This document provides a summary of a water and sanitation report on schools in Kanungu, Uganda. The report studied water access, quality, and sanitation in 30 primary and secondary schools through questionnaires with school staff and focus groups with students. It found that while most schools have access to a tap, breakdowns requiring alternative water sources were common and often lasted over a week. Less than 20% of schools met government water usage targets. Treated drinking water was tested and 85% showed evidence of fecal contamination, indicating treatment efforts were largely unsuccessful. Focus groups revealed problems like school-community conflicts contributed to limited water access. Maintaining hygiene and sanitation often had low priority compared to other water uses. The report concludes
This study examined the level of water awareness among 320 Jordanian university students. It assessed awareness in three areas: the significance of water in life, water problems in Jordan, and water conservation.
The study found a weak level of awareness about water's significance, with 57% recognizing its importance. Scientific students had higher awareness than those in humanitarian fields. Most students acknowledged Jordan's water problems but solutions focused more on government than individual actions.
Awareness of water conservation was also weak, with only 31% interested. Males had slightly lower conservation awareness than females. The study recommends increasing water-related topics in humanitarian curricula and encouraging personal conservation activities to raise awareness.
This study assessed the impact of municipal piped water in Old Dhaka, Bangladesh on public health. A survey of a local hospital found that approximately 40% of patients were admitted for water-borne diseases like diarrhea, typhoid, dysentery and hepatitis A. Children were the most vulnerable, comprising 70% of water-borne disease cases. Incidence rates were highest in the wet season and lowest in the dry season. However, all community respondents considered the piped water unsafe for drinking without treatment due to the risk of contamination.
Over the past 50 years, water problems in Kenya have escalated and accessing clean water now poses one of the greatest challenges facing Kenyan society. Lack of safe water and adequate sanitation is the leading cause of illness in Kenya. While factors like water scarcity, climate change, and fragmented management systems have exacerbated the water crisis, weaknesses in water education are also a major obstacle to effective water management and development. Improving water education for students, teachers, leaders and citizens is crucial to inspire innovative solutions, empower local action, and quantify water resources, needs and relationships to development. Universities should develop specialized education materials to address priority water topics and help Kenya progress towards a happier, healthier future with sustainable water access.
This document outlines the Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in Schools (WINS) policy implementation in the Philippines. It discusses key components of WINS including provision of safe water, hygiene facilities, education, and deworming. Statistics on water access, toilets, and solid waste management in schools are provided. Implications of WINS include improved health, attendance, and learning as well as establishing standards for a safe school environment. Challenges to implementation include scope, increasing enrollment, logistics, and coordination across agencies.
The newsletter from Siyahser Secondary School discusses a student questionnaire about saving energy and water. Fifty students answered questions about their habits relating to renewable energy sources, heating, electronics use, lighting, transportation, bathing, water usage, and leak reporting. The results of the questionnaire found that most students understand renewable energy, turn off lights when leaving rooms, and report leaks, while around half believe oil is renewable or increase heating when cold. This information was shared with other students to research and promote energy and water conservation.
Drinking Water Quality and Sanitation Issues: A Survey of a Semi-Urban Settin...IJRES Journal
An assessment on the drinking water quality from major source (borehole) and household in a semi-urban setting in Nigeria was carried out. Structured questionnaire was administered to randomly selected households in seven zones of the municipality to determine the common method of collection and transportation, storage, and sanitation practices. Water samples collected were subjected to laboratory analyses for physico-chemical and microbial properties. The result of the physico-chemical analysis when compared against the World Health Organization (WHO) and Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON) drinking water quality benchmark revealed that the water samples were within standards for consumable water except for the presence of feacal contamination. The result revealed that before water can be totally considered safe for drinking, further treatment is required at the household level due to fecal contamination, and water safety concerns are also highlighted. The result translates to the fact that compliance assessment with standards and impact assessment studies in determining the fate of pollutants is necessary at all levels.
