This document summarizes a study on the sustainability of community-based tourism in Sri Lanka. The study examined two communities and their attitudes towards tourism development, commitment levels, and existing capacities. It found that while communities had positive attitudes towards tourism, other factors like community capacity and commitment could affect success. Empowering communities to benefit from tourism through income generation remains a challenge. The findings suggest a need to better understand community weaknesses and external impacts in order to improve approaches to community tourism development.
Promotion of Polycentric Settlement (Growth Centre) for Sustainable Developme...CrimsonpublishersCJMI
Promotion of Polycentric Settlement (Growth Centre) for Sustainable Development by Kabi Prasad Pokhrel in Cohesive Journal of Microbiology & Infectious Disease
This study examines the relationship between social capital and self-rated health in South Africa using data from the National Income Dynamics Study. Social capital is measured at both the individual and neighborhood levels, and includes variables like group participation, trust, and aggregated social capital variables. Mixed effects models are used to predict self-rated health outcomes based on social capital and other social determinants of health, while controlling for individual characteristics. The results indicate that individual personalised trust, community service group membership, and neighborhood personalised trust are associated with better self-rated health. The study concludes that both individual and neighborhood social capital impact health, and policymakers should consider ways to encourage social capital through policies addressing social determinants of health.
This document outlines the syllabus for a course on social planning approaches and issues. It includes:
1) An introduction to the course content which will explore social planning theory, history, and case studies of organizations.
2) Learning objectives which are to understand the theoretical foundations of social planning approaches and examine issues, debates, and methods in social planning practice.
3) Course requirements which include readings, short papers, and a case study presentation and report on a social planning organization.
This document discusses using metaphors as a tool for urban planning in Bangladesh. It provides historical context on Bangladesh's relationship with water, noting how water has shaped the country's development and human habitation patterns. It then discusses some challenges with current urban governance in Bangladesh, including a lack of coordination between various bodies in Dhaka and limited capacity and resources in secondary cities. The document proposes that planners could use metaphors derived from Bangladesh's history and culture to develop new planning models that better capture the human experience and complexity of urban environments.
The document discusses the Volunteer and Citizenship Program for Local Government Units in the Philippines. It aims to establish Volunteer and Citizenship Desks in local governments to better coordinate volunteers and promote citizenship. The program draws on theories of neorepublicanism and aims to give more citizens a voice in their communities. It also discusses using volunteerism to help the Philippines achieve its UN Millennium Development Goals by taking advantage of the large number of potential volunteers in the country.
This document discusses two-way causality between social capital and poverty in rural Indonesia. It analyzes data from two nationally representative datasets to show that social capital, defined as participation in social activities, positively affects household expenditure, a proxy for poverty. It also finds that factors like education, number of social organizations in a village, permanent market infrastructure, and home ownership determine social capital levels. The study aims to better understand this relationship to inform policies that can help reduce rural poverty through facilitating access to social capital for poor households.
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
This document summarizes a study on the sustainability of community-based tourism in Sri Lanka. The study examined two communities and their attitudes towards tourism development, commitment levels, and existing capacities. It found that while communities had positive attitudes towards tourism, other factors like community capacity and commitment could affect success. Empowering communities to benefit from tourism through income generation remains a challenge. The findings suggest a need to better understand community weaknesses and external impacts in order to improve approaches to community tourism development.
Promotion of Polycentric Settlement (Growth Centre) for Sustainable Developme...CrimsonpublishersCJMI
Promotion of Polycentric Settlement (Growth Centre) for Sustainable Development by Kabi Prasad Pokhrel in Cohesive Journal of Microbiology & Infectious Disease
This study examines the relationship between social capital and self-rated health in South Africa using data from the National Income Dynamics Study. Social capital is measured at both the individual and neighborhood levels, and includes variables like group participation, trust, and aggregated social capital variables. Mixed effects models are used to predict self-rated health outcomes based on social capital and other social determinants of health, while controlling for individual characteristics. The results indicate that individual personalised trust, community service group membership, and neighborhood personalised trust are associated with better self-rated health. The study concludes that both individual and neighborhood social capital impact health, and policymakers should consider ways to encourage social capital through policies addressing social determinants of health.
This document outlines the syllabus for a course on social planning approaches and issues. It includes:
1) An introduction to the course content which will explore social planning theory, history, and case studies of organizations.
2) Learning objectives which are to understand the theoretical foundations of social planning approaches and examine issues, debates, and methods in social planning practice.
3) Course requirements which include readings, short papers, and a case study presentation and report on a social planning organization.
This document discusses using metaphors as a tool for urban planning in Bangladesh. It provides historical context on Bangladesh's relationship with water, noting how water has shaped the country's development and human habitation patterns. It then discusses some challenges with current urban governance in Bangladesh, including a lack of coordination between various bodies in Dhaka and limited capacity and resources in secondary cities. The document proposes that planners could use metaphors derived from Bangladesh's history and culture to develop new planning models that better capture the human experience and complexity of urban environments.
The document discusses the Volunteer and Citizenship Program for Local Government Units in the Philippines. It aims to establish Volunteer and Citizenship Desks in local governments to better coordinate volunteers and promote citizenship. The program draws on theories of neorepublicanism and aims to give more citizens a voice in their communities. It also discusses using volunteerism to help the Philippines achieve its UN Millennium Development Goals by taking advantage of the large number of potential volunteers in the country.
This document discusses two-way causality between social capital and poverty in rural Indonesia. It analyzes data from two nationally representative datasets to show that social capital, defined as participation in social activities, positively affects household expenditure, a proxy for poverty. It also finds that factors like education, number of social organizations in a village, permanent market infrastructure, and home ownership determine social capital levels. The study aims to better understand this relationship to inform policies that can help reduce rural poverty through facilitating access to social capital for poor households.
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
This document discusses tools to support transparency in local urban governance. It notes the global trend of urbanization and challenges of increasing poverty, unsustainable development patterns, and limited local government capacity. New approaches emphasize good governance, local authorities as enablers, partnerships, and inclusiveness. Promising innovations need scaling up. Key ingredients for inclusive cities are good urban governance and tools that support principles like sustainability, equity and civic engagement. These include participatory budgeting, decision making, and local dialogues. Expected outcomes are more equitable services, accountability, legitimacy, and resources.
Urban governance refers to how government and stakeholders plan, finance, and manage urban areas. Effective urban governance depends on local institutions as well as the national framework. It involves continuous negotiation over resources and power. Key elements of effective urban governance include the relationship between city and national governments, municipal capacity to plan and manage growth, and inclusive political systems and institutions. Good urban governance promotes transparency, accountability, participation, and the rule of law. Factors contributing to improved urban governance are clear objectives, legal frameworks, decision-making processes, appropriate funding, cooperation between actors, and division of responsibilities.
Paper is an attempt to look at the Indian urban settlements in terms of their planning, designing, travel, buildings etc, identify problems they have and options which can be leveraged to make them more effective, efficient, livable, productive and sustainable
Participatory Rural Development in Nigeria An Assessment of the 3’I’s Initiat...YogeshIJTSRD
Genuine rural development in a developing society depend largely on the participation of the rural dwellers on the policy formulation and implementation, especially in the area of development project. The rural people play a vital role in the economic and political develop of the nation. In spite of the facts that the bulk of economic produce as well as vote come from the rural area but the development is nothing to write about because the rural people are not involved in the policy formulation and implementation by the pass administration in the state. Fapetu Oluwadamilola V | Siyaka Mohammed "Participatory Rural Development in Nigeria: An Assessment of the 3’I’s Initiatives in Ondo State" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-3 , April 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd38663.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/sociology/38663/participatory-rural-development-in-nigeria-an-assessment-of-the-3’i’s-initiatives-in-ondo-state/fapetu-oluwadamilola-v
Analyzing small town centralization effects on spatial organization of rural ...inventionjournals
ABSTRACT : Nowadays, unbalancing and inequality of spaces among urban and rural settlements are important subjects of economists and regional programmers. Existing economical divergence, development poles and dispersion of rural regions are the effects of this phenomenon.So accessing to balance and consistent expansion in regional space, establishing regular and ordered sequences are major needs and pay attention to small towns is one of the ways to equilibration this situation.The purpose of research is, studying influence Torqabeh & Shandiz cities on Zosh, Noqondar, Virani villages. The research is applied and method is descriptive –analytic and collecting data is done by documents-library. Indeed, has been studied the effect of centralization mentioned cities on villages. In order to, was used from network analyzed. On the other hand, was used from questioner tool. Finding shows, the relation between urban and rural area is parasitic theory.
This document discusses volunteerism in the Philippines. It provides definitions of key concepts related to volunteerism such as volunteers, volunteer service organizations, and the voluntary sector. It outlines the roles of volunteerism in different sectors including private sector, academe, and corporate. It discusses the mandate of PNVSCA, the government agency tasked with coordinating volunteer efforts, and challenges it faces in promoting volunteerism due to a lack of data and statistics. Sources of information on volunteerism in the Philippines are identified. The importance of generating data on volunteerism through efforts like a satellite account on non-profit institutions is emphasized to help measure the economic contribution of volunteers.
The Influence of Tourism Development on Life Quality in the Indigenous Tribeinventionjournals
The purpose of this study is to analyze the impact of tourism development on the quality of life of indigenous tribes. This study base on the Taiwan Alishan eight tribes aged over 18 indigenous people as the research object; carries on the investigation to the tribes of the proportion of households, a total of 776 effective questionnaires were collected. The effective questionnaires were analyzed by descriptive statistics, t test and one-way ANOVA, the results as follow as: 1. The results of the analysis show that that the impact of tourism development on the quality of life in the indigenous tribe, top is "I feel proud of our tribe" was the highest, the lowest of the top items is "residents dropping litter reduce". 2. In the analysis of the differences between different demographic variables, it was found that different genders do not affect the quality of life. However, other variables have an influence on the perception, includes: marital status, age, education level, occupation, personal month income, living tribe, and living tribe time. Based on the above findings, this study not only provides some suggestions for the development of indigenous tribes, but also proposes the direction for the development of tourism planning.
