Social research is the systematic analysis of research questions by using empirical methods (example: of asking, observing, analyzing data). Its aim is to make empirically grounded statements that can be generalized or to test such statements. Various aims can be pursued, ranging from an exact description of a phenomenon to its explanation or to the evaluation of an intervention or institution.
Read here a SAGE Whitepaper on Social Research and how this methodology can help in shaping your research into an erudite work.
On completing this chapter, you will be able to:
Describe alternative sources of evidence for nursing practice
Discuss Tradition, authority, Clinical experience, trail & error, assembled information,
Differentiate between Inductive & deductive reasoning
Explain disciplined research
On completing this chapter, you will be able to:
Describe alternative sources of evidence for nursing practice
Discuss Tradition, authority, Clinical experience, trail & error, assembled information,
Differentiate between Inductive & deductive reasoning
Explain disciplined research
This is the presentation by Dr. Padmal De Silva - Head of the Research Unit, National Institute of Health Sciences, Sri Lanka done on the inauguration of Medical Research Consortium. http://learnent.net/research-symposium-dgh-hambantota/
Post-Conference (Mangalore Physiocon 2022) Workshop titled, "Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methods: Statistical Software Based Training: Part-2" conducted by, Prof. (Dr.) Asir John Samuel, PhD, MPT at Institute of Physiotherapy, Srinivas University, Mangalore, Karnataka on 27th and 28th March, 2022
Post-Conference (Mangalore Physiocon 2022) Workshop titled, "Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methods: Statistical Software Based Training: Part-1" conducted by, Prof. (Dr.) Asir John Samuel, PhD, MPT at Institute of Physiotherapy, Srinivas University, Mangalore, Karnataka on 27th and 28th March, 2022
OverviewAs a social science student, it is vitally important t.docxkarlhennesey
Overview
As a social science student, it is vitally important that you become an educated consumer of social science research, even if you never get to conduct an actual research study.
You need to have a basic understanding of the steps in the scientific process, a familiarity with commonly used social science research designs and methods, and a knowledge of procedures for collecting and analyzing social science data.
This module provides very basic information about these topics. It addresses the following subjects:
· the scientific method
· qualitative and quantitative research
· data analysis and presentation
· discipline-specific research designs and methods The Scientific Method
The scientific method is a form of inquiry that was originally developed to answer questions in the natural sciences. The scientific method uses systematic observation and measurement to confirm or disconfirm hypotheses that most often are derived from underlying theories.
When a hypothesis is confirmed, it lends support to the underlying theory. When it is not confirmed, researchers must reformulate the theory and come up with other explanations. Scientists share their findings by presenting at conferences or publishing in peer-reviewed journals. Sharing results with the research world is an important part of the scientific method because science is an iterative activity.
As social scientists, we have a great challenge. Because we cannot exert complete control over human behavior, it is not possible to conduct true experiments. Real life cannot be captured in a lab, and human behavior cannot be explained by one or even two causes. This makes it difficult to determine "cause and effect." For example, if we are interested in knowing why poor people have compromised health outcomes, we would need to account for an impossibly large number of factors or variables such as race, ethnicity, genetic markers, income, education level, access to health care services, and living conditions.
Steps for Conducting a Research Study
Figure 4.1
Steps for Conducting a Research Study
Source: UMUC PSYC 100.
The use of the scientific method allows researchers to develop explanations of social science phenomena. The steps of the research process are explained from a psychological perspective in this tutorial (Bradley, 2000).
Step 1: Make an Observation
The starting place for any research study is an observation (idea) regarding a topic of interest to you, the researcher. It may come from a conversation with a friend, a book or television program, or the conclusion of a related research project. All that is needed at this point is your interest in pursuing the topic further.
Let's take an example that we will use for all of the steps in the process. You observe that you are able to memorize items such as telephone numbers better when you eat candy. Because of this, you wonder if there is a connection between the primary component of candy (sugar) and memory.
Step 2: Propose a Hypoth ...