Status of Sanitation and Hygienic Conditions in Urban Communities in Gomoa Ea...Premier Publishers
The study examined the sanitation and hygienic conditions in urban communities in Gomoa East District in Central Region of Ghana. A cross sectional survey research design was adopted for the study. Simple random sampling technique was used to select 360 inhabitants from three urban communities. A structured questionnaire was used for data collection. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyse the data. The study revealed that tap water was the major source of drinking water in the communities, usually purchased from water vendors and stored in closed containers. Most inhabitants (42.5 %) used Public Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) latrines. Some household toilets (21.7 %) never had covers whilst the ones which had covers too were not closed after they had been used. As a result, most toilets produced offensive odour. Unwholesome environmental practices such as open dumping and burning of garbage were prevalent in the study area. The result of the multiple logistic regression showed significant association between gender and their participation in community sanitation exercise (p < 0.05) with male showing more participation than females (OR = 0.516, C.I = 0.308 – 0.865). The state of sanitation and hygienic conditions in the Gomoa East District was inadequate. There is the need for the District Environmental Health and Sanitation Department to establish and enforce a more robust environmental sanitation approach and health education to improve upon sanitary conditions in the Gomoa East District.
This study examined the level of water awareness among 320 Jordanian university students. It assessed awareness in three areas: the significance of water in life, water problems in Jordan, and water conservation.
The study found a weak level of awareness about water's significance, with 57% recognizing its importance. Scientific students had higher awareness than those in humanitarian fields. Most students acknowledged Jordan's water problems but solutions focused more on government than individual actions.
Awareness of water conservation was also weak, with only 31% interested. Males had slightly lower conservation awareness than females. The study recommends increasing water-related topics in humanitarian curricula and encouraging personal conservation activities to raise awareness.
This study assessed the impact of municipal piped water in Old Dhaka, Bangladesh on public health. A survey of a local hospital found that approximately 40% of patients were admitted for water-borne diseases like diarrhea, typhoid, dysentery and hepatitis A. Children were the most vulnerable, comprising 70% of water-borne disease cases. Incidence rates were highest in the wet season and lowest in the dry season. However, all community respondents considered the piped water unsafe for drinking without treatment due to the risk of contamination.
Over the past 50 years, water problems in Kenya have escalated and accessing clean water now poses one of the greatest challenges facing Kenyan society. Lack of safe water and adequate sanitation is the leading cause of illness in Kenya. While factors like water scarcity, climate change, and fragmented management systems have exacerbated the water crisis, weaknesses in water education are also a major obstacle to effective water management and development. Improving water education for students, teachers, leaders and citizens is crucial to inspire innovative solutions, empower local action, and quantify water resources, needs and relationships to development. Universities should develop specialized education materials to address priority water topics and help Kenya progress towards a happier, healthier future with sustainable water access.
This document outlines the Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in Schools (WINS) policy implementation in the Philippines. It discusses key components of WINS including provision of safe water, hygiene facilities, education, and deworming. Statistics on water access, toilets, and solid waste management in schools are provided. Implications of WINS include improved health, attendance, and learning as well as establishing standards for a safe school environment. Challenges to implementation include scope, increasing enrollment, logistics, and coordination across agencies.
The newsletter from Siyahser Secondary School discusses a student questionnaire about saving energy and water. Fifty students answered questions about their habits relating to renewable energy sources, heating, electronics use, lighting, transportation, bathing, water usage, and leak reporting. The results of the questionnaire found that most students understand renewable energy, turn off lights when leaving rooms, and report leaks, while around half believe oil is renewable or increase heating when cold. This information was shared with other students to research and promote energy and water conservation.