This document discusses a study on how urban 4-H youth programs can increase social capital and promote social justice. It provides background on key concepts of social capital and outlines a conceptual framework. The study used mixed methods, including surveys and interviews, to understand how 4-H youth build social connections and how educators empower youth. Survey results showed youth felt they could make a difference in their community but did not feel 4-H strongly contributed to interactions with different groups. Interviews with educators aimed to understand their perspectives on using social capital within positive youth development programs. The conclusion discusses integrating culturally relevant experiences to equip youth with networks and tools for social change.
Rural and urban communities differ in their characteristics. Rural communities typically have occupations related to agriculture, lower population densities, strong familial and community ties, and more traditional cultural values. Urban communities are centered around non-agricultural industries and services, have higher population densities, more social diversity and anonymity between residents, and cultures that value innovation and individualism more. As societies develop, rural-to-urban migration increases urban population and influences traditional rural social structures, lifestyles, and values.
Concept note for societies involvment in tourismhosting guests
Rural tourism development through cooperatives in Iran faces barriers. This document analyzes rural tourism potential in Iran and how rural cooperatives could help develop rural tourism by empowering individuals and communities. However, rural cooperatives in Iran currently have limited abilities and the government does not prioritize rural tourism development. Barriers to rural tourism through cooperatives include a lack of education, policy research, and advocacy for linking cooperatives to tourism opportunities.
Building Inclusive Cities: Planning Tools that promote the Right to the CityWellesley Institute
This presentation looks at the ways in which cities can be inclusive and examines interesting projects happening around the globe.
Carolyn Whitzman, Professor of Urban Planning
University of Melbourne
The document discusses the institutional support system developed in Istrian County, Croatia as a factor for regional development management. It describes how Istrian County established several development institutions like the Istrian Development Agency and Istrian Tourism Development Agency to support entrepreneurship and regional development. These institutions were created in response to insufficient national policies and a lack of coordinated regional planning. The system developed by Istrian County aims to foster sustainable development through knowledge sharing and collaboration between local government and other stakeholders.
IRJET - The Impact of Tourism on CitiesIRJET Journal
This document discusses the impacts of tourism on cities. It begins with an introduction to tourism and its various subtypes. It then reviews literature on topics like community-based tourism and the effects of industrialization on tourism.
The methodology section outlines the study's approach, which includes defining the problem, identifying the study area, conducting literature review, collecting and analyzing data, developing proposals, and stating results and conclusions.
Impacts of tourism are then analyzed in areas like the economy, society, culture, and environment. Both positive and negative impacts are discussed. Factors influencing interactions between tourists and the environment are also examined.
In conclusions, the study found that religious cities see more tourist flow than normal spots. Infrastructure
The village government has an substantial responsibility in managing human resources to produce regional economic benefits. This research aims to identify the stakeholder collaboration to support accountability in village fund management and rural development. This study used an interactive approach with data collection methods such as structured interviews, documentation, and observation. The object of the study is village officials in Pranggang Village,
Plosoklaten District, Kediri Regency, East Java Province. The results of the study showed that the village government has not optimally carried out its role in involving more stakeholders. Collaborative stakeholders in managing village funds involved village government officials, activity management team and
community. They play a positive role in bringing about village accountability in managing village funds. An increased community participation contribute to program evaluation activities and effectiveness in the village financial management. The accountability of the village funds utilization has met the
Home Affairs Ministerial Regulation number 113 of 2014. In addition, social accountability has been applied in various forms of effective interactions between the community and village government. Much efforts are required to improve the quality of human resources through more stakeholder engagement, training activity and community empowerment.
This document provides an overview of social inclusion in Nepal. It defines social inclusion, discusses its relation to SDGs and empowerment. It examines social inclusion globally and in Nepal's historical, political, economic, social, cultural, and gender contexts. Key efforts for social inclusion in Nepal include establishing commissions for indigenous groups, Dalits, women, and reservation policies. The constitution prohibits untouchability and guarantees rights to equality, health, women's rights and more.
Basic Features and Strategies of Women’s Empowerment of a Developing Urban Ar...ijtsrd
Women’s Empowerment is a holistic and sustainable goal for development of a society. They are the resources of family, society, community and nation. They are the greatest asset of an economy. Urbanization processes are not properly guided their roles in this society. Transformation of gender roles in urban contexts will require wider community involvement as well as administration. They are disadvantaged in income poverty, asset poverty, time and power. This paper is properly focused on features of empowerment of women in this society, their educational status, employment opportunities, social and economic status, as well as future strategies. Suchana Banerjee | Ayan Kumar Maity "Basic Features and Strategies of Women’s Empowerment of a Developing Urban Area – A Case Study of Memari Municipality, Purba Bardhaman, West Bengal, India" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-1 , December 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd38263.pdf Paper URL : https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/38263/basic-features-and-strategies-of-women’s-empowerment-of-a-developing-urban-area-– -a-case-study-of-memari-municipality-purba-bardhaman-west-bengal-india/suchana-banerjee
This document discusses social capital and its relationship to health. It defines social capital as the networks between people in a society that enable it to function, including trust, shared identities and norms. There are two types: cognitive social capital involving perceptions of trust, and structural involving social networks. Social capital is associated with better health through improved access to health information through social networks, receiving informal healthcare from others, and groups advocating for public health resources. However, social capital is difficult to measure uniformly and its relationship to health can run in both directions.
Community bassed Tourism Handbook by Potjana Suantsri, Thailand.David Vicent
The document discusses the principles and meaning of community-based tourism (CBT). It begins by outlining the underlying ideas of CBT, including how globalization is impacting local communities and how CBT can be a tool for community development. It then defines CBT, differentiates it from other forms of tourism like ecotourism and short visits, and discusses its key elements. Specifically, it notes that CBT aims to strengthen community participation and distribution of benefits to improve quality of life. It emphasizes that CBT must be developed and managed by the community to truly achieve its goals.
Community-based tourism ventures face challenges in marketing their rural tourism products similar to other rural producers. They depend on intermediaries like private companies, membership organizations, public institutions, and non-profits to facilitate market access. Each type of intermediary has strengths and weaknesses in terms of their marketing support capabilities. Instead of individual support strategies, combined approaches are needed depending on location, resources, and existing organizational structures.
This document discusses tools to support transparency in local urban governance. It notes the global trend of urbanization and challenges of increasing poverty, unsustainable development patterns, and limited local government capacity. New approaches emphasize good governance, local authorities as enablers, partnerships, and inclusiveness. Promising innovations need scaling up. Key ingredients for inclusive cities are good urban governance and tools that support principles like sustainability, equity and civic engagement. These include participatory budgeting, decision making, and local dialogues. Expected outcomes are more equitable services, accountability, legitimacy, and resources.
Urban governance refers to how government and stakeholders plan, finance, and manage urban areas. Effective urban governance depends on local institutions as well as the national framework. It involves continuous negotiation over resources and power. Key elements of effective urban governance include the relationship between city and national governments, municipal capacity to plan and manage growth, and inclusive political systems and institutions. Good urban governance promotes transparency, accountability, participation, and the rule of law. Factors contributing to improved urban governance are clear objectives, legal frameworks, decision-making processes, appropriate funding, cooperation between actors, and division of responsibilities.
Paper is an attempt to look at the Indian urban settlements in terms of their planning, designing, travel, buildings etc, identify problems they have and options which can be leveraged to make them more effective, efficient, livable, productive and sustainable
Participatory Rural Development in Nigeria An Assessment of the 3’I’s Initiat...YogeshIJTSRD
Genuine rural development in a developing society depend largely on the participation of the rural dwellers on the policy formulation and implementation, especially in the area of development project. The rural people play a vital role in the economic and political develop of the nation. In spite of the facts that the bulk of economic produce as well as vote come from the rural area but the development is nothing to write about because the rural people are not involved in the policy formulation and implementation by the pass administration in the state. Fapetu Oluwadamilola V | Siyaka Mohammed "Participatory Rural Development in Nigeria: An Assessment of the 3’I’s Initiatives in Ondo State" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-3 , April 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd38663.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/sociology/38663/participatory-rural-development-in-nigeria-an-assessment-of-the-3’i’s-initiatives-in-ondo-state/fapetu-oluwadamilola-v
Analyzing small town centralization effects on spatial organization of rural ...inventionjournals
ABSTRACT : Nowadays, unbalancing and inequality of spaces among urban and rural settlements are important subjects of economists and regional programmers. Existing economical divergence, development poles and dispersion of rural regions are the effects of this phenomenon.So accessing to balance and consistent expansion in regional space, establishing regular and ordered sequences are major needs and pay attention to small towns is one of the ways to equilibration this situation.The purpose of research is, studying influence Torqabeh & Shandiz cities on Zosh, Noqondar, Virani villages. The research is applied and method is descriptive –analytic and collecting data is done by documents-library. Indeed, has been studied the effect of centralization mentioned cities on villages. In order to, was used from network analyzed. On the other hand, was used from questioner tool. Finding shows, the relation between urban and rural area is parasitic theory.
This document discusses volunteerism in the Philippines. It provides definitions of key concepts related to volunteerism such as volunteers, volunteer service organizations, and the voluntary sector. It outlines the roles of volunteerism in different sectors including private sector, academe, and corporate. It discusses the mandate of PNVSCA, the government agency tasked with coordinating volunteer efforts, and challenges it faces in promoting volunteerism due to a lack of data and statistics. Sources of information on volunteerism in the Philippines are identified. The importance of generating data on volunteerism through efforts like a satellite account on non-profit institutions is emphasized to help measure the economic contribution of volunteers.
The Influence of Tourism Development on Life Quality in the Indigenous Tribeinventionjournals
The purpose of this study is to analyze the impact of tourism development on the quality of life of indigenous tribes. This study base on the Taiwan Alishan eight tribes aged over 18 indigenous people as the research object; carries on the investigation to the tribes of the proportion of households, a total of 776 effective questionnaires were collected. The effective questionnaires were analyzed by descriptive statistics, t test and one-way ANOVA, the results as follow as: 1. The results of the analysis show that that the impact of tourism development on the quality of life in the indigenous tribe, top is "I feel proud of our tribe" was the highest, the lowest of the top items is "residents dropping litter reduce". 2. In the analysis of the differences between different demographic variables, it was found that different genders do not affect the quality of life. However, other variables have an influence on the perception, includes: marital status, age, education level, occupation, personal month income, living tribe, and living tribe time. Based on the above findings, this study not only provides some suggestions for the development of indigenous tribes, but also proposes the direction for the development of tourism planning.