This is the presentation by Dr. Padmal De Silva - Head of the Research Unit, National Institute of Health Sciences, Sri Lanka done on the inauguration of Medical Research Consortium. http://learnent.net/research-symposium-dgh-hambantota/
Post-Conference (Mangalore Physiocon 2022) Workshop titled, "Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methods: Statistical Software Based Training: Part-2" conducted by, Prof. (Dr.) Asir John Samuel, PhD, MPT at Institute of Physiotherapy, Srinivas University, Mangalore, Karnataka on 27th and 28th March, 2022
Post-Conference (Mangalore Physiocon 2022) Workshop titled, "Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methods: Statistical Software Based Training: Part-1" conducted by, Prof. (Dr.) Asir John Samuel, PhD, MPT at Institute of Physiotherapy, Srinivas University, Mangalore, Karnataka on 27th and 28th March, 2022
OverviewAs a social science student, it is vitally important t.docxkarlhennesey
Overview
As a social science student, it is vitally important that you become an educated consumer of social science research, even if you never get to conduct an actual research study.
You need to have a basic understanding of the steps in the scientific process, a familiarity with commonly used social science research designs and methods, and a knowledge of procedures for collecting and analyzing social science data.
This module provides very basic information about these topics. It addresses the following subjects:
· the scientific method
· qualitative and quantitative research
· data analysis and presentation
· discipline-specific research designs and methods The Scientific Method
The scientific method is a form of inquiry that was originally developed to answer questions in the natural sciences. The scientific method uses systematic observation and measurement to confirm or disconfirm hypotheses that most often are derived from underlying theories.
When a hypothesis is confirmed, it lends support to the underlying theory. When it is not confirmed, researchers must reformulate the theory and come up with other explanations. Scientists share their findings by presenting at conferences or publishing in peer-reviewed journals. Sharing results with the research world is an important part of the scientific method because science is an iterative activity.
As social scientists, we have a great challenge. Because we cannot exert complete control over human behavior, it is not possible to conduct true experiments. Real life cannot be captured in a lab, and human behavior cannot be explained by one or even two causes. This makes it difficult to determine "cause and effect." For example, if we are interested in knowing why poor people have compromised health outcomes, we would need to account for an impossibly large number of factors or variables such as race, ethnicity, genetic markers, income, education level, access to health care services, and living conditions.
Steps for Conducting a Research Study
Figure 4.1
Steps for Conducting a Research Study
Source: UMUC PSYC 100.
The use of the scientific method allows researchers to develop explanations of social science phenomena. The steps of the research process are explained from a psychological perspective in this tutorial (Bradley, 2000).
Step 1: Make an Observation
The starting place for any research study is an observation (idea) regarding a topic of interest to you, the researcher. It may come from a conversation with a friend, a book or television program, or the conclusion of a related research project. All that is needed at this point is your interest in pursuing the topic further.
Let's take an example that we will use for all of the steps in the process. You observe that you are able to memorize items such as telephone numbers better when you eat candy. Because of this, you wonder if there is a connection between the primary component of candy (sugar) and memory.
Step 2: Propose a Hypoth ...
TYPES OF RESEARCH _ DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESEARCH.pdfMatiullahjan3
What is fundamental research?
What is applied research?
What is action research?
What is Qualitative Research?
What is Descriptive Research?
What is Correlation Research?
What is Experimental Research?
What is Quasi Experimental research?
What is Quantitative Research?
What is Historical Research?
What is Ethnographic Research?
What is Phenomenological Research?
What is Narrative Research?
What is Exploratory research?
What is Explanatory Research?
What is Case study research?
What is Survey Research?
perfect negative correlation
perfect positive correlation
an independent variable
dependent variable
Use the Capella library to locate two psychology research articles.docxdickonsondorris
Use the Capella library to locate two psychology research articles: a quantitative methods article and a qualitative methods article. These do not need to be on the same topic, but if you have a research topic in mind for your proposal (see Assessment 5), you may wish to pick something similar for this assessment. Read each article carefully.
Then, in a 2–3-page assessment, address the following elements:
1 Summarize the research question and hypothesis, the research methods, and the overall findings.
2 Compare the research methodologies used in each study. In what ways are the methodologies similar? In what ways are they different? (Be sure to use the technical psychological terms we are studying.)
3 Describe the sample and sample size for each study. Which one used a larger sample and why? How were participants selected?
4 Describe the data collection process for each study. What methods were used to collect the data? Surveys? Observations? Interviews? Be specific and discuss the instruments or measures fully—what do they measure? How is the test designed?
5 Summarize the data analysis process for each study. How was the data analyzed? Were statistics used? Were interviews coded?