Drinking Water Quality and Sanitation Issues: A Survey of a Semi-Urban Settin...IJRES Journal
An assessment on the drinking water quality from major source (borehole) and household in a semi-urban setting in Nigeria was carried out. Structured questionnaire was administered to randomly selected households in seven zones of the municipality to determine the common method of collection and transportation, storage, and sanitation practices. Water samples collected were subjected to laboratory analyses for physico-chemical and microbial properties. The result of the physico-chemical analysis when compared against the World Health Organization (WHO) and Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON) drinking water quality benchmark revealed that the water samples were within standards for consumable water except for the presence of feacal contamination. The result revealed that before water can be totally considered safe for drinking, further treatment is required at the household level due to fecal contamination, and water safety concerns are also highlighted. The result translates to the fact that compliance assessment with standards and impact assessment studies in determining the fate of pollutants is necessary at all levels.
Status of Sanitation and Hygienic Conditions in Urban Communities in Gomoa Ea...Premier Publishers
The study examined the sanitation and hygienic conditions in urban communities in Gomoa East District in Central Region of Ghana. A cross sectional survey research design was adopted for the study. Simple random sampling technique was used to select 360 inhabitants from three urban communities. A structured questionnaire was used for data collection. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyse the data. The study revealed that tap water was the major source of drinking water in the communities, usually purchased from water vendors and stored in closed containers. Most inhabitants (42.5 %) used Public Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) latrines. Some household toilets (21.7 %) never had covers whilst the ones which had covers too were not closed after they had been used. As a result, most toilets produced offensive odour. Unwholesome environmental practices such as open dumping and burning of garbage were prevalent in the study area. The result of the multiple logistic regression showed significant association between gender and their participation in community sanitation exercise (p < 0.05) with male showing more participation than females (OR = 0.516, C.I = 0.308 – 0.865). The state of sanitation and hygienic conditions in the Gomoa East District was inadequate. There is the need for the District Environmental Health and Sanitation Department to establish and enforce a more robust environmental sanitation approach and health education to improve upon sanitary conditions in the Gomoa East District.
This document lists 46 research publications by Navaraj Perumalsamy between 1993 and 2013. The publications cover a wide range of topics including the effects of industrial effluents and heavy metals on fish physiology and enzymes, water quality assessment, nanomaterials use in water purification, climate change impacts on groundwater, science communication, and wastewater reuse. Many of the publications appear in international journals and the publications also include conference presentations in India, France, and other countries.
This study investigated compliance with boil water notices (BWNs) issued in Ireland. The author conducted a questionnaire and interviewed professionals to understand awareness and compliance levels. Results showed 54.9% of respondents were aware of BWNs in their area. Actual compliance was only 20.7%, much lower than the perceived compliance rate of 48.8%. Non-compliance was due to a lack of understanding about BWNs and over-reliance on bottled water. The study concluded compliance is poor and recommendations included improving communication strategies and public education on BWNs.
The document outlines the key elements of the Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in Schools (WINS) program in the Philippines, which are: water, sanitation, hygiene, health education, and deworming. It details that schools must ensure access to safe drinking water and water for handwashing, proper toilet facilities and solid waste management, daily supervised handwashing and toothbrushing, menstrual hygiene, health education, and semi-annual deworming of 85% of students.
Addressing key bottlenecks in WASH in Schools - UNICEF India experiencesIRC
This presentation deals with issues around WASH in Schools in India as experienced by UNICEF India. The presentation was given during the SWASH+ webinar in December 2012.
Public Health Schools in Action to Improve Community Health: The Flint Water ...Practical Playbook
Public health schools in Michigan are collaborating with communities to address the Flint water crisis. Studies by Dr. Mona demonstrated high lead levels in Flint's water. Universities are now offering free courses on the water crisis, creating a data repository, and facilitating workshops to aid recovery. A research team also recommended best practices for using point-of-use water filters beyond manufacturers' instructions. Universities have partnered with communities by distributing filters, screening for lead, and volunteering faculty and students.