This document discusses a study on how urban 4-H youth programs can increase social capital and promote social justice. It provides background on key concepts of social capital and outlines a conceptual framework. The study used mixed methods, including surveys and interviews, to understand how 4-H youth build social connections and how educators empower youth. Survey results showed youth felt they could make a difference in their community but did not feel 4-H strongly contributed to interactions with different groups. Interviews with educators aimed to understand their perspectives on using social capital within positive youth development programs. The conclusion discusses integrating culturally relevant experiences to equip youth with networks and tools for social change.
Rural and urban communities differ in their characteristics. Rural communities typically have occupations related to agriculture, lower population densities, strong familial and community ties, and more traditional cultural values. Urban communities are centered around non-agricultural industries and services, have higher population densities, more social diversity and anonymity between residents, and cultures that value innovation and individualism more. As societies develop, rural-to-urban migration increases urban population and influences traditional rural social structures, lifestyles, and values.
Concept note for societies involvment in tourismhosting guests
Rural tourism development through cooperatives in Iran faces barriers. This document analyzes rural tourism potential in Iran and how rural cooperatives could help develop rural tourism by empowering individuals and communities. However, rural cooperatives in Iran currently have limited abilities and the government does not prioritize rural tourism development. Barriers to rural tourism through cooperatives include a lack of education, policy research, and advocacy for linking cooperatives to tourism opportunities.
Building Inclusive Cities: Planning Tools that promote the Right to the CityWellesley Institute
This presentation looks at the ways in which cities can be inclusive and examines interesting projects happening around the globe.
Carolyn Whitzman, Professor of Urban Planning
University of Melbourne
The document discusses the institutional support system developed in Istrian County, Croatia as a factor for regional development management. It describes how Istrian County established several development institutions like the Istrian Development Agency and Istrian Tourism Development Agency to support entrepreneurship and regional development. These institutions were created in response to insufficient national policies and a lack of coordinated regional planning. The system developed by Istrian County aims to foster sustainable development through knowledge sharing and collaboration between local government and other stakeholders.
IRJET - The Impact of Tourism on CitiesIRJET Journal
This document discusses the impacts of tourism on cities. It begins with an introduction to tourism and its various subtypes. It then reviews literature on topics like community-based tourism and the effects of industrialization on tourism.
The methodology section outlines the study's approach, which includes defining the problem, identifying the study area, conducting literature review, collecting and analyzing data, developing proposals, and stating results and conclusions.
Impacts of tourism are then analyzed in areas like the economy, society, culture, and environment. Both positive and negative impacts are discussed. Factors influencing interactions between tourists and the environment are also examined.
In conclusions, the study found that religious cities see more tourist flow than normal spots. Infrastructure
The village government has an substantial responsibility in managing human resources to produce regional economic benefits. This research aims to identify the stakeholder collaboration to support accountability in village fund management and rural development. This study used an interactive approach with data collection methods such as structured interviews, documentation, and observation. The object of the study is village officials in Pranggang Village,
Plosoklaten District, Kediri Regency, East Java Province. The results of the study showed that the village government has not optimally carried out its role in involving more stakeholders. Collaborative stakeholders in managing village funds involved village government officials, activity management team and
community. They play a positive role in bringing about village accountability in managing village funds. An increased community participation contribute to program evaluation activities and effectiveness in the village financial management. The accountability of the village funds utilization has met the
Home Affairs Ministerial Regulation number 113 of 2014. In addition, social accountability has been applied in various forms of effective interactions between the community and village government. Much efforts are required to improve the quality of human resources through more stakeholder engagement, training activity and community empowerment.
This document provides an overview of social inclusion in Nepal. It defines social inclusion, discusses its relation to SDGs and empowerment. It examines social inclusion globally and in Nepal's historical, political, economic, social, cultural, and gender contexts. Key efforts for social inclusion in Nepal include establishing commissions for indigenous groups, Dalits, women, and reservation policies. The constitution prohibits untouchability and guarantees rights to equality, health, women's rights and more.
Basic Features and Strategies of Women’s Empowerment of a Developing Urban Ar...ijtsrd
Women’s Empowerment is a holistic and sustainable goal for development of a society. They are the resources of family, society, community and nation. They are the greatest asset of an economy. Urbanization processes are not properly guided their roles in this society. Transformation of gender roles in urban contexts will require wider community involvement as well as administration. They are disadvantaged in income poverty, asset poverty, time and power. This paper is properly focused on features of empowerment of women in this society, their educational status, employment opportunities, social and economic status, as well as future strategies. Suchana Banerjee | Ayan Kumar Maity "Basic Features and Strategies of Women’s Empowerment of a Developing Urban Area – A Case Study of Memari Municipality, Purba Bardhaman, West Bengal, India" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-1 , December 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd38263.pdf Paper URL : https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/38263/basic-features-and-strategies-of-women’s-empowerment-of-a-developing-urban-area-– -a-case-study-of-memari-municipality-purba-bardhaman-west-bengal-india/suchana-banerjee
This document discusses social capital and its relationship to health. It defines social capital as the networks between people in a society that enable it to function, including trust, shared identities and norms. There are two types: cognitive social capital involving perceptions of trust, and structural involving social networks. Social capital is associated with better health through improved access to health information through social networks, receiving informal healthcare from others, and groups advocating for public health resources. However, social capital is difficult to measure uniformly and its relationship to health can run in both directions.
Community bassed Tourism Handbook by Potjana Suantsri, Thailand.David Vicent
The document discusses the principles and meaning of community-based tourism (CBT). It begins by outlining the underlying ideas of CBT, including how globalization is impacting local communities and how CBT can be a tool for community development. It then defines CBT, differentiates it from other forms of tourism like ecotourism and short visits, and discusses its key elements. Specifically, it notes that CBT aims to strengthen community participation and distribution of benefits to improve quality of life. It emphasizes that CBT must be developed and managed by the community to truly achieve its goals.
Community-based tourism ventures face challenges in marketing their rural tourism products similar to other rural producers. They depend on intermediaries like private companies, membership organizations, public institutions, and non-profits to facilitate market access. Each type of intermediary has strengths and weaknesses in terms of their marketing support capabilities. Instead of individual support strategies, combined approaches are needed depending on location, resources, and existing organizational structures.
This document summarizes a research study on community management and sustainable development in the Korca region of Albania. The study examines community participation in tourism development and decision-making in three areas- Liqenasi, Voskopoja, and Vithkuq. Surveys were administered to local residents to understand their level of involvement and perspectives. Key findings include that many residents have lived in the areas for over 10 years, and community participation in tourism development and planning is currently low. The researchers argue that greater community involvement is needed in tourism management and planning to increase benefits to local communities and ensure more sustainable tourism development.
Community-based tourism case studies in various regions & lessons from themAvantikaBadgujar
The document summarizes two case studies of community-based tourism (CBT): Thanh Ha Pottery Village in Vietnam and Miso Walai homestay development in Malaysia. For Thanh Ha Pottery Village, CBT has helped preserve traditional pottery-making skills but faces challenges like a lack of young people entering the craft and competition from mass-produced ceramics. For Miso Walai homestay, local communities have benefited economically from tourism while protecting the local ecosystem through a CBT model involving over 35 homes and 400 residents. Both case studies show how CBT can empower communities and generate income, but managing tourism growth and engaging younger generations remains an ongoing challenge.
This document summarizes a research study on challenges to community participation in heritage tourism development in two areas of New Delhi, India: Nizamuddin Basti and Shahjahanabad. The study aims to understand local residents' perceptions of their role in tourism decision-making and identify barriers that prevent community participation. It reviews literature on concepts like sustainable tourism, cultural heritage tourism, and barriers to community involvement. The methodology section describes how the researcher conducted field observations and semi-structured interviews over multiple trips to the two case study areas.
The document discusses the evolution of tourism planning since World War 2 from a state-oriented approach to a more regional and systems-based approach. It also discusses how tourism can benefit local communities economically and socially if planned carefully, but uncontrolled development can lead to false expectations. Finally, it stresses the importance of community involvement in tourism planning through various consultation methods to develop robust plans that consider local impacts and create recognizable tourism destinations.
Analysis of the Local Potential of Kweel Village for Strengthening the Commun...AJHSSR Journal
Kampung Kweel has abundant natural potential from agriculture, plantations, and fisheries that could be optimized through a village-owned enterprise (BUMK) to strengthen the local economy. The village's main commodities - bananas, rambutan, coconut, tilapia fish, and snapper - show promise but currently lack adequate transportation, marketing, and processing. Villagers overwhelmingly support establishing a BUMK to address these issues, improve livelihoods, and independently manage village finances. Existing internet access, a village hall, and electricity provide initial facilities to support launching a BUMK in Kampung Kweel.
“Community” Ideology, Power and Social Relations The Way of Life Relates to ...ijtsrd
For years, the topic community has been a source of contention. As social science thinking began to shift its meaning, therapeutic norms and ideals that impact regionally different behaviors and social lives emerged. Different local cultural traits are strong and crucial to the way of life of the people in the community in both rural and urban locations. When considering each item, it was found that people and their family members were well accepted by the community. There was a statistically significant difference at the.01 level, and Your neighborhood has a variety of drug issues. There was a statistically significant difference at the.05 level. Parichat Chumpong "“Community” Ideology, Power and Social Relations: The Way of Life Relates to the Factors Affecting the Way of Life of the People" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-6 | Issue-4 , June 2022, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd50234.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/social-science/50234/“community”-ideology-power-and-social-relations-the-way-of-life-relates-to-the-factors-affecting-the-way-of-life-of-the-people/parichat-chumpong
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Abstract:
This comprehensive review examines the role of stakeholder engagement and sustainable tourism practices
in fostering positive relationships between tourism and host communities. Effective stakeholder
engagement enhances community satisfaction, trust, and a sense of ownership in tourism development.