6 In conclusion, craft 1–2 paragraphs explaining how these two articles illustrate the main differences between quantitative and qualitative research.
Additional Requirements
· Written communication: Written communication should be free of errors that detract from the overall message.
· APA formatting: Your assessment should be formatted according to APA (6th ed.) style and formatting.
· Length: A typical response will be 2–3 typed and double-spaced pages.
Font and font size: Times New Roman, 12 point.
Research Methods
There are many different types of research studies, and the type of study that is done depends very much on the research question. Some studies demand strictly numerical data, such as a comparison of GPA among different college majors or weight loss among different types of eating programs. Others require more in-depth data, like interview responses. Such studies might include the lived experience of people that have been through a terrorist attack or understanding the experience of being physically disabled on a college campus. While there are a number of different types of studies that can be done, all of them fall under two basic categories: quantitative and qualitative.
Quantitative Research
Quantitative research deals with numerical data. This means that any topic you study in a quantitative study must be quantifiable—grades, weight, height, depression, and intelligence are all things that can be quantified on some scale of measurement. Quantitative data is often considered hard data—numbers are seen as concrete, irrefutable evidence, but we have to take into account a number of factors that could impact such data. Errors in measurement and recording of such data, as well as the influence of other factors outside those in the study, make for ...
A primary goal of mental health education is to increase awareness. This involves teaching children what mental health means, and how to maintain positive mental health. It is vital that youth understand the concept of self-care and that they are responsible for their own mental health.
1 S o c i o l o g i s t s d o i n g R e s e a r c h .docxcroftsshanon
1 | S o c i o l o g i s t s d o i n g R e s e a r c h
Sociologists doing Research
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter you will be able to do the following.
Explain the steps in the research process.
Define and identify dependent and independent variables.
Explain sampling.
Calculate the mean, median, and mode of data.
Identify levels of measurement of variables.
Analyze ethical concerns in research.
One of the most remarkable traits that August Comte mandated for Sociology was a core of
scientific rigor. He proposed the concept of positivism which is the scientifically-based
sociological research that uses scientific tools such as survey, sampling, objective
measurement, and cultural and historical analysis to study and understand society. Although
the current definition of positivism expands far beyond Comte’s original vision, sociological
scientific methodology is used by government and industry researchers and across higher
education and the private sector. Comte was originally interested in social statistics, why
societies remain the same, and social dynamics, why societies change. Most sociological
research today falls within these broad categories. Sociologists strive for objectivity, which
is the ability to study and observe without distortion or bias, especially personal bias. Bias-
free research is an ideal that, which if not present, could open the door to extreme
misinterpretation of research findings.
Sociology is both different from and similar to other scientific principles. It differs from
chemistry, biology, and physics in that sociology does not manipulate the physical
environment using established natural science theories and principles. It is similar to
chemistry, biology, and physics in that statistical principles guide the discovery and
confirmation of data findings. Yet, sociology has no universally social laws that resemble
gravity or the speed of light, as other scientific methods do. This is because chemistry,
biology, and physics have the luxury of studying phenomena which are acted upon by laws
of nature. Sociologists study people, groups, communities, and societies which are
comprised of agents, people who use their agency to make choices based on their varied
motivations.1
THE RESEARCH PROCESS2
Problem Recognition & DefinitionResearchers start with a question such as “What do I want
to know?”; “What is important for society to know?”; or “Why does this occur?”
Unfortunately some questions cannot be answered, such as “How many angels can dance
on the head of a pin?” Even though many would like to know the answer to this question, it
cannot be empirically observed; that is it cannot be perceived through one of the five
senses—sight, taste, touch, hearing or smell. After a researcher decides on what question
they want to answer they must state their goals and objectives. Do they want to determine
if religious service attendance causes couples to ha.
1 S o c i o l o g i s t s d o i n g R e s e a r c h .docxjeremylockett77
1 | S o c i o l o g i s t s d o i n g R e s e a r c h
Sociologists doing Research
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter you will be able to do the following.
Explain the steps in the research process.
Define and identify dependent and independent variables.
Explain sampling.
Calculate the mean, median, and mode of data.
Identify levels of measurement of variables.
Analyze ethical concerns in research.