Water, sanitation and diarrheal disease presentationWillie Mtwana
This document summarizes a study on water, sanitation, and diarrheal disease in Murii Village, Kenya. The study found that most residents had access to piped water and latrines. However, some still obtained water from unprotected sources. While few cases of diarrhea were reported, knowledge of causes was limited. The study concluded access to water and sanitation was generally good, and recommended further health education to promote alternative water treatment methods.
Dr. P.S. Navaraj is a senior professor and former principal of Annai Fathima College of Arts and Science in Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India. He received his M.Sc. in Zoology from Madras University in 1978 and his Ph.D. in Zoology from Madurai Kamaraj University in 2006. His areas of research include environmental toxicology, wastewater remediation, nanotoxicology, and water quality testing. He has over 35 years of teaching experience and has guided over 45 M.Sc. and 35 M.Phil. students. He has also completed several research projects funded by organizations like UGC and published over 50 research papers.
This document provides personal and professional details of Dr. P.S. Navaraj. He is currently the Principal of Annai Fathima College of Arts and Science in Madurai. He received his M.Sc, M.Ed, M.Phil and Ph.D from various universities in India. His areas of research include environmental toxicology, wastewater remediation, and nanotoxicology. He has over 35 years of teaching experience and has guided many M.Sc, M.Phil and Ph.D students. He has also held various administrative positions like Dean and Principal. He has received several national and international awards for his contributions to teaching and research.
The document discusses the importance of access to safe drinking water and sanitation for health. It notes that lack of access to clean water and sanitation is a major cause of diseases and mortality in developing countries like India. While India has made progress in improving access to water and sanitation over the decades, major challenges still remain. Nearly 800 million people in India still lack access to improved sanitation facilities as of 2012. Addressing issues like open defecation, water contamination, and ensuring access to sanitation for all remains a priority.
Suitability of tube wells water for drinking at lalpur upazila in natore dist...Khulna University
The aim of the study was to observe the suitability of tube-wells water consumed by people of Lalpur upazila in Natore district for drinking purpose in comparison to standard of World Health Organization (WHO) and the standard of Bangladesh. In this study, it was tried to find out the physical and chemical conditions of the drinkable tube-wells water used in the studied region and to observe the presence or absence of total coliform & Escherichia coli bacteria.
This document outlines the vision and programs of FoodFight, an organization that provides food education in schools. It notes that 1/3 of US children are obese or overweight due to lack of nutrition education and marketing of unhealthy foods. FoodFight aims to educate students, teachers, and parents to make healthier choices through various classroom and community programs that have been shown to improve eating habits and increase understanding of food systems. The organization is led by experienced educators and health experts and seeks to empower stakeholders to advocate for better access to nutrition.
What does the latest WASH in Schools literature say?
There has been an increase in recent years on studies assessing the impact of WinS on health and education of school-age children. However, there is still a need for rigorous evidence on efficacy and effectiveness of WinS programs, specifically on
the integration of WinS with other health and educational approaches consistent with
the belief that WinS is foundational for creating an enabling environment for a childcentered
learning environment. Most critical is the need to ensure sustained services
and behavior change.
O documento descreve um plano de site para um edifício modular usando contexto do local para definir uma estrutura de edifício e padrão organizacional. Ele lista elementos do programa como estúdios privados, tráfego pedestre, anfiteatro e admite um.
This document is a message from a father and mother to their daughter Daniela. It is dated April 8, 2006 to April 8, 2014, spanning 8 years. The parents express their love for their daughter.
The document summarizes the development of Sixth Sense technology, a wearable gestural interface system developed in 1997-1998. It consists of a pocket projector, camera, and mobile device. The projector projects interfaces onto surfaces while the camera tracks hand gestures to interact with projected interfaces. Several demo applications are described to showcase its capabilities, such as projecting maps, clocks, and internet content. While the technology received media attention in 2009, commercialization has been delayed due to technical challenges.