Sustainable tourism practices contribute to community economic benefits, cultural preservation, and
environmental conservation. It emphasizes the positive impacts of sustainable practices on resident well
being, economic diversification, and community resilience. However, certain gaps and limitations, such as
contextual variations, the need for quantitative analysis, challenges in measurement and evaluation, power
dynamics, and the integration of local perspectives, should be addressed in future research. By addressing
these gaps, stakeholders can further enhance sustainable tourism practices, foster positive relationships, and
ensure the long-term viability of tourism as a driver of inclusive and sustainable development.
Keywords: Tourism, Host-Community, Sustainable Tourism, Cultural Tourism
This document provides an overview of a training module on building local strengths and engaging communities in tourism. The module aims to educate participants on the economic and cultural benefits of tourism for host communities. It discusses strategies for developing community-based and rural tourism, including highlighting local heritage, culture, and activities. The roles and responsibilities of different stakeholders like communities, businesses, and government agencies are also outlined.
Community based tourism.
A community based tourism project to understand the term and its benefits .Community-based tourism case studies in various regions & lessons from them
This document discusses community-based tourism (CBT) and its viability in Bangladesh. It summarizes that while CBT aims to economically benefit local communities and protect tourism assets, many CBT projects have failed due to lack of market access, funding, and community involvement. The document proposes three models of CBT based on the relationship between tourists, communities, and attractions. Model 3, which combines community skills/offers and natural/cultural attractions, is presented as having the most potential for success by making the community the host. An example of a potentially successful CBT project in Bangladesh using this model is discussed.
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Tourism Management and its Impact to the Economyijtsrd
Since the first researches on tourism, several authors have paid attention to the action of public authorities oriented to the phenomenon. However, there is a notable lack of precision in the use of four concepts that designate different realities tourism government, tourism policy, planning or public management. The aim of this paper is to reflect on these concepts, trying to understand how they relate to and delimit their use to specific phenomena of public action in the field of tourism. Our proposal is to group them into a relational approach or a rational approach, each with its own questions and with determined budgets, although with closely related concerns and work proposals. Improving the understanding of these concepts and approaches will allow us to develop a more solid research agenda on public action in tourism. Inom Tursunkulov | Dilbar Boyzoqova "Tourism Management and its Impact to the Economy" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-4 | Issue-4 , June 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd31127.pdf Paper Url :https://www.ijtsrd.com/management/management-development/31127/tourism-management-and-its-impact-to-the-economy/inom-tursunkulov
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Invest Islands is promoting investment opportunities on Sumba Island, Indonesia. Sumba Island offers pristine beaches, unique culture and wildlife, and potential for sustainable tourism development. Invest Islands aims to find undervalued land and work with locals to support the community while offering foreign investors secure and affordable investment properties. Sumba Island currently receives around 15,000 tourists annually but this is expected to grow substantially as infrastructure like airports improve and new resorts are built. Invest Islands believes Sumba represents a major investment opportunity, with land prices still low compared to other Indonesian islands and high projected returns.
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The document provides a post-event report for the 2018 Mekong Tourism Forum held in Nakhon Phanom, Thailand. It includes welcome letters from the Thai Minister of Tourism and Sports and the Governor of Nakhon Phanom Province. It also provides an overview of the event from the Executive Director of Mekong Tourism Coordinating Office, including highlights of the program, speakers, sessions on issues like plastic pollution and innovative startups in tourism, and community village sessions. Photos from the event are also included at the end.
Mekong River-based Tourism Product Development (2016)MaxCho
The document provides an overview of river-based tourism along the Mekong River, which runs through 6 countries in Southeast Asia. It discusses the current state of Mekong River cruises, which are dominated by Vietnam's Mekong Delta region, offering 1-2 day cruises. Luxury multi-day cruises also operate between Cambodia and Vietnam. Short cruises also run in Cambodia and Laos. The report aims to support further development of river-based tourism products and help public and private sectors expand activities.
KOREA'S NEW SOUTHERN POLICY_ DIVERSIFYING ECONOMIC AND STRATEGIC PORTFOLIOS (...MaxCho
The document summarizes South Korea's New Southern Policy (NSP) which aims to strengthen economic and strategic ties with ASEAN countries. It has two main goals - economic diversification by expanding trade relations beyond China, and forming strategic partnerships to maintain stability amid US-China competition. Key aspects of the NSP include cooperation in new technologies, sustainable development, and upholding regional peace and order. The next stage (NSP 2.0) will focus on implementing concrete plans to realize the vision of deeper engagement between Korea and ASEAN.
International Workshop on Korean Trade and Investment in the Greater Mekong S...MaxCho
This document provides proceedings from the International Workshop on Korean Trade and Investment in the Greater Mekong Sub-Region, which was held on November 1-2, 2013 at Shinawatra University in Bangkok, Thailand. The workshop included three keynote speakers and nine academic paper presentations exploring various aspects of Korean engagement and influence in the Mekong Region. Topics included Korean cultural influence, industrial development, infrastructure projects, tourism, and land investment in countries such as Thailand, Vietnam, and Cambodia. The workshop aimed to analyze the nature and impact of growing Korean economic involvement in the region.
Impact of Climate Change to Tourism Sector in the Vietnamese Mekong Delta (2020)MaxCho
This document summarizes a study on the impacts of climate change on tourism in the Vietnamese Mekong Delta region. The study found that climate change poses a real challenge to tourism businesses in the low-lying Mekong Delta. Using spatial analysis and interviews with local tourism leaders and businesses, the study discovered that sea level rise from climate change could inundate over 40% of the Delta region under a 100cm rise scenario, directly impacting 21 of 36 tourism destinations. Vulnerable tourism industries like ecotourism and river islet tourism in the Delta are highly sensitive to climate change impacts.
This document provides a sector assessment, strategy, and road map for tourism in the Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) prepared by the Asian Development Bank (ADB). It finds that international tourism has grown significantly in the GMS over the past decade and now contributes substantially to several GMS economies. However, further development is needed to address constraints and leverage opportunities. The ADB will support GMS countries' tourism plans and strategies through technical assistance, loans, and collaboration with other partners to promote sustainable tourism development in the subregion.
The Republic of Korea (ROK) cooperates with the five Mekong countries (Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam) through annual inter-governmental meetings and business forums to establish partnerships for mutual prosperity and help narrow development gaps in Southeast Asia. Major cooperation events include annual foreign ministers' meetings and summits where action plans are adopted, as well as ROK-Mekong business forums. Economic and human exchanges between the ROK and Mekong countries have grown significantly, with over $57 billion in annual trade and around $54.6 billion in ROK investment in the Mekong region as of 2019.
This document provides a situational analysis to inform the development of a Greater Mekong Subregion tourism marketing strategy and action plan for 2015-2020. It outlines the strategic objectives of joint tourism marketing in the GMS according to the GMS Tourism Sector Strategy and ASEAN Tourism Strategic Plan, which aim to promote multicountry visits, intraregional travel, and develop competitive regional tourism products. Country profiles summarize each GMS country's tourism marketing objectives. Trends like growing Asian outbound travel and demand for unique experiences are examined. The analysis also identifies opportunities and constraints for more inclusive tourism growth in the subregion.
Doing Business 2020 analyzes regulations affecting 12 areas of business activity in 190 economies. 115 economies made it easier to do business in the past year by reforming regulations. The top 10 most improved economies focused on starting a business, dealing with construction permits, and trading across borders. However, property registration and resolving insolvency remain inefficient in many economies, especially in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. Effective regulation aims to support business freedom while preventing issues like worker mistreatment.
This document summarizes the results of a COVID-19 impact survey of Myanmar's tourism sector conducted by the Ministry of Hotels and Tourism. Key findings include:
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This document provides an overview and statistics on ASEAN-Korea relations from 2019. It discusses how the partnership has grown in recent years but exchanges were put on hold in 2020 due to the pandemic. The statistics cover demographics, social indicators, economics, infrastructure, trade and foreign direct investment between ASEAN countries and Korea. New features in this 11th edition include additional data, infographics, and a chapter highlighting frequently used statistics. The comprehensive data aims to promote understanding of ASEAN-Korea relations.
AN OVERVIEW OF LARGE-SCALE INVESTMENTS IN THE MEKONG REGIO (2016)MaxCho
This document provides an overview of large-scale investments in the Mekong region. It discusses how the governments of Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam are actively pursuing foreign direct investment and changing policies and regulations to attract investors. Large investments are occurring in many sectors such as agriculture, manufacturing, mining and hydropower. However, these investments often negatively impact local communities by displacing them from their land or failing to protect workers' rights.
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The document discusses the economic potential of the Mekong River region located between India and China. It summarizes the experiences of reporters who visited the region over 30 days and spoke with local individuals. The region is expected to become an important economic belt and many countries and companies are competing to gain influence and access its market and natural resources. Infrastructure development projects and foreign investment are increasing in the region's countries like Cambodia, Laos, and Myanmar as they pursue economic growth.
Industrial Tech SW: Category Renewal and CreationChristian Dahlen
Every industrial revolution has created a new set of categories and a new set of players.
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Manufacturing startups constitute the largest pipeline share of unicorns and IPO candidates in the SF Bay Area, and software startups dominate in Germany.
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Why Community-Based Tourism and Rural Tourism in Developing and Developed Nations are Treated Differently_ (2020)
1. sustainability
Review
Why Community-Based Tourism and Rural Tourism
in Developing and Developed Nations are Treated
Differently? A Review
Seweryn Zielinski 1 , Yoonjeong Jeong 2 , Seong-il Kim 2,3 and Celene B. Milanés 4,*
1 Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Sejong University, 209 Neungdong-ro, Gwangjin-gu,
Seoul 05006, Korea; zielinski@sejong.ac.kr
2 Department of Forest Sciences, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 08826, Korea;
yoonjeong522@snu.ac.kr (Y.J.); seongil@snu.ac.kr (S.-i.K.)