One of the most remarkable traits that August Comte mandated for Sociology was a core of
scientific rigor. He proposed the concept of positivism which is the scientifically-based
sociological research that uses scientific tools such as survey, sampling, objective
measurement, and cultural and historical analysis to study and understand society. Although
the current definition of positivism expands far beyond Comte’s original vision, sociological
scientific methodology is used by government and industry researchers and across higher
education and the private sector. Comte was originally interested in social statistics, why
societies remain the same, and social dynamics, why societies change. Most sociological
research today falls within these broad categories. Sociologists strive for objectivity, which
is the ability to study and observe without distortion or bias, especially personal bias. Bias-
free research is an ideal that, which if not present, could open the door to extreme
misinterpretation of research findings.
Sociology is both different from and similar to other scientific principles. It differs from
chemistry, biology, and physics in that sociology does not manipulate the physical
environment using established natural science theories and principles. It is similar to
chemistry, biology, and physics in that statistical principles guide the discovery and
confirmation of data findings. Yet, sociology has no universally social laws that resemble
gravity or the speed of light, as other scientific methods do. This is because chemistry,
biology, and physics have the luxury of studying phenomena which are acted upon by laws
of nature. Sociologists study people, groups, communities, and societies which are
comprised of agents, people who use their agency to make choices based on their varied
motivations.1
THE RESEARCH PROCESS2
Problem Recognition & DefinitionResearchers start with a question such as “What do I want
to know?”; “What is important for society to know?”; or “Why does this occur?”
Unfortunately some questions cannot be answered, such as “How many angels can dance
on the head of a pin?” Even though many would like to know the answer to this question, it
cannot be empirically observed; that is it cannot be perceived through one of the five
senses—sight, taste, touch, hearing or smell. After a researcher decides on what question
they want to answer they must state their goals and objectives. Do they want to determine
if religious service attendance causes couples to ha ...
2.1 Approaches to Sociological ResearchDerived from Approaches t.docxvickeryr87
2.1 Approaches to Sociological Research
Derived from Approaches to Sociological Research by OpenStax
Get This Book!
Page by: OpenStax
Summary
· Define and describe the scientific method
· Explain how the scientific method is used in sociological research
· Understand the function and importance of an interpretive framework
· Define what reliability and validity mean in a research study
When sociologists apply the sociological perspective and begin to ask questions, no topic is off limits. Every aspect of human behavior is a source of possible investigation. Sociologists question the world that humans have created and live in. They notice patterns of behavior as people move through that world. Using sociological methods and systematic research within the framework of the scientific method and a scholarly interpretive perspective, sociologists have discovered workplace patterns that have transformed industries, family patterns that have enlightened family members, and education patterns that have aided structural changes in classrooms.
The crime during a full moon discussion put forth a few loosely stated opinions. If the human behaviors around those claims were tested systematically, a police officer, for example, could write a report and offer the findings to sociologists and the world in general. The new perspective could help people understand themselves and their neighbors and help people make better decisions about their lives. It might seem strange to use scientific practices to study social trends, but, as we shall see, it’s extremely helpful to rely on systematic approaches that research methods provide.
Sociologists often begin the research process by asking a question about how or why things happen in this world. It might be a unique question about a new trend or an old question about a common aspect of life. Once the sociologist forms the question, he or she proceeds through an in-depth process to answer it. In deciding how to design that process, the researcher may adopt a scientific approach or an interpretive framework. The following sections describe these approaches to knowledge.
The Scientific Method
Sociologists make use of tried and true methods of research, such as experiments, surveys, and field research. But humans and their social interactions are so diverse that these interactions can seem impossible to chart or explain. It might seem that science is about discoveries and chemical reactions or about proving ideas right or wrong rather than about exploring the nuances of human behavior.
However, this is exactly why scientific models work for studying human behavior. A scientific process of research establishes parameters that help make sure results are objective and accurate. Scientific methods provide limitations and boundaries that focus a study and organize its results.
The scientific method involves developing and testing theories about the world based on empirical evidence. It is defined by its commitment to system.