Learning theories can be categorized into behavioral, constructivist, socio-cultural, and cognitive approaches. Behavioral theories such as classical conditioning and operant conditioning focus on the association between stimuli and responses. Constructivism posits that learning is an active process where learners construct new ideas based on past knowledge. Socio-cultural theory emphasizes the important role social interaction plays in cognitive development. Cognitive theories examine internal cognitive processes and believe that learning involves gaining insight. The different learning theories provide various perspectives on how learning occurs.
This document summarizes key discussions from the 2015 Africa Prosperity Summit in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. The summit brought together thinkers from Africa and abroad to discuss drivers of prosperity on the continent, including the role of women, entrepreneurship, data, and security. Speakers highlighted positive trends in Africa, like the growth of innovation hubs and technology businesses in countries such as Tanzania, Kenya, South Africa, and others. However, challenges remain, and better data is still needed to inform policy and decision-making. The summit aimed to spur new partnerships and solutions to promote prosperity across Africa by focusing on the potential of individuals.
This document lists 46 research publications by Navaraj Perumalsamy between 1993 and 2013. The publications cover a wide range of topics including the effects of industrial effluents and heavy metals on fish physiology and enzymes, water quality assessment, nanomaterials use in water purification, climate change impacts on groundwater, science communication, and wastewater reuse. Many of the publications appear in international journals and the publications also include conference presentations in India, France, and other countries.
This study investigated compliance with boil water notices (BWNs) issued in Ireland. The author conducted a questionnaire and interviewed professionals to understand awareness and compliance levels. Results showed 54.9% of respondents were aware of BWNs in their area. Actual compliance was only 20.7%, much lower than the perceived compliance rate of 48.8%. Non-compliance was due to a lack of understanding about BWNs and over-reliance on bottled water. The study concluded compliance is poor and recommendations included improving communication strategies and public education on BWNs.
The document outlines the key elements of the Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in Schools (WINS) program in the Philippines, which are: water, sanitation, hygiene, health education, and deworming. It details that schools must ensure access to safe drinking water and water for handwashing, proper toilet facilities and solid waste management, daily supervised handwashing and toothbrushing, menstrual hygiene, health education, and semi-annual deworming of 85% of students.
Addressing key bottlenecks in WASH in Schools - UNICEF India experiencesIRC
This presentation deals with issues around WASH in Schools in India as experienced by UNICEF India. The presentation was given during the SWASH+ webinar in December 2012.
Public Health Schools in Action to Improve Community Health: The Flint Water ...Practical Playbook
Public health schools in Michigan are collaborating with communities to address the Flint water crisis. Studies by Dr. Mona demonstrated high lead levels in Flint's water. Universities are now offering free courses on the water crisis, creating a data repository, and facilitating workshops to aid recovery. A research team also recommended best practices for using point-of-use water filters beyond manufacturers' instructions. Universities have partnered with communities by distributing filters, screening for lead, and volunteering faculty and students.
Water, sanitation and diarrheal disease presentationWillie Mtwana
This document summarizes a study on water, sanitation, and diarrheal disease in Murii Village, Kenya. The study found that most residents had access to piped water and latrines. However, some still obtained water from unprotected sources. While few cases of diarrhea were reported, knowledge of causes was limited. The study concluded access to water and sanitation was generally good, and recommended further health education to promote alternative water treatment methods.
Dr. P.S. Navaraj is a senior professor and former principal of Annai Fathima College of Arts and Science in Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India. He received his M.Sc. in Zoology from Madras University in 1978 and his Ph.D. in Zoology from Madurai Kamaraj University in 2006. His areas of research include environmental toxicology, wastewater remediation, nanotoxicology, and water quality testing. He has over 35 years of teaching experience and has guided over 45 M.Sc. and 35 M.Phil. students. He has also completed several research projects funded by organizations like UGC and published over 50 research papers.