3 Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu,
Seoul 08826, Korea
4 Department of Civil and Environmental, Universidad de La Costa, Calle 58#55-66, Barranquilla 080002, Colombia
* Correspondence: cmilanes1@cuc.edu.co
Received: 30 June 2020; Accepted: 20 July 2020; Published: 23 July 2020
Abstract: Rural community tourism initiatives in developed nations share most positive and negative
characteristics with community-based tourism (CBT) initiatives in developing nations. They also
share many barriers and conditions for tourism development. What makes them different is the
context in which they operate. This paper identifies the main conditions that explain these differences
through a review of findings from 103 location-specific case studies and other available literature that
provides empirical evidence. The paper also explores the usage of the concepts of CBT and rural
tourism. The findings are discussed under seven categories: Definitions, socioeconomic and cultural
factors, policy and governance, land ownership, community cohesiveness, assimilation of external
stakeholders, and type of visitors. It is argued that it is the developing-/developed-nation context,
and not objectively established criteria, which largely dictates authors’ narratives with corresponding
takes on tourism development and subsequent recommendations. The paper engages in a discussion
about case-study research, its weaknesses and tendencies, providing some recommendations on how
to increase the contribution of case studies to knowledge, and calls for more research on externally
assisted non-Indigenous community-tourism initiatives in developed nations.
Keywords: CBT; remote area; peripherality; tourism development; rural development
1. Introduction
Community-based tourism (CBT) and other sub-branches of sustainable tourism centered in
communities have been commonly applied as vehicles for rural development in peripheral areas.
Their beginnings date back to the 1980s, when community-based tourism was believed to be
an alternative for rural people in the South [1], and a viable instrument for poverty reduction,
offering opportunities for conservation [2] and rural economic development [3]. Because of these
benefits, many community-based tourism initiatives became community-development projects in
developing nations [4]. Throughout the years, a considerable number of guidelines and project
reports have been published by various organizations to facilitate the successful implementation of
community-based tourism (e.g., [2,5–18]), many of which were designed to support development of
tourism through official development assistance (ODA).
Despite the potential of tourism to generate welfare for communities, as well as social, economic,
and cultural benefits in the long-run, many initiatives failed to deliver on their promises [19]. Many of
Sustainability 2020, 12, 5938; doi:10.3390/su12155938 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
2. Sustainability 2020, 12, 5938 2 of 20
those initiatives failed because of a combination of unfavorable conditions that were identified in the
literature (e.g., [19–26]). Although these conditions were detected in developing and developed nations,
scholars believe that, because of different economic, legislative, and political structures, they do not
equally apply [27]. Thus far, studies such as that of Tosun [27] or Giampiccoli et al. [28] explored these
differences from a theoretical perspective and the authors’ own knowledge and experience. This paper
gathered the findings from 103 location-specific case studies that provide empirical evidence of the
critical conditions that differentiate community tourism in developing and developed nations (see
Appendix A for more information about the case studies). The seven categories proposed in this
paper are based on results of a content analysis of a smaller sample of case studies that identified
148 specific factors that facilitate and inhibit CBT in developing and developed nations (in press).
Based on this extensive list of factors, seven categories were designed that encompass the key drivers
behind these differences and provide some justification for differential treatment of CBT and rural
tourism in developing and developed nations seen in the literature.
It is argued that it is the developing-/developed-country context, and not objectively established
criteria, which largely dictates the authors’ narratives with the corresponding takes on tourism
development and subsequent recommendations. The paper engages in a discussion about the
concept and definitions of CBT and rural tourism, the conditions that differentiates them, case-study
research, and its weaknesses and tendencies, providing some recommendations on how to increase
the contribution of case studies to knowledge. Only studies that encompassed entire small-scale
destinations were considered in the review, while studies of rural tourism carried out on individual
businesses were discarded.
2. CBT and Rural Tourism: Definitions and Concepts
In the context of developed nations, the concept of CBT has been used rather sporadically.
However, according to various definitions of CBT, the concept is applicable to developed nations
as well. Several scholars made an attempt to define the term CBT (e.g., [19,29–31]), concluding that
CBT is ‘tourism owned and/or managed by communities, and intended to deliver wider community
benefit’ [19] (p. 12). Although there are many definitions of CBT, the main aspects that characterize
it are community control and management, conservation of culture and nature, empowerment, and
community development [19,32,33].
CBT initiatives can take many different forms and shapes. Depending on the level of community
participation, they range from community employment in businesses, a joint venture between a
community or family and an outside business partner, to full ownership/management of the tourism
operation [29]. Saayman and Giampiccoli [34] noted that independent initiatives should be encouraged
and could form part of a CBT initiative. By this definition, independent family-owned rural businesses
could be considered to be CBT initiatives. CBT can also be categorized on the basis of single-community-
and multiple-owned structures under a common organizational umbrella (e.g., [35]). The former model
is based on activities around the nucleus of a lodge that often employs a rotation system, while the
latter includes a variety of micro- and small enterprises that operate under a common organizational
umbrella [36,37]. By this definition, independent family-owned rural businesses could be considered
to be CBT initiatives only if they are governed by a community organization.
However, the concept of an umbrella organization is also problematic because of the array
of possible arrangements within the organization. An organization composed of members driven
by individual interests to carry out a specific economic activity to gain personal benefits is very
different from an organization whose members act co-operatively in the interest and benefit of the
community [38]. As such, the conception of community should be refocused around social interactions
generated by individuals willing to pursue common interests, goals, and collective action rather than
‘focus exclusively on local entities characterized by the ownership of common resources and/or on
Indigenous socioterritorial-political structures governed by customary mechanisms of control and
management’ [39] (p. 515). In a similar vein, Piselli [40] argued that, while the spatial and social
3. Sustainability 2020, 12, 5938 3 of 20
dimensions of community are important, a community must ultimately be considered as a network.
From this perspective, small-scale tourism initiatives run by communities with or without an umbrella
organization fit within most definitions of both rural tourism and CBT.
In terms of characteristics, CBT initiatives in developing nations are very similar to rural-tourism
in developed nations. According to OECD’s [41] definition of rural tourism, it should be comprised
of small-scale enterprises, characterized by open space, availability of natural and cultural heritage,
traditional practices, connections with local families, growth that is slow and organic, local control,
and sustainability. While most authors focused on the aforementioned aspects, some linked rural
tourism strictly with farm tourism and agritourism (e.g., [42,43]). In some countries such as Spain,
legislation separates agritourism from rural tourism on the basis of the presence of farming activity [44].
Besides farming, agritourism destinations are characterized by a spatial scattering of accommodations
(farms), while rural tourism can take place in villages and small towns.
Likewise, in CBT, the role of authenticity takes central importance. The concept is based on tourists’
expectations of original experiences, which is particularly relevant to the field of cultural-heritage
tourism [45]. Scholars describe rural tourism and CBT as being commonly centered on providing a
genuine representation of lifestyles and cultures [46], including their distinctive sense of place and
pride [47], and the favorable environment for personal contact between hosts and guests [48]. Moreover,
the most commonly cited limitations of rural tourism are also very similar to those found in CBT. In this
context, case studies identified the limited access of communities to funding and decision making,
low level of human capital [49,50], poor infrastructure and dependency on traditional industries [22,42],
negative sociocultural and environmental impact [48], and restricted access to labor markets [51,52],
among others.
Peripherality is one of the factors that blurs the differences between developing and developed
nations in terms of the conditions for the development of community tourism. The concept is relevant to
many rural areas and CBT initiatives around the world. Besides the previously described characteristics
of rural tourism, physical distance to larger agglomerations creates social, economic, and political
isolation, and consequently a low level of autonomy in planning and development [52], low levels of
economic vitality, lack of political power to influence decision making [53], and a lack of infrastructure
and amenities [54]. When major decisions are taken by key economic and political institutions located
in more central areas, people in the periphery often feel a sense of alienation and a lack of control
over their own destiny [21,22]. Moreover, decision makers located in core areas tend to have a limited
understanding of the relevant problems [55], often failing to acknowledge the possibility of alternatives
to tourism [56].
3. CBT and Rural Tourism: Similar Conditions, Different Treatment
Case-study research is believed to be suitable for a comprehensive, holistic, and in-depth
investigation [57] that can provide a more nuanced understanding of tourism development at the local
level [58]. However, case-study research has to deal with some important limitations, of which perhaps
the most significant is the subjective perception and the ideological approaches of their authors [59]
that affect a range of factors, from definitions of concepts employed by their research through analysis,
discussion, conclusions, and recommendations.
While most discussed CBT definitions acknowledge a variety of arrangements, the literature use
them almost exclusively in a developing-nation context tied to project-based efforts characterized
by the ownership of common resources and/or collective control and management. Some authors
went as far as to state that CBT in Canada and Australia is used almost exclusively in the context of
‘aboriginal/Indigenous tourism business’ [60]. Others artificially limited the scope of CBT by adding
aspects such as the promotion of customary and Indigenous cultures to their definitions (e.g., [61]).
The concept of CBT began to appear in the literature in the 1990s, but its background dates back to
the 1970s [29,31], when participatory development was introduced by international donors such as
the United Nations and the World Bank in response to failures of traditional top–down approaches to
4. Sustainability 2020, 12, 5938 4 of 20
development [62,63]. The usage of the term in the literature appears to be a legacy of project-based
development assistance.
On the other hand, the concept of ‘rural tourism’ has principally been used in the literature in
the context of developed nations, implying private ownership and the management of individual
businesses in a rural setting. However, similar initiatives in a rural setting in developing nations are
usually identified as CBT, ecotourism, or cultural-tourism initiatives. At first glance, it appears that
the difference is strictly geographic location (developing vs. developed nation, remote peripheral vs.
accessible, rural areas) and the type of natural or cultural attractions, but the literature review revealed
that, in the case of small-scale destinations, the type of visitors (national/international/mixed) and
their motivation (e.g., farm, rural lifestyle vs. wildlife watching, ‘exotic’ culture) are more suitable
to explain the usage of the concept. On the other hand, larger-scale studies (area or region) tend to
adopt the term ‘rural tourism’ to generalize all sorts of arrangements. Although the described usage
of both concepts has not changed much since the 1990s, their meanings have been slowly evolving
through embracing the notion of community around social interactions and networks, and the capacity
of individuals to pursue common goals through collective action (e.g., [39,40,64]).