Levelwise PageRank with Loop-Based Dead End Handling Strategy : SHORT REPORT ...Subhajit Sahu
Abstract — Levelwise PageRank is an alternative method of PageRank computation which decomposes the input graph into a directed acyclic block-graph of strongly connected components, and processes them in topological order, one level at a time. This enables calculation for ranks in a distributed fashion without per-iteration communication, unlike the standard method where all vertices are processed in each iteration. It however comes with a precondition of the absence of dead ends in the input graph. Here, the native non-distributed performance of Levelwise PageRank was compared against Monolithic PageRank on a CPU as well as a GPU. To ensure a fair comparison, Monolithic PageRank was also performed on a graph where vertices were split by components. Results indicate that Levelwise PageRank is about as fast as Monolithic PageRank on the CPU, but quite a bit slower on the GPU. Slowdown on the GPU is likely caused by a large submission of small workloads, and expected to be non-issue when the computation is performed on massive graphs.
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Empowering the Data Analytics Ecosystem: A Laser Focus on Value
The data analytics ecosystem thrives when every component functions at its peak, unlocking the true potential of data. Here's a laser focus on key areas for an empowered ecosystem:
1. Democratize Access, Not Data:
Granular Access Controls: Provide users with self-service tools tailored to their specific needs, preventing data overload and misuse.
Data Catalogs: Implement robust data catalogs for easy discovery and understanding of available data sources.
2. Foster Collaboration with Clear Roles:
Data Mesh Architecture: Break down data silos by creating a distributed data ownership model with clear ownership and responsibilities.
Collaborative Workspaces: Utilize interactive platforms where data scientists, analysts, and domain experts can work seamlessly together.
3. Leverage Advanced Analytics Strategically:
AI-powered Automation: Automate repetitive tasks like data cleaning and feature engineering, freeing up data talent for higher-level analysis.
Right-Tool Selection: Strategically choose the most effective advanced analytics techniques (e.g., AI, ML) based on specific business problems.
4. Prioritize Data Quality with Automation:
Automated Data Validation: Implement automated data quality checks to identify and rectify errors at the source, minimizing downstream issues.
Data Lineage Tracking: Track the flow of data throughout the ecosystem, ensuring transparency and facilitating root cause analysis for errors.
5. Cultivate a Data-Driven Mindset:
Metrics-Driven Performance Management: Align KPIs and performance metrics with data-driven insights to ensure actionable decision making.
Data Storytelling Workshops: Equip stakeholders with the skills to translate complex data findings into compelling narratives that drive action.
Benefits of a Precise Ecosystem:
Sharpened Focus: Precise access and clear roles ensure everyone works with the most relevant data, maximizing efficiency.
Actionable Insights: Strategic analytics and automated quality checks lead to more reliable and actionable data insights.
Continuous Improvement: Data-driven performance management fosters a culture of learning and continuous improvement.
Sustainable Growth: Empowered by data, organizations can make informed decisions to drive sustainable growth and innovation.
By focusing on these precise actions, organizations can create an empowered data analytics ecosystem that delivers real value by driving data-driven decisions and maximizing the return on their data investment.
3. WHY SOCIAL RESEARCH?
OVERVIEW
• What is Social Research?
• The Tasks of Social Research
• What Can You Achieve with Social
Research?
What is Social Research?
Increasingly, science and research – their approaches and results – inform public life.
They help to provide a basis for political and practical decision-making. This applies
across the range of sciences – not only to natural science and medicine, but to social
science too. Our first task here is to clarify what is distinctive about social research.
Everyday life and science
Many of the issues and phenomena with which social research engages also play a role in
everyday life. Consider, for example, one issue that is obviously highly rel-evant to
everyday life, namely health. For the most part, health becomes an explicit issue in
everyday life only when health-related problems occur or are threatening individuals.
Symptoms produce an urge to react and we start to look for solutions, causes and
explanations. If necessary, we may go to see a doctor and maybe end up changing our
habits and behaviors – for example, by taking more exercise.
This search for causes and explanations, and people’s own experiences, often lead to the
development of everyday theories (for example: ‘An apple a day keeps the doctor away’).
Such theories are not necessarily spelled out explicitly: they often remain implicit. The
question of whether everyday explanations and theories are correct or not is usually
tested pragmatically: do they contribute to solving problems and reducing symptoms or
not? If such knowledge allows the problem at hand to be solved, it has fulfilled its
purpose. Then it is not relevant whether such explana-tions apply to other people or in
general. In this context, scientific knowledge (for example, that smoking increases the
risk of cancer) is often picked up from the media.
