvious that simply allowing employees to listen to music (or even worse – forcing employees to listen) will not solve the whole problem. But there are some of the factors that are clearly related to music, and/or that music can influence. Music is often used at work to manage noise and interruptions. It is also often used to manage work overload. Through this function, music listening at work can create breaks and relaxation during the working day, as well as providing a sense of control, which in itself is stress relieving. Music is also a strategy to manage work underload, through distraction from day dreams and other boredom-related behavior. Music listening at work is for many people an accompaniment, which could be particularly suitable for extravert people who work in a socially isolated job. Equally, an introvert person may find the interruptions in a shared working environment difficult to cope with, and could therefore find self-selected music useful to reduce interruptions in the workplace. Music can have many positive functions at work, and these functions can counteract common stress triggers in the workplace. Viewed from this perspective, managers should conceptualize music at work as more than simply a fluffy ‘leisure activity’ at work. Instead, music listening at work can ultimately help organizations and companies to save money on working days lost due to stress-related illness. ------------------------
- #21 HUMAN ERROR Human error is the behavior that is wholly unexpected to achieve a desired result (in accordance with some standard). A causal factor is anything that yields an occurrence resulting in an undesired effect or anything that exacerbates the level of severity of the undesired effect. The important to understand human error causal factors is twofold. First, a good design (either the design of a process or hardware item) is created, in large part, with an understanding of- Any potential undesired effects in operating or maintaining the process or in manufacturing, transporting, storing or using the hardware item. The human errors and their causal factors that can activate these undesired effects. With this understanding, the intent is to design such as to eliminate the potential for the undesired effects, or when that can’t be done, to establish appropriate barriers for the – Prevention of any error that could activate the undesired effect. Timely detection of the error. Mitigation of the undesired effect. Of course, the resources applied to any such barriers are appropriate to the level of significance of the undesired effect. Second, without an understanding of human error causal factors, there is a greater potential for root cause analyses to be truncated at the point at which only the things that need correction are identified, rather than analyzing further to the point of identifying the behaviors that need correction as well. For example, a correction may be made to a specific integrated maintenance and inspection plan (a thing) or corrections may be made to a set of such plans (things) that have the same or similar offending characteristics, but such a correction or corrections will not prevent newly prepared plans from having the same or similar offending characteristics. Improvement in new plans can come about only with improvement in the behavior of the planners. The table below provides taxonomy of universally applicable human error causal factors. Marguglio’s Taxonomy of Human Error Causal Factors Knowledge-based—Error based on the absence of knowledge of the requirement, expectation, or need. Cognition-based—Error based on the absence of ability to process the knowledge necessary to fulfill the requirement, expectation, or need. Value-based—Error based on the absence of willingness to accept the requirement, expectation, or need. Reflexive-based—Error based on the absence of ability to immediately respond to a stimulus. Error-Inducing Condition-based—Error based on the absence of ability to counteract the error-inducing condition. Skill-based—Error based on the absence of manual dexterity. Lapse-based—Error based on the absence of attention. A knowledge-based error may occur when one has not received the information, either because it wasn’t transmitted or got lost or garbled in its transmission or receipt. A cognition-based error may occur when one does not properly process the information that one has received—does not properly memorize it, understand it, apply it, or in jobs requiring higher cognitive abilities, does not properly analyze it, synthesize it, or evaluate it. There’s a significant difference between not having the information (knowledge-based) and not having the ability to process the information (cognition-based). A cognition-based error is derived from the work of Benjamin Bloom (1913–1999), an educational psychologist who, in 1956, published a taxonomy describing the six levels of cognition that apply to learning (Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals). Memorization—(Bloom called it knowledge) is the most basic, first cognitive level. It is the ability to remember terminology, definitions, facts, ideas, materials, patterns, sequences, methodologies, principles, etc. Comprehension—The ability to understand the things listed in the first level of cognition, including tables, diagrams and other forms of communication that combine words and graphics. Application—In job-related situations, it is the ability to use the information and understandings acquired at the memorization and comprehension levels. Analysis or diagnosis—The ability to break-down information into its constituent parts; recognize the organizational and systemic relationships of the parts; and identify actual and potential part non-conformances, anomalies, and improvement opportunities. Synthesis—The ability to put parts together such as to show a pattern or structure that was not evident previously, identify the data that support conclusions, and identify data that are appropriate to examine further in order to form new solutions or methods. Evaluation—The highest and sixth cognitive level. It is the ability to make judgments regarding significance, value or worth, usually by using appropriate criteria or standards to estimate accuracy, effectiveness, economic benefits, etc. Higher levels of cognition are needed to prevent errors. Higher levels of cognition also are needed to identify the existence and nature of problems arising from errors.