Other noticeable tendencies that stem from the previously discussed setting are the way in
which authors write about tourism initiatives and critical conditions for their development. In a
developing-nation context, there is a clear dominance of papers using cases of development-assistance
projects (81% of analyzed case studies that stated the channel of initiation). Even though in both
developing and developed contexts, many initiatives were started with external assistance (81% and 60%,
respectively), project-based development assistance dominated in the former group, and governments’
financial or technical assistance through programs and policies in the latter. The authors of case studies
in both contexts identified the low capacity of local communities (e.g., [65–70]); technical support
from third parties, including capacity building provided by NGOs or governments (e.g., [71–76]);
and poor or inadequate policies (e.g., [46,67,77–79]), among many other aspects. If communities face
similar barriers and conditions for tourism development, why are narratives of equity, distribution of
benefits, (re)distributive institutional approaches, participative decision making, communal ownership,
empowerment, and conflict resolution found almost exclusively in the developing-nation context?
4. The Influence of Developing- and Developed-Nation Contexts
4.1. Socioeconomic and Cultural Factors
Provision of income to communities living in areas of limited opportunities for the development of
economic activities is the most basic objective of CBT that is well-suited for the economic regeneration
of peripheral rural regions. Although present in both developing and developed countries, inequality
and poverty pose varying levels of disadvantage in different nations [28]. Hence, some scholars
make an important distinction between underprivileged socioeconomic contexts in developing and
developed nations, stating that in the latter even underprivileged people are usually in a better position
given by their access to infrastructure and other resources [28].
Indigenousness is one factor that complicates this distinction. Indigenous tourism is not only
restricted by factors common for tourism development in remote areas [49,51], but also by the fact that
Indigenous peoples are sidelined because of their minority status with their distinctive cultural traditions
and internal institutions that are difficult to understand by their non-Indigenous counterparts [78].
According to Trau and Bushell [80], living conditions of Indigenous people in developed nations
are often different to the non-Indigenous population. The consequences of colonialism have had a
significant impact on Indigenous communities, leaving them in relative poverty in terms of the lack
of human capital and limited access to decision making and funding [50,81]. From this perspective,
those communities face similar conditions to communities in less developed nations. Despite this
drawback, communities in developing nations enjoy access to welfare and programs designed
specifically for disadvantaged groups living in the periphery (e.g., [51,68,82,83]). In consequence,
5. Sustainability 2020, 12, 5938 5 of 20
their economic conditions are relatively better, as they rarely have to face absolute poverty [80].
A struggle to satisfy basic survival needs is one of the causes and consequences of poverty. However,
poor socioeconomic conditions are also directly related to a lack of skills and knowledge required for
tourism and low level of formal education, (e.g., [33,56,59,65–69,72,75,77,80,82,84–95]), and limited
access to information to effectively engage in tourism planning and management (e.g., [10,96,97]).
These limitations are prevalent in developing nations, although as noted previously, they are common
in developed nations in the context of Indigenous tourism.
A limited understanding and knowledge of the tourism and travel industry is a community
limitation identified in many cases studies in developing nations. Experiences show that the concept
of tourism does not exist in all cultures (e.g., [10,98–100]). While people in developed nations usually
have some sort of head start in tourism development due to their basic understanding of concepts,
for many rural communities in developing nations, tourism is a recent phenomenon that challenges
their traditional knowledge and understanding of the world. They are also facing the risk of losing
cultural control because of the introduction of new activities that might not be entirely compatible
with the local culture, which implies access to economic resources and often engagement with other
stakeholders that may lead to conflicts [101].
4.2. Policy and Governance
Tourism-destination policy is regarded to be under the responsibility of public-sector stakeholders.
Scholars argue that the intervention and regulation of the public sector is a requirement for effective
management systems for tourism development [102–104]. Policies are designed with an objective
to create an environment that maximizes stakeholders’ benefits [105]. The lack of policy direction
supporting community tourism has been identified as a limitation for CBT destinations around the
world, such as Tanzania [77,106], Kenya [107], or Indonesia [24]. This issue is not only common
in developing nations, but also in some remote areas of developed nations (e.g., [46,56,69,79]).
Peripherality is a common issue for many remote communities that struggle to gain local governments’
interest, and financial and administrative support. Such areas are viewed by leaders as unimportant
and secondary for immediate action [100]. In consequence, policy actions are often unaligned with the
needs and priorities of distant communities [55].
Nonetheless, case studies in mostly developed nations highlight governments’ efforts to boost
economies and revitalize rural areas through programs and policies that have had a positive effect
on community-tourism initiatives (e.g., [58,70,76,79,83,94,108–110]), for example, Australia’s attempt
at closing the economic and quality-of-life gap between Indigenous and non-Indigenous citizens
by integrating them into capitalist economies through policies aimed at economic support and the
provision of livelihood opportunities [111]. Although very complicated and far from perfect, there are
a number of government-assistance packages available for Indigenous people to start a business [51].
In a similar vein, many rural-tourism initiatives in developed nations can count on national or regional
funds to start up community-based initiatives. In Europe, for example, new policies for rural areas
were implemented to achieve a balance between traditional agriculture and nature preservation, as well
as to revitalize rural and economically depressed areas [112]. The national policies implemented by
most EU members are often supplemented by regional policies for the revitalization of rural areas,
and territorial cohesion between core and ‘disadvantaged’ areas in the periphery [52].
Because public funds for supporting small scale rural initiatives are limited in many developing
nations, NGOs and official-development-assistance (ODA) organizations are in position to provide
support for community-based projects, but usually for a limited period of time. Moreover, case studies
show that, without central management, organizations run by communities and nongovernmental
partners have the limited ability to co-ordinate actions with the local government, to attract scarce
public resources, or to secure a public budget to market the destination [26]. It has been widely
recognized that project-based, short-life-cycle support for CBT in developing nations is one of the most
common reasons for those initiatives to fail [26]. Governments, on the other hand, have power to
6. Sustainability 2020, 12, 5938 6 of 20
execute long-term programs and directly engage in local development without relying on short-term
objectives [113]. A strong and well-funded public sector also provides infrastructural development,
including signage, marketing, and heritage interpretation [48].
However, not all governments and even NGO consultants have the required skills and knowledge
of tourism development to initiate and lead tourism development (e.g., [86,87,90,92,95,114,115]).
As noted by Ruhanen [104] in an Australian case, because the local government traditionally assumed
that role, it can be argued that it has also accumulated a certain amount of experience and skills in
supporting tourism development. The experience and tradition of public-private collaboration in
tourism development in rural and peripheral areas gives an advantage to many developed nations
that managed to create a socioeconomic and institutional setting that favors this type of development.
As argued by Keyim [69], achieving it requires a considerable history of civil society and democracy
built on low levels of corruption and high levels of trust between public and private stakeholders [69].
4.3. Land Ownership
Land ownership has a long tradition in developed nations. Hence, the majority of
community-based initiatives are developed on individually owned private land. On the contrary,
in developing nations, communal lands are more prevalent, and it is not uncommon that the community
has no secured land tenure (e.g., [91,116]). Those communities living within protected areas have
to make contractual arrangements with the government to use land and resources for tourism
(e.g., [65,66,91,93]). Land tenure allows communities to decide on the desired land use, activities, and
type of development. Without the ownership, the operations in the area can be either highly restricted
or forbidden entirely. Furthermore, the lack of land tenure limits potential outside investments in
infrastructure and facilities. Coria and Calfucura [117] state that communities can participate in CBT
in the absence of land ownership, but this outcome is highly dependent on other favorable conditions;
in reality, the lack of community control prevents communities from investing. Many case studies
described the struggle for territory in the context of tourism (e.g., [24,77,106,118–120]).
Lack of land ownership does not have to necessarily play the role of a barrier for
community-tourism development. Although collective ownership does restrict land availability
for private ventures [101], contractual arrangements with the land owner (usually the government)
that give the right for the collective control of land and resources, and collective land ownership
provide some advantages that private ownership does not. The experiences from case studies showed
that collective land ownership provides more favorable conditions for decision-making freedom,
and accordingly better control over land and tourism development (e.g., [66,86,88,90,92,120–126]).
At the same time, collectivity seems to decrease conflicts over land, because it cannot be individually
owned and sold. On the other hand, under individual land ownership, the freedom to control tourism
development is limited because land ownership is more prone to manipulation by external actors
based on individual owners’ decisions to keep or sell the land (e.g., [45,70,77,127–129]).
4.4. Community Cohesiveness
Case studies demonstrate that collectively owned and managed initiatives dominate the tourism in
traditional communities (ethnic, rural, or Indigenous) in developing countries. As a result of high social
capital and/or strong social hierarchy, the cohesiveness in these communities is relatively high. It is further
illustrated by the employment of sharing work/benefit mechanisms that are often used for building
tourism infrastructure and tourism cost/benefit sharing (e.g., [55,72–74,86,91,92,121,122,125,130–132]).
Cohesiveness does not, however, mean that communities can be treated as one entity, as they are
composed of individuals with different priorities and views on local development [94].
While modern rural communities in developed nations sometimes also display high cohesiveness
and the ability to closely work together (e.g., [89,109,133–136]), there is a higher level of individuality
and expectations to invest and operate independent businesses according to the rules of modern
economy. Rural-tourism development has often been led by the individual efforts of an operator
7. Sustainability 2020, 12, 5938 7 of 20
(a farm/land/accommodation owner), and then followed by other members of the community [42].
Because rural people in developed nations are more likely to have access infrastructure, facilities,
the media, and education, cases of tourism initiation by the community without or with limited external
support are common (e.g., [79,109,128,134,136,137]) as local actors are often capable of selecting
their own actions to secure strategic advantages of the opportunities presented by rurality and/or
periphery [52]. Funded externally, characterized by a low capacity to operate tourism, community
initiatives in developing nations are rarely given that choice, or deliberately choose the model on the
basis of communal ownership that requires strong ties created by socially meaningful relationships
based on trust. These types of relationships are possible and highly advisable in the context of
developed nations [64], but they are less common and usually only happen in tight-knit communities.