01_Flick_IRM_Bab1410b0226_Ch-01_Part-I.indd 3 4/5/2016 10:11:32 AM
4. ORIENTATION
Health, health problems and how people deal with them constitute issues for social
research too. But in social science we take a different approach. Analysis of problems is
foregrounded and study becomes more systematic. This aims at break-ing up routines in
order to prevent harmful behaviors – for example, the relation between specific
behaviors (like smoking) and specific health problems (such as the likelihood of falling
ill with cancer). To achieve such an aim, we need to create a situation free of pressure to
act. For example, you will plan a longer period for analyzing the problem, without the
pressure of immediately finding a solution for it. Here, knowledge results not from
intuition, but from the examination of scientific theories. The development of such
theories involves a process of explicitly spelling out and testing relations, which is based
on using research methods (like a system-atic review of the literature or a survey). For
both aims – the developing and testing of theories – the methods of social research are
used. The resulting knowledge is abstracted from the concrete example and further
developed in the direction of general relations. Unlike in everyday life, here the
generalization of knowledge is more important than solving a concrete problem in the
particular case. Scientific research is more and more confronted with the expectation
that its results have an impact on the field that is studied or on the way a society deals
with an issue or (social) problem (see Chandler 2013; Denicolo 2013).
Everyday knowledge and problem-solving can of course become the starting
points for theory development and empirical research. We may ask, for example,
which types of everyday explanations for a specific disease can be identified in
interviews with patients.
Table 1.2 presents the differences between everyday knowledge and practices on the
one hand, and science and research on the other. It does so on three levels, namely (1)
the context of knowledge development, (2) the ways of developing knowledge and
the state of the knowledge which is produced, and (3) the mutual relations between
everyday knowledge and science.
What, then, characterizes social research in dealing with such issues? Here we may
itemize a number of characteristics, each of which is explored further in this book.
They are:
• Social research approaches issues in a systematic and above all empirical way.
• For this purpose, you will develop research questions (see Chapter 4).
• For answering these questions, you will collect and analyze data.
• You will collect and analyze these data by using research methods (see Chapters
9 and 10).
• The results are intended to be generalized beyond the examples (cases, samples,
etc.) that were studied (see Chapter 13).
• From the systematic use of research methods and their results, you will derive
descriptions or explanations of the phenomena you study.
• For a systematic approach, time, freedom and (other) resources are necessary
(see Chapter 6).
01_Flick_IRM_Bab1410b0226_Ch-01_Part-I.indd 4 4/5/2016 10:11:33 AM
5. WHY SOCIAL RESEARCH?
TABLE 1.2 Everyday knowledge and science
Everyday knowledge and practices Science and research
Context of
knowledge
(production)
Pressure to act
Solving of problems is the
priority:
• routines are not put to
question
• reflection in case of practical
problems
Relief from a pressure to act
Analyzing of problems is the
priority:
• systematic analysis
• routines are put to
question and broken
down
Ways of
knowledge
(production)
Intuition
Implicit development of theories
Experience-driven development
of theories Pragmatic testing of
theories
Check of solutions for problems
Use of scientific theories
Explicit development of theories
Methods-driven development of
theories Methods-based testing
of theories
Use of research methods
Concrete, referring to the particular
situations
Abstract and generalizingState of
knowledge
Role of
knowledge
Relation of
everyday
knowledge and
science
Understanding and maybe
problem-solving in concrete
contexts and situations
Everyday knowledge can be used
as a starting point for theory
development and empirical
research
Impact on social or societal
problems and their solution
Everyday knowledge is
increasingly influenced by
scientific theories and results
of research
As we shall see, there are different ways of doing social research. First, though, we can
develop a preliminary general definition of social research derived from our discussion
so far (see Box 1.1).
BOX 1.1
Definition of social research
Social research is the systematic analysis of research questions by using empirical methods
(e.g. of asking, observing, analyzing data). Its aim is to make empirically grounded statements
that can be generalized or to test such statements. Various approaches can be distinguished
as can a number of fields of application (health, education, poverty, etc.). Various aims can
be pursued, ranging from an exact description of a phe-nomenon to its explanation or to the
evaluation of an intervention or institution.