This document provides personal and professional details of Dr. P.S. Navaraj. He is currently the Principal of Annai Fathima College of Arts and Science in Madurai. He received his M.Sc, M.Ed, M.Phil and Ph.D from various universities in India. His areas of research include environmental toxicology, wastewater remediation, and nanotoxicology. He has over 35 years of teaching experience and has guided many M.Sc, M.Phil and Ph.D students. He has also held various administrative positions like Dean and Principal. He has received several national and international awards for his contributions to teaching and research.
The document discusses the importance of access to safe drinking water and sanitation for health. It notes that lack of access to clean water and sanitation is a major cause of diseases and mortality in developing countries like India. While India has made progress in improving access to water and sanitation over the decades, major challenges still remain. Nearly 800 million people in India still lack access to improved sanitation facilities as of 2012. Addressing issues like open defecation, water contamination, and ensuring access to sanitation for all remains a priority.
Suitability of tube wells water for drinking at lalpur upazila in natore dist...Khulna University
The aim of the study was to observe the suitability of tube-wells water consumed by people of Lalpur upazila in Natore district for drinking purpose in comparison to standard of World Health Organization (WHO) and the standard of Bangladesh. In this study, it was tried to find out the physical and chemical conditions of the drinkable tube-wells water used in the studied region and to observe the presence or absence of total coliform & Escherichia coli bacteria.
This document outlines the vision and programs of FoodFight, an organization that provides food education in schools. It notes that 1/3 of US children are obese or overweight due to lack of nutrition education and marketing of unhealthy foods. FoodFight aims to educate students, teachers, and parents to make healthier choices through various classroom and community programs that have been shown to improve eating habits and increase understanding of food systems. The organization is led by experienced educators and health experts and seeks to empower stakeholders to advocate for better access to nutrition.
What does the latest WASH in Schools literature say?
There has been an increase in recent years on studies assessing the impact of WinS on health and education of school-age children. However, there is still a need for rigorous evidence on efficacy and effectiveness of WinS programs, specifically on
the integration of WinS with other health and educational approaches consistent with
the belief that WinS is foundational for creating an enabling environment for a childcentered
learning environment. Most critical is the need to ensure sustained services
and behavior change.
O documento descreve um plano de site para um edifício modular usando contexto do local para definir uma estrutura de edifício e padrão organizacional. Ele lista elementos do programa como estúdios privados, tráfego pedestre, anfiteatro e admite um.
This document is a message from a father and mother to their daughter Daniela. It is dated April 8, 2006 to April 8, 2014, spanning 8 years. The parents express their love for their daughter.
The document summarizes the development of Sixth Sense technology, a wearable gestural interface system developed in 1997-1998. It consists of a pocket projector, camera, and mobile device. The projector projects interfaces onto surfaces while the camera tracks hand gestures to interact with projected interfaces. Several demo applications are described to showcase its capabilities, such as projecting maps, clocks, and internet content. While the technology received media attention in 2009, commercialization has been delayed due to technical challenges.
Learning theories can be categorized into behavioral, constructivist, socio-cultural, and cognitive approaches. Behavioral theories such as classical conditioning and operant conditioning focus on the association between stimuli and responses. Constructivism posits that learning is an active process where learners construct new ideas based on past knowledge. Socio-cultural theory emphasizes the important role social interaction plays in cognitive development. Cognitive theories examine internal cognitive processes and believe that learning involves gaining insight. The different learning theories provide various perspectives on how learning occurs.
This document summarizes key discussions from the 2015 Africa Prosperity Summit in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. The summit brought together thinkers from Africa and abroad to discuss drivers of prosperity on the continent, including the role of women, entrepreneurship, data, and security. Speakers highlighted positive trends in Africa, like the growth of innovation hubs and technology businesses in countries such as Tanzania, Kenya, South Africa, and others. However, challenges remain, and better data is still needed to inform policy and decision-making. The summit aimed to spur new partnerships and solutions to promote prosperity across Africa by focusing on the potential of individuals.