- #22 TYPES OF HUMAN ERROR According to the Health and Safety Executive (HSE), human failures can be active or latent. Active failures are direct and immediate causes of an accident, and are usually made by front-line staff such as drivers or machine operators. There are 3 types of active human error – Slips and lapses – made inadvertently by experienced operators during routine tasks; Mistakes – decisions subsequently found to be wrong, though the maker believed them to be correct at the time; and Violations – deliberate deviations from rules for safe operation of equipment. Familiar tasks carried out without much conscious attention are vulnerable to slips and lapses if the worker’s attention is diverted: for example, missing a step in a sequence because of an interruption. Mistakes occur where a worker is doing too many complex tasks at the same time, or is under time pressure; for example, misjudging the time and space needed to complete an overtaking maneuver. Violations, though deliberate, usually stem from a desire to perform work satisfactorily given particular constraints and expectations. Latent failures are those aspects of an organization which influence human behavior and make active failures more likely. Factors which contribute to human error include- Job – distractions, lack of time, inadequate procedures, poor lighting or extremes of temperature; Human – physical ability, competency, fatigue, stress or drugs; Organizational – work pressure, long hours or insufficient supervision; and Plant and equipment – poor equipment design or workplace layout. It is important to be aware that human failure is not random; understanding why errors occur and the different factors which make them worse will help you develop more effective controls. A human error is an action or decision which was not intended. A violation is a deliberate deviation from a rule or procedure. Some errors are slips or lapses, often “actions that were not as planned” or unintended actions. They occur during a familiar task and include slips (e.g. pressing the wrong button or reading the wrong gauge) and lapses (e.g. forgetting to carry out a step in a procedure). These types of error occur commonly in highly trained procedures where the person carrying them out does not need to concentrate on what they are doing. These cannot be eliminated by training, but improved design can reduce their likelihood and provide a more error tolerant system. Other errors are Mistakes or errors of judgment or decision-making where the “intended actions are wrong” i.e. where we do the wrong thing believing it to be right. These tend to occur in situations where the person does not know the correct way of carrying out a task either because it is new and unexpected, or because they have not be properly trained (or both). Often in such circumstances, people fall back on remembered rules from similar situations which may not be correct. Training based on good procedures is the key to avoiding mistakes. Violations (non-compliances, circumventions, shortcuts and work-around) differ from the above in that they are intentional but usually well-meaning failures where the person deliberately does not carry out the procedure correctly. They are rarely malicious (sabotage) and usually result from an intention to get the job done as efficiently as possible. They often occur where the equipment or task has been poorly designed and/or maintained. Mistakes resulting from poor training (i.e. people have not been properly trained in the safe working procedure) are often mistaken for violations. Understanding that violations are occurring and the reason for them is necessary if effective means for avoiding them are to be introduced. Peer pressure, unworkable rules and incomplete understanding can give rise to violations. HSG48 provides further information. There are several ways to manage violations, including designing violations out, taking steps to increase their detection, ensuring that rules and procedures are relevant/practical and explaining the rationale behind certain rules. Involving the workforce in drawing up rules increases their acceptance. Getting to the root cause of any violation is the key to understanding and hence preventing the violation. Understanding these different types of human failure can help identify control measures but you need to be careful you do not oversimplify the situation. In some cases it can be difficult to place an error in a single category – it may result from a slip or a mistake, for example. There may be a combination of underlying causes requiring a combination of preventative measures. It may also be useful to think about whether the failure is an error of omission (forgetting or missing out a key step) or an error of commission (e.g. doing something out of sequence or using the wrong control), and taking action to prevent that type of error.