01_Flick_IRM_Bab1410b0226_Ch-01_Part-I.indd 5 4/5/2016 10:11:33 AM
6. ORIENTATION
The Tasks of Social Research
We can distinguish three main tasks for social research. To do so, we use the crite-rion of
how the results of social research may be used.
Knowledge: description, understanding and explanation of
phenomena
A central task of social research originates from scientific interests, which means that the
production of knowledge is prioritized. Once a new phenomenon, such as a new disease,
arises, a detailed description of its features (symptoms, progression, frequency, etc.) on the
basis of data and their analysis becomes necessary. The first step can be a detailed description
of the circumstances under which it occurs or an analysis of the subjective experiences of the
patients. This will help us to understand the contexts, effects and meanings of the disease.
Later, we can look for concrete explanations and test which factors trigger the symptoms or the
disease, which circumstances or medica-tions have specific influences on its course, etc. For
these three steps – (a) description, (b) understanding and (c) explanation – the scientific
interest in new knowledge is dominant. Such research contributes to basic research in that
area. Here, science and scientists remain the target group for the research and its results.
Practice-oriented research: applied and participative research
Increasingly, social research is being conducted in practical contexts such as hospi-tals and
schools. Here, research questions focus on practices – those of teachers, nurses or
physicians – in institutions. Or they focus on the specific conditions of work in these
institutions – routines in the hospital or teacher–student relations, for example. The results
of applied research of this kind are also produced according to rules of scientific analysis.
However, they should become relevant for the practice field and for the solution of
problems in practice.
A special case here is participatory action research. Here, the changes initiated by the
researcher in the field of study do not come only after the end of the study and the
communication of its results. The intention is rather to initiate change during the process of
research and by the very fact that the study is being done. Take, for example, a study
of nursing with migrants. A participatory action research study would not set out merely
to describe the everyday routines of nursing with migrants. Rather, it would initiate the
process of research immediately in those everyday rou-tines. It would then feed back to
participants the information gathered in the research process.
This changes the relationship between researcher and participant. A relation which is
usually monologic in traditional research (e.g. the interviewees unfold
01_Flick_IRM_Bab1410b0226_Ch-01_Part-I.indd 6 4/5/2016 10:11:33 AM
7. WHY SOCIAL RESEARCH?
their views, the researchers listen) becomes dialogic (the interviewees unfold their views,
the researchers listen and make suggestions for how to change the situa-tion). A
subject–object relation turns into a relation between two subjects – the researcher and
the participant. The evaluation of the research and its results is no longer focused solely
on the usual scientific criteria (as will be discussed in Chapter 13). Rather, the
question of the usefulness of the research and its results for the participant becomes a
main criterion. Research is no longer just a knowl-edge process for the researchers, but
rather a process of knowledge, learning and change on both sides.
Basis for political and practical decisions
Since the middle of the twentieth century, social research has become more
important as a basis for decisions in practical and political contexts. In most countries,
regular surveys in various areas are common practice; reports on health, on pov-erty
and on the situation of the elderly and of youth and children are
produced, often commissioned by government. In many cases, such monitoring
does not involve extra research, but rather summarizes existing research and results
in the field. But, as the PISA studies or the HBSC study (Hurrelmann et al. 2003)
show, in areas like health, education and youth, additional studies do sometimes contrib-
ute to the basis of these reports. In the HBSC study, representative data about 11-
to 15-year-old adolescents in the population are collected. At the same time, case
studies with purposefully selected cases are included. Where data from
representative studies are not available or cannot be expected, sometimes only case
studies provide the data basis.
In many areas, decisions about establishing, prolonging or continuing services,
programs or institutions are based on evaluations of existing examples or experi-mental
programs. Here, social research not only provides data and results as a basis for decisions,
but also makes assessments and evaluations – by, for example, exam-ining whether one
type of school is more successful in reaching its goals than a different type. Therefore,
the potential for implementation of research results, and more generally the impact of
research beyond academia, become more important. Chandler (2013, p. 3) states:
The context within which that impact takes place is broad beyond academia in
the realms of society, economy, public policy or services, health, the envi-ronment
or quality of life. The outcomes or indicators of impact encompass the
individual, community or global levels and are the application of new
knowledge or understanding in the development of policy, creation of
products or services.
Table 1.3 summarizes the tasks and research areas of social research outlined above,
using the context of health as an example.