This document provides an overview of Microsoft Office 365. It discusses that Office 365 brings together cloud versions of trusted communications and collaboration tools like Exchange, SharePoint, and Lync. It then covers the key components of Office 365 including Exchange Online, SharePoint Online, Lync Online, and Office Pro Plus. The document also outlines the benefits of Office 365 such as reliability, security, device access, and pricing flexibility. It provides hardware and software requirements and describes features of each Office 365 component in more detail. Finally, it discusses managing, training, and setting up Office 365 accounts.
The Election Commission of India is responsible for administering elections in the country. It consists of a Chief Election Commissioner and two Election Commissioners. The key functions of the Commission include being the guardian of free and fair elections through measures like the Model Code of Conduct, registering political parties, setting limits on election expenses, and prohibiting the publication of opinion polls. It also has quasi-judicial powers. The Commission aims to ensure that elections are held regularly and democratically through a large election machinery across states.
1) GAIL is India's largest natural gas company, operating a pipeline network across the country.
2) The Dibiyapur compressor station boosts incoming gas pressure for local consumers like fertilizer plants and power stations.
3) It uses gas turbine compressors and generators to compress the gas in two stages to 90kg/cm2 for delivery through pipelines.
Assessment of the Household Practices of Drinking Water Collection, Transport...ijtsrd
Introduction The supply of potable water in low resource countries has been a public health concern, with frequent water interruptions, leaving the population vulnerable to access to potable water in households, which renders the population at risk of waterborne diseases like cholera. Our objectives were to assess the household practices of drinking water collection, transportation and storage in the Fako Division of the Southwest Region of Cameroon.Methods This was a cross sectional study with a mixed method approach. Focus Group Discussions were done to get an inside of the observed practices and a quasi experimental study with education as an intervention. A total of 394 households were randomly selected and issued a pretested questionnaire. A multistage random sampling technique was used to recruit the participants in the households in the four health districts of Fako. For the quasi experiment, 50 water samples from 50 homes were tested before and after the intervention to measure the mean microbial score in stored household drinking water. A one sample t test was used to compare the mean microbial colony count at baseline and 3 months post intervention. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 23. Crude and adjusted odds ratios and confidence intervals were reported at a significance level of 0.05. Results Assessing the participants practice in drinking water collection and transportation, 273 69.3 of the participants reported public taps as their primary source of drinking water. The main alternative source of drinking water was spring 233 59.1 . More than half 56.3 of the respondents reported that they take more than 30 minutes to fetch water, done mostly by children 62.2 , and the majority 89.1 do this by trekking. Over half, 268 68 of the participants used buckets with lids, and 119 30.2 , use jerry cans to fetch water. A total of 184 46.7 reported a bucket with a lid as the water storage container meanwhile 34 8.6 and 176 44.7 stored water in a bucket with no lid and jerry cans respectively. Almost a half 180 46.9 store their drinking water for more than 2 days. The mean bacterial colony count 29.72 ± 40.07 after the intervention was significantly lower than the mean bacterial colony at baseline 71.4 ± 68.38, t 50 = 6.846, P 0.001 .Conclusion The primary source of drinking water in Fako is public tap, alternative source being a spring. More than half of the participants trek to fetch water and almost half of the participants store drinking water for more than 2 days. Intervention with health education significantly lowered the mean bacterial colony count in household drinking water. Malika Esembeson | Palle John Ngunde | Kamgno Joseph | Ronald Gobina | Vivian EA Eta | Binwi Florence Nkemayim | Ndefon Peter | Serge Ngekeng | Kukwah Anthony Tufon | Ngomba Divine Martin Mokake | Henry Dilonga Meriki | Njunda Anna Longdoh "Assessment of the Household Practices of Drinking Water Collection, Transportation and Storage in Fako Division, South-
1. A Link NCA was conducted in four municipalities in Masbate Province, Philippines between 2014-2015. Due to a typhoon, the quantitative survey had to be stopped and data from a previous UNICEF survey was used instead.