- #23 TYPES OF HUMAN ERROR According to the Health and Safety Executive (HSE), human failures can be active or latent. Active failures are direct and immediate causes of an accident, and are usually made by front-line staff such as drivers or machine operators. There are 3 types of active human error – Slips and lapses – made inadvertently by experienced operators during routine tasks; Mistakes – decisions subsequently found to be wrong, though the maker believed them to be correct at the time; and Violations – deliberate deviations from rules for safe operation of equipment. Familiar tasks carried out without much conscious attention are vulnerable to slips and lapses if the worker’s attention is diverted: for example, missing a step in a sequence because of an interruption. Mistakes occur where a worker is doing too many complex tasks at the same time, or is under time pressure; for example, misjudging the time and space needed to complete an overtaking maneuver. Violations, though deliberate, usually stem from a desire to perform work satisfactorily given particular constraints and expectations. Latent failures are those aspects of an organization which influence human behavior and make active failures more likely. Factors which contribute to human error include- Job – distractions, lack of time, inadequate procedures, poor lighting or extremes of temperature; Human – physical ability, competency, fatigue, stress or drugs; Organizational – work pressure, long hours or insufficient supervision; and Plant and equipment – poor equipment design or workplace layout. It is important to be aware that human failure is not random; understanding why errors occur and the different factors which make them worse will help you develop more effective controls. A human error is an action or decision which was not intended. A violation is a deliberate deviation from a rule or procedure. Some errors are slips or lapses, often “actions that were not as planned” or unintended actions. They occur during a familiar task and include slips (e.g. pressing the wrong button or reading the wrong gauge) and lapses (e.g. forgetting to carry out a step in a procedure). These types of error occur commonly in highly trained procedures where the person carrying them out does not need to concentrate on what they are doing. These cannot be eliminated by training, but improved design can reduce their likelihood and provide a more error tolerant system. Other errors are Mistakes or errors of judgment or decision-making where the “intended actions are wrong” i.e. where we do the wrong thing believing it to be right. These tend to occur in situations where the person does not know the correct way of carrying out a task either because it is new and unexpected, or because they have not be properly trained (or both). Often in such circumstances, people fall back on remembered rules from similar situations which may not be correct. Training based on good procedures is the key to avoiding mistakes. Violations (non-compliances, circumventions, shortcuts and work-around) differ from the above in that they are intentional but usually well-meaning failures where the person deliberately does not carry out the procedure correctly. They are rarely malicious (sabotage) and usually result from an intention to get the job done as efficiently as possible. They often occur where the equipment or task has been poorly designed and/or maintained. Mistakes resulting from poor training (i.e. people have not been properly trained in the safe working procedure) are often mistaken for violations. Understanding that violations are occurring and the reason for them is necessary if effective means for avoiding them are to be introduced. Peer pressure, unworkable rules and incomplete understanding can give rise to violations. HSG48 provides further information. There are several ways to manage violations, including designing violations out, taking steps to increase their detection, ensuring that rules and procedures are relevant/practical and explaining the rationale behind certain rules. Involving the workforce in drawing up rules increases their acceptance. Getting to the root cause of any violation is the key to understanding and hence preventing the violation. Understanding these different types of human failure can help identify control measures but you need to be careful you do not oversimplify the situation. In some cases it can be difficult to place an error in a single category – it may result from a slip or a mistake, for example. There may be a combination of underlying causes requiring a combination of preventative measures. It may also be useful to think about whether the failure is an error of omission (forgetting or missing out a key step) or an error of commission (e.g. doing something out of sequence or using the wrong control), and taking action to prevent that type of error.