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8. ORIENTATION
TABLE 1.3 Tasks and research areas of social research
Research area Features Aims Example Studies refer to
Basic research Development or
testing of
theories
General statements
without a specific link
to practices
Trust in social
relationships
Random sample of students
or unspecific groups
Applied
research
Development or
testing of
theories in
practical fields
Statements referring
to the particular field
Implementation of
results
Trust in doctor–
patient relations
Doctors and patients in a
specific field
Participatory
action research
Analyzing fields
and changing
them at the
same time
Intervention in the
field under study
Analysis and
improvement of
nursing for
migrants
Patients with a specific
ethnic background, for
example, who are (not
sufficiently) supported by
existing home care services
Evaluation Collection and
analysis of data
as a basis for
assessing the
success and
failure of an
intervention
Assessment of
institutional services
and changes
Improvement of
the trust
relations
between doctors
and patients in
a specific field
with better
information
Patients in a specific field
Health
monitoring
Documentation
of health-
related data
Stocktaking of
developments and
changes in the health
status of the
population
Frequencies of
occupational
diseases
Routine data of health
insurance
What Can You Achieve with Social Research?
In the areas just mentioned, we can use social research to:
• explore issues, fields and phenomena and provide first descriptions
• discover new relations by collecting and analyzing data
• provide empirical data and analyses as a basis for developing theories
• test existing theories and stocks of knowledge empirically
• document the effects of interventions, treatments, programs, etc. in an empirically
based way
• provide knowledge (i.e. data, analyses and results) as an empirically grounded
basis for political, administrative and practical decision-making.
What is social research unable to do and what can
you do with it?
Social research has its limits. For example, the aim of developing a single grand
theory to explain society and the phenomena within it, which also withstands
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9. WHY SOCIAL RESEARCH?
empirical testing, could not be achieved. And there is no one method for studying all relevant
phenomena. Moreover, social research cannot be relied upon to provide immediate solutions for
current, urgent problems. On all three levels, we have to rein in our expectations of social
research and pursue more realistic aims.
What we can aim to do is develop, and even test empirically, a number of theo-ries. They can be
used to explain certain social phenomena. We can also continue to develop a range of social
science methods. Researchers can then select the appropriate methods and apply them to the
problems they wish to study. Finally, social research provides knowledge about details and
relations, which can be employed to develop solutions for societal problems.
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10. About the
Author
Uwe Flick is Professor of Qualitative Research in Social Science and Education at the Free University of
Berlin, Germany. He is a trained psychologist and sociologist and received his PhD from the Free
University of Berlin in 1988 and his Habilitation from the Technical University of Berlin in 1994. He has
been Professor of Qualitative Research at Alice Salomon University of Applied Sciences in Berlin,
Germany and at the University of Vienna, Austria, where he continues to work as Guest Professor.
Previously, he was Adjunct Professor at the Memorial University of Newfoundland in St. John’s, Canada;
a Lecturer in research me thodology at the Free University of Berlin; a Reader and Assistant Professor in
qualitative methods and evaluation at the Technical University of Berlin; and Associate Professor and
Head of the Department of Medical Sociology at the Hannover Medical School. He has held visiting
appoint-ments at the London School of Economics, the Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales in
Paris, Cambridge University (UK), Memorial University of St John’s (Canada), University of Lisbon
(Portugal), Institute of Higher Studies in Vienna, in Italy and Sweden, and the School of Psychology at
Massey University, Auckland (New Zealand). His main research interests are qualitative methods, social
represen-tations in the fields of individual and public health, vulnerability in fields like youth
homelessness or migration, and technological change in everyday life. He is the author of Designing
Qualitative Research (Sage, 2007) and Managing Quality in Qualitative Research (Sage, 2007) and editor
of The SAGE Qualitative Research Kit (Sage, 2007), A Companion to Qualitative Research (Sage, 2004),
Psychology of the Social (Cambridge University Press, 1998), Quality of Life and Health: Concepts,
Methods and Applications (Blackwell Science, 1995) and La perception quotidienne de la Santé et la
Maladie: Théories subjectives et Représentations sociales (L’Harmattan, 1993). His most recent
publications are the fifth edition of An Introduction to Qualitative Research (Sage, 2014) and The SAGE
Handbook of Qualitative Data Analysis (editor, Sage, 2014).