2. Key findings identified poor sanitation infrastructure (hypothesis K), open defecation (hypothesis J), and poor liquid/solid waste management (hypothesis L and M) as major contributors to undernutrition.
3. Participants reported issues with open defecation due to lack of toilets and public latrines. They also faced challenges with solid and liquid waste management due to lack of disposal systems and garbage collection.
Microbiological and Physicochemical analysis of WaterMiracleLivinus1
This document provides an overview of a research proposal to analyze the microbiological and physiochemical quality of five brands of sachet water sold in Nassarawa L.G.A, Kano State, Nigeria. The study aims to 1) evaluate microbiological quality by assessing for bacteria, fungi and other microbes, 2) analyze physiochemical properties like pH and turbidity, 3) identify potential contamination sources, and 4) compare results to regulatory standards. Water samples will be collected from various locations using random and systematic sampling. Microbiological and physiochemical analysis will be conducted in a laboratory. The results could help improve water quality, promote regulatory compliance, and increase consumer awareness of safe water practices.
This project aims to improve access to clean water and sanitation in rural Cambodia. It will construct new water points and repair existing ones for 29 villages, establishing a maintenance program to ensure long-term sustainability. It will also promote better hygiene practices through community workshops and build latrines in 8 schools. This 3-year project, which complements government goals, expects to train local maintenance teams and gradually transfer responsibility to community water groups and provincial authorities to continue support after project completion.
Students Report On Unavailability of Drinking Water (2).docxmalikaharif3
This report discusses the persistent issue of unavailable drinking water at Sindh Madarsatul Islam University. It explores potential solutions to address the water challenges and ensure a sustainable water supply. The lack of accessible drinking water poses health risks and hinders students' academic performance. The report analyzes factors contributing to the issue and evaluates its impacts. It is proposed that infrastructure improvements, increased maintenance, water conservation efforts, and exploring alternative sources could help alleviate the problem.
This research proposal examines factors affecting the sustainability of clean water supply facilities in Ayana Town, Ethiopia. It will assess the functionality and service level of existing water schemes, as well as institutional initiatives to address problems. The study area has poor water access and health issues. Data will be collected through surveys and from water offices. The analysis will identify factors influencing sustainability and the government's role in basic service provision. Results aim to inform officials and future research on improving clean water accessibility for all residents.
This document discusses water access issues faced by schools in Kenya and the impact of a project called SWASH+ that aimed to improve water, sanitation, and hygiene in schools. It notes that before the project, schools relied on muddy creeks and rivers for water that were far away, especially in dry seasons. The SWASH+ project provided schools with boreholes and rainwater harvesting to improve access. A study found this reduced student diarrhea and illness. However, water also needs to be consistently treated and provided to be effective, which schools struggled with due to costs and priorities. Maintaining infrastructure was also a challenge. Reliable access to water, treatment, and resources are all important for student health and attendance.
High Five program: final report (2011-2014)abby ati
The final report of High Five program, a sanitation and hygiene practices improvement program, implemented in three cities in Indonesia: Medan, Surabaya and Makassar.
School water, sanitation & hygiene (wash) clubs; indicators of an active club...Dr. Joshua Zake
This presentation was made and delivered during an engagement with school leadership of 5 selected Kampala Capital City Authority (KCCA) schools in Kampala - with an objective of strengthening School Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) Clubs based on their role and contributions for advancing inclusive and sustainable WASH in schools. This is part of an initiative by Environmental Alert in collaboration with KCCA and Water Aid Uganda through the framework of the Sustainable WASH project. WASH project.
Presentation in the school clubs training -background n context of shc--fwd-...ENVIRONMENTALALERTEA1
SCHOOL WATER, SANITATION & HYGIENE (WASH) CLUBS; INDICATORS OF AN ACTIVE CLUB, ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES FOR EFFECTIVE WASH IMPROVEMENT
IN SCHOOLS.
Presented by Dr. Joshua Zake (PhD)—Executive Director, Environmental