- #24 PRINCIPLES IN MANAGING HUMAN ERROR The key principles in managing human failure are – Human failure is normal and predictable. It can be identified and managed. Industry should tackle error reduction in a structured and proactive way, with as much rigor as the technical aspects of safety. Managing human failure should be integral to the safety management system. A poorly designed activity might be prone to a combination of errors and more than one solution may be necessary. Involve workers in design of tasks and procedures. Risk assessment should identify where human failure can occur in safety critical tasks, the performance influencing factors which might make it more likely, and the control measures necessary to prevent it. Incident Investigations should seek to identify why individuals have failed rather than stopping at ‘operator error’. There is more to managing human failure in complex systems than simply considering the actions of individual operators. However, there is obvious merit in managing the performance of the personnel who play an important role in preventing and controlling risks, as long as the context in which this behavior occurs is also considered. When assessing the role of people in carrying out a task, be careful that you do not- Treat operators as if they are superhuman, able to intervene heroically in emergencies. Assume that an operator will always be present, detect a problem and immediately take appropriate action. Assume that people will always follow procedures. Rely on operators being well-trained, when it is not clear how the training provided relates to accident prevention or control. Rely on training to effectively tackle slips/lapses. State that operators are highly motivated and thus not prone to unintentional failures or deliberate violations. Ignore the human component completely and failing to discuss human performance at all in risk assessments. Inappropriately apply techniques, such as detailing every task on site and therefore losing sight of targeting resources where they will be most effective. In quantitative risk assessment, provide precise probabilities of human failure (usually indicating very low chance of failure) without documenting assumptions/data sources. Companies should consider whether any of the above apply to how their organization manages human factors. The good news is there are effective ways an organization can reduce human error in matters of information security. Create a culture of security. Appoint a chief security officer, and provide clear information security policies and procedures for employees working in and outside of the workplace. Invite employees to get involved. Form a data security committee that includes representatives from all areas including IT, human resources, compliance, legal and communications. Provide regular information security training where employees learn best practices for protecting confidential information. At every opportunity, emphasize the responsibility of employees to protect confidential information and company information. This includes all entrance and exit interviews. Also, every employee should acknowledge that they are aware of security policies and procedures. Provide all of the latest and best IT support such as data loss prevention, encryption, etc. Schedule regular information security audits to identity problem areas – and solutions. Implement information management protocols that include secure document destruction. When information is no longer needed, have documents – paper and electronic – destroyed by your shredding company. Introduce a shred-all policy. This will simplify information management and remove the responsibility of deciding if a document is confidential or not, from employees. All documents are deposited into locked consoles and then securely shredded on site. Partner with like-minded companies that are equally committed to data protection.
- #25 WORKPLACE INSPECTIONS Workplace inspections help prevent injuries and illnesses. Through critical examination of the workplace, inspections identify and record hazards for corrective action. Joint occupational health and safety committees can help plan, conduct, report and monitor inspections. Regular workplace inspections are an important part of the overall occupational health and safety program. As an essential part of a health and safety program, workplaces should be inspected. Inspections are important as they allow you to – listen to the concerns of workers and supervisors gain further understanding of jobs and tasks identify existing and potential hazards determine underlying causes of hazards monitor hazard controls (personal protective equipment, engineering controls, policies, procedures) recommend corrective action. Every inspection must examine who, what, where, when and how. Pay particular attention to items most likely to develop unsafe or unhealthy conditions because of stress, wear, impact, vibration, heat, corrosion, chemical reaction or misuse. Inspect the entire workplace area each time. Include areas where no work is done regularly, such as parking lots, rest areas, office storage areas and locker rooms. Look at all workplace elements - the environment, the equipment and the process. The environment includes such hazards as noise, vibration, lighting, temperature, and ventilation. Equipment includes materials, tools and apparatus for producing a product or a service. The process involves how the worker interacts with the other elements in a series of tasks or operations. When conducting inspections, follow these basic principles – Draw attention to the presence of any immediate danger - other items can await the final report. Shut down and “lock out” any hazardous items that cannot be brought to a safe operating standard until repaired. Do not operate equipment. Ask the operator for a demonstration. If the operator of any piece of equipment does not know what dangers may be present, this is cause for concern. Never ignore any item because you do not have knowledge to make an accurate judgment of safety. Look up, down, around and inside. Be methodical and thorough. Do not spoil the inspection with a “once-over-lightly” approach. Clearly describe each hazard and its exact location in your rough notes. Allow "on-the-spot" recording of all findings before they are forgotten. Record what you have or have not examined in case the inspection is interrupted. Ask questions, but do not unnecessarily disrupt work activities. This may interfere with efficient assessment of the job function and may also create a potentially hazardous situation. Consider the static (stop position) and dynamic (in motion) conditions of the item you are inspecting. If a machine is shut down, consider postponing the inspection until it is functioning again. Discuss as a group, "Can any problem, hazard or accident generate from this situation when looking at the equipment, the process or the environment?" Determine what corrections or controls are appropriate. Do not try to detect all hazards simply by relying on your senses or by looking at them during the inspection. You may have to monitor equipment to measure the levels of exposure to chemicals, noise, radiation or biological agents. Take a photograph if you are unable to clearly describe or sketch a particular situation. Inspections are conducted prior to use for the first time that day, the employee using the equipment must check the inspection log and determine if it has been inspected. Many pieces of equipment are used several times a day and they will only require the pre use inspections once on any given day. In cases where equipment is not used daily, a pre use inspection is not necessary until the day it is used.