4.5. Assimilation of External Stakeholders
Because of crumbling agricultural activity and limited job opportunities in many rural areas around
the world, there is a sustained population drift from those areas to urban centers [22]. At the same
time, a comparative lack of innovation and progress in the peripheries, and the availability of natural
resources are seen by people from core areas as a business/lifestyle opportunity (e.g., [109,138,139]).
Besides a generally good understanding of tourism and business in general, these lifestyle entrepreneurs
have advantage over the local people in terms of the education, skills, and resources to invest in
tourism [133]. In developed nations, ‘ex-urbanites’, ‘weekenders’. or second-home owners are leading
groups composed mostly of country nationals from highly urbanized areas that often carry a set of
values and images of rural communities from the past (such as a rural idyll) [42]. In developing nations,
the group of ‘lifestyle entrepreneurs’ is composed largely of foreign nationals that might deepen the
cultural gap between local and nonlocal entrepreneurs [26].
In traditional communities, foreign investors are seen as outsiders, and are generally not easily
accepted due to cultural differences. The assimilation is further complicated when ‘newcomers’
compete with local people for visitors. In consequence, conflicts are not uncommon that might lead to
rejection of foreigners, and a strong internal division within the community [140]. The literature on
the topic highlights that newcomers and local people perceive each other to be very different, which
often reflects conflicting ideas of each group’s desires and needs [141]. In many cases, ‘newcomers’,
driven by their own image and expectations of idyllic life, oppose modern development sought by the
community [42]. Because of conflicts, those areas become heterogeneous spaces, and in some cases,
dual societies comprising locals and migrants are created [140]. The way in which communities deal
with conflicts also has a cultural underpinning, with two idealized approaches identified on the basis
of individualistic and collectivist cultures [142]. Individualistic cultures deal with conflicts in a more
dispassionate, straight-to-the-point way, while in collectivist cultures, conflict is culturally bound,
viewed as a destructive force, and resolved in a more emotive way [143]. Hence, it can be argued
that the assimilation of ‘lifestyle entrepreneurs’ in an individualistic cultural context is easier than the
assimilation of individuals that do not share the same cultural background.
Despite many differences, the ability to collaborate and act for the common good is perhaps the
most important factor leading to the acceptance of ‘outsiders’, and fostering social capital and sense
of community [144]. Such purposive action, however, cannot occur if interactions between different
groups constituting the community are limited or constrained [145]. Community building in such
destinations is a complicated process, ‘constantly affected by a lack of communication that blocks
the emergence of common interests and collective action’ [109] (p. 516). The experiences from case
studies demonstrate that external stakeholders are able to integrate successfully in the absence of
significant cultural differences, and when services offered by outsiders complement the local ones
rather than compete with them. This, however, has principally been reported in developed nations
(e.g., [109,127,139]).
Newcomers are accepted by the community because they bring skills and the capacity to connect
the destination with the outside world, and tap into different tourism activities in which local people
8. Sustainability 2020, 12, 5938 8 of 20
typically do not engage, and that requires skills and large capital investment (hotels and tour-operating
enterprises). On the other hand, local initiatives focus on activities that are familiar and require limited
investment (restaurants or community accommodation). For complementarity to occur, however, it is
necessary for newcomers to not engage in the same activities, competing with the local population,
and that the locals have enough skills and resources to engage in those complementary activities.
Case studies showed that this is rarely the case in developing nations, not only because of the lack of
those conditions, but also because of a low influx of visitors and operation at low occupancy rates,
even after years of operation [146], which consequently increases local competition for visitors.
Due to much less pronounced cultural differences between communities and newcomers in
developing nations, assimilation is often much smoother, and outsiders slowly become part of the
community. In less traditional communities, people have usually had contact with the outside world
for generations across centuries. New forms of mobility, a result of globalization, have strengthened
the complexity of communities [139]. There is a constant exchange of people who may leave the
community and emigrate somewhere else, while at the same time, new inhabitants may arrive to settle
or live at the location for a period of time [141].
4.6. Type of Visitors
Two important factors that effectively differentiate community initiatives in the rural areas of
developed nations and CBT in developing nations are the type of visitors and their motivation to
travel. Although there is a certain overlap in motivations to travel to seek new experiences, and rural
lifestyles and settings, rural tourism in developed nations is largely driven by the familiar image of
the idyllic ‘picturesque’, ‘peaceful’, and ‘friendly’ countryside [42], while motivations to visit CBT
initiatives run by Indigenous or traditional communities are more related with experiencing novelty,
and searching for the unknown and learning about it [78]. Hence, scholars have claimed that cultural
proximity decreases domestic demand for Indigenous cultures [78]. Because cultural proximity is
usually related with physical distance from visitor-generating centers, case studies showed that CBT
initiatives in developing nations attract mostly foreign tourists, while rural initiatives in developed
nations attract domestic markets that do not need to travel large distances, and are easier to reach
without targeted marketing.
5. Final Remarks
According to the definitions, the concepts of CBT and rural tourism are not much different
from each other, as they both refer to family-/individually run businesses with a greater or lesser
degree of co-ordination intended to deliver community benefit. They also share most of the positive
characteristics and limitations. What makes them different is the context in which they operate.
This paper identified and described the main conditions responsible for these differences through a
review of case studies in developing and developed nations. These differences explain most tendencies
in the narrative of case studies in developing and developed nations, including the authors’ decisions
to omit or focus on certain critical factors for community-tourism development. In other words,
more often than not, case studies fall into specific categories with their corresponding takes on tourism
development and subsequent recommendations.
It can be argued that this is the reason why certain strategies, for example, shared community
infrastructure with a rotation system or another mechanism for sharing benefits that are often proposed
by consultants in developing nations, are never proposed to underprivileged rural communities
in developed nations, despite favorable conditions for such arrangements such as low capacity
of local people, the lack of financial resources, and the availability of external funding (through
rural-development policies and programs). Would strategies proposed in the context of developing
nations be effective in developed nations, and which ones?
While in the case of externally initiated project-based tourism initiatives that are common in
developing countries, the technical and financial assistance are guaranteed, publicly funded tourism
9. Sustainability 2020, 12, 5938 9 of 20
initiatives in developed countries usually provide funds, but the technical assistance is less common
due to the private character of most benefitting stakeholders. Hence, besides the access to welfare
and public funds for local development in developed countries, there should be also emphasis on
community-centered projects that provide capacity building and direct expert assistance to participating
families. This role could be assumed by an umbrella organization managing the publicly funded
initiative that oversees the project and provides direct assistance converting a rural tourism initiative
to a CBT initiative. Unfortunately, the question of the effectiveness of strategies that are commonly
employed in developing countries but rarely in developed nations remains unanswered because
studies of externally assisted non-Indigenous community-tourism initiatives in developed nations are
extremely scarce. Although this paper addressed the most common reasons for those arrangements not
being proposed, the lack of empirical evidence of employed strategies in different contexts warrants
further investigation.
Another implication of the findings is that in the absence of individual land rights, collective land
management can be equally or in some cases even more beneficial because it gives decision-making
freedom about the desired tourism development and control over the land use. Collective ownerships
allow communities to pinpoint and invite specific stakeholders to operate in the area based on
their complementary role, limiting potential competition. In the case of private land ownership,
the optimal solution for the maintenance of control over and coherent tourism development is an
umbrella destination management organization that gathers stakeholders around common goals for
tourism development.
Another aspect that requires addressing is the fact that many case studies were missing the
level of detail required to analyze differences between developing- and developed-nation settings.
Given the variety of topics employed by the case studies (see the Appendix A), it is recognized that
not all studies set out to identify key characteristics that positively or negatively influenced tourism
development. However, even the studies that did focus on description of factors for ‘success’ or ‘failure’
of tourism based on the authors’ own assessment, often provided a limited description of the conditions.
Although this aspect is dealt with elsewhere [147], some topics were under-represented and require
further research attention: The role of political will, the integration of ‘outsiders’ into communities,
strategies employed to resist external pressures, and the role of cultural/ethnic divisions within a
community, alliances and co-operation with other communities, the nonmonetary cost of involvement
in tourism, the distribution of public resources among local stakeholder groups, land ownership and
shared ownership arrangements, the types of networks within destinations, and internal mechanisms
for conflict resolution.
The analysis was further skewed by a clear tendency towards research on Indigenous and ethnic
communities in both developing and developed nations, and a clear under-representation of studies
of small rural communities in developed nations. Despite a fair number of studies on rural tourism,
most case studies focus on larger geographic areas of either small towns of roughly 4000 to 20,000
inhabitants, various villages, and larger rural regions. Studies that make in-depth qualitative analysis
of small rural-tourism initiatives are still few and far between. With case-study research becoming
‘somewhat disregarded or discredited in recent years’ [148] (p. 740), there is little hope that this gap
will be bridged anytime soon despite the undeniable value in qualitative approaches that aim at
understanding tourism in rural areas.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.Z. and S.-i.K.; methodology, S.Z.; investigation, S.Z., Y.J., and
C.B.M.; resources S.-i.K.; writing—original draft preparation, S.Z.; writing—review and editing, Y.J. and C.B.M.;
supervision, S.-i.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
10. Sustainability 2020, 12, 5938 10 of 20
Appendix A
Table A1. Case Studies Reviewed in the Paper.
No. Author(s) Location Focus of the Study
DEVELOPING NATIONS
1. Amati (2013) [149] Kenya Community participation in an ecotourism initiative
2.
Anand, Chandan,
& Singh (2012) [84]
India Role of community homestay initiative in local development
3. Belsky (1999) [150] Belize Influence of politics in a community-based rural ecotourism project
4.
Bruyere, Beh,
& Lelengula (2009) [114]
Kenya
Perceptions of protected area leadership
and members of the communities
5. Charnley (2005) [106] Tanzania
Conditions for transformation of nature tourism in protect areas (PA)
into community ecotourism
6.
Chili & Ngxongo
(2017) [98]
South Africa
Challenges of community participation in
tourism development
7.
Clements et al.
(2008) [66]
Cambodia Lessons learned from a community-based tourism (CBT) initiative
8.
Cobbinah, Black,
& Thwaites (2015) [67]
Ghana Implementation of ecotourism in a conservation area
9. Cole (2006) [85] Indonesia Community participation towards empowerment
10.
11.
Collins & Snel
(2008) [86]
South Africa
Official development assistance (ODA) experiences and lessons
learned from CBT development and management
12. Colvin (1994) [122] Ecuador Assessment of a community-based ecotourism program
13. Foucat (2002) [121] Mexico
Assessment of the sustainability of a community-based
ecotourism initiative
14. Gascón (2013) [59] Peru Limitations of CBT as an instrument of development cooperation
15.
Giampiccoli, Jugmohan,
& Mtapuri (2014) [87]
South Africa Community capacity building in tourism
16.
Grieves, Adler, & King
(2014) [88]
Mexico
Community control, community characteristics, and inter-community
coalitions in ecotourism projects
17.
Hernandez Cruz et al.
(2005) [114]
Mexico
Social and economic adjustment processes in introduction of
ecotourism in a community
18.
Hitchner et al.
(2009) [151]
Malaysia
Current state and challenges of community-based
transboundary ecotourism
19.
Isaac & Wuleka
(2012) [71]
Ghana Community perceptions of tourism development
20.
Jamal & Stronza
(2009) [130]
Bolivia Tourism and community–parks partnerships in protected areas
21.
Jamieson & Sunalai
(2005) [72]
Thailand Sustainable tourism planning and management
22.
Jitpakdee & Thapa
(2012) [118]
Thailand Sustainability analysis of ecotourism
23. Jones (2005) [152] Gambia
Role of social capital in development of a community-based
ecotourism venture
24.
Kim, Park, &
Phandanouvong
(2014) [153]
Laos Barriers to local residents’ participation in community-based tourism
25.
Knight & Cottrell
(2016) [154]
Peru Processes of tourism-linked empowerment in communities
26.
Kontogeorgopoulos,
Churyen, &
Duangsaeng (2014) [73]
Thailand Success factors in community-based tourism
27. Lapeyre (2010) [131] Namibia
Contribution of CBT enterprises to poverty alleviation
and empowerment
28. Lenao (2015) [115] Botswana Challenges facing community-based cultural tourism development
29. Lepp (2007) [123] Uganda Residents’ attitudes towards tourism
11. Sustainability 2020, 12, 5938 11 of 20
Table A1. Cont.
No. Author(s) Location Focus of the Study
30.
Lima & d’Hauteserre
(2011) [65]
Brazil Role of community capitals in ecotourism development
31.
Matarrita-Cascante,
Brennan, & Luloff
(2010) [155]
Costa Rica
Local social interactional elements necessary for achievement of
sustainable tourism practices
32.
33.
Mitchell & Eagles
(2001) [132]
Peru Level of integration of communities in the local tourism sector
34.
Moswete, Thapa, &
Child (2012) [120]
Botswana
Attitudes and opinions of local and national public sector
stakeholders towards community participation in PA
35.
Moswete, Thapa, &
Lacey (2009) [156]
Botswana Village-based tourism and community participation
36.
37.
38.
Nelson (2004) [77] Tanzania The evolution and impacts of community-based ecotourism
39.
Nguangchaiyapoom,
Yongvanit, & Sripun
(2012) [74]
Thailand
Development of CBT at with a specific focus on local
management practices
40.
Nyaupane, Morais, &
Dowler (2006) [157]
Nepal
Role of community involvement and number/type of visitors on
tourism impacts
41. Ogutu (2002) [107] Kenya
Impact of ecotourism on livelihoods and natural
resource management
42. Okazaki (2008) [33] Philippines Development and application of a CBT model
43.
Paimin et al.
(2014) [158]
Malaysia Community participation and barriers in rural tourism
44.
Pawson, D’Arcy, &
Richardson (2017) [159]
Cambodia
Community’s attitudes, opinions, and beliefs concerning the
contribution of CBT
45. Prachvuthy (2006) [91] Cambodia Distribution of community-based tourism income in the community
46.
Ramos & Prideaux
(2014) [90]
Mexico Issues related to the level of Indigenous community empowerment
47.
Reimer & Walter
(2013) [116]
Cambodia
Application of an analytical framework for “authentic” ecotourism to
examine the social dimensions of ecotourism
48.
49.
50.
Rozemeijer (2000) [92] Tanzania
ODA experiences and lessons learned from CBT development
and management
51.
Saufi, O’Brien, &
Wilkins (2014) [24]
Indonesia
Community perceptions of obstacles to their participation in
tourism development
52. Sebele (2010) [93] Botswana Benefits and challenges of CBT
53.
54.
Somarriba-Chang &
Gunnarsdotter
(2012) [124]
Nicaragua
Factors for community participation in ecotourism and impact
on conservation
55.
Stone & Stone
(2011) [97]
Botswana Community participation in a CBT enterprise
56. Ellis (2011) [160] Cambodia Role of community in successful implementation of CBT
57. Southgate (2006) [161] Kenya
Vulnerability of communities and internal conflicts as barriers for
bottom-up CBT
58. Stronza (2010) [125] Peru Relationship between ecotourism and commons management
59. Sundjaya (2005) [75] Indonesia Mangrove conservation through ecotourism development
60.
Timothy & White
(1999) [55]
Belize
Participatory planning and division of economic benefits in a
CBT initiative
61.
62.
63.
64.
Wunder (1999) [162] Colombia/Peru Link between tourism, local benefits, and incentives for conservation
65. Yeboah (2013) [163] Ghana Community participation in ecotourism projects
66.
Zanotti & Chernela
(2008) [164]
Brazil Conventions of education as a form of empowerment in ecotourism
12. Sustainability 2020, 12, 5938 12 of 20
Table A1. Cont.
No. Author(s) Location Focus of the Study
DEVELOPED NATIONS
67. Albrecht (2010) [165] New Zealand
Challenges in tourism strategy implementation in
peripheral destinations
68.
Ateljevic & Doorne
(2003) [166]
Croatia Small-scale tourism entrepreneurship
69. Berry (2006) [126] USA Lesions from small-scale tourism development
70. Butler (2014) [164] UK Bird watching tourism in the countryside
71. Casey (2003) [127] Ireland Small-scale village tourism development
72.
Colton & Harris (2007)
[137]
Canada Indigenous ecotourism’s role in community development
73.
Dyer, Aberdeen, &
Schuler (2003) [68]
Australia Tourism impacts on an Indigenous community
74. Forde (2011) [134] Norway
Transforming impact of tourism (new images, narratives,
representations) in a village
75.
76.
George, Mair, & Reid
(2009) [128]
Canada Small-scale rural tourism development
77.
Hashimoto & Telfer
(2011) [89]
Japan Female empowerment through agritourism in a rural area
78.
Idziak, Majewski, &
Zmy´slony (2015) [165]
Poland
Role of community involvement in
theme village development
79.
Kastenholz et al.
(2012) [46]
Portugal Use of heritage and traditions in rural tourism in a village
80. Keyim (2018) [69] Finland
Tourism collaborative governance
and rural community development
81.
Kneafsey (2000) [58]
France
‘Bottom-up’ tourism development in peripheral rural locations
82. Ireland
83. Macleod (2004) [70] Spain Changes inflicted by tourism development in island communities
84.
Marsh & Barre
(2006) [135]
Canada
Planning, development, impact, and management of small-scale
tourism in a cold-water island location
85.
Milne, Ward, & Wenzel
(1995) [166]
Canada
Key issues to strengthening the links between tourism and the
region’s arts
86. Monaghan (2012) [82] Australia
Response of indigenous communities to threats and challenges posed
by commercialization of culture
87.
Müller & Huuva
(2009) [78]
Sweden
Constraints preventing an indigenous community getting more
involved in tourism development
88.
Otterstad, Capota, &
Simion (2011) [167]
Romania
Project aimed at sustainable tourism to
counteract an ongoing extinction of a fish species
89.
90.
Rockett & Ramsey
(2017) [45]
Canada Resident perceptions of rural tourism development
91.
Ruiz-Ballesteros &
Caceres-Feria
(2016) [109]
Spain
Participation of amenity migrants in the development of CBT and the
effect on community building
92.
Salvatore, Chiodo, &
Fantini (2018) [52]
Italy
Governance and transition within the tourist supply in peripheral
rural areas
93. Silva (2015) [110] Portugal
Ecotourism at the community-level: Governance of resources,
economic sustainability, cultural identity, and social relations
94.
Strickland-Munro &
Moore (2013) [83]
Australia
Indigenous involvement and benefits from
tourism in protected areas
95.
Trau & Bushell
(2008) [80]
Australia Operation of an indigenous CBT enterprise
96.
Tsaur, Lin, & Lin
(2006) [168]
Taiwan
Evaluation of ecotourism sustainability from the integrated
perspective of resource, community, and tourism
97.
Vafadari, Cooper, &
Nakamuran (2014) [136]
Japan Rural tourism and regional revitalization
98.
Valaoras, Pistolas, &
Sotriopoulou (2002) [76]
Greece Development of mountain rural tourism and nature conservation
13. Sustainability 2020, 12, 5938 13 of 20
Table A1. Cont.
No. Author(s) Location Focus of the Study
99. Verbole (2000) [94] Slovenia
Social and political dimensions of the rural tourism
development process
100.
Weinberg, Bellows, &
Ekster (2002) [79]
New Zealand
Ecological, economic, social, and political challenges faced by an
ecotourism initiative
101. Waldren (1997) [129] Spain
Long term view of the changing significance of foreigners in local life
and the processes of identity-construction and de-construction
102.
Wang, Cater, & Low
(2016) [95]
Taiwan Political challenges in community-based ecotourism
103.
Wiltshier & Cardow
(2006) [169]
New Zealand
Planning, development, impact, and management of small-scale
tourism in a cold-water island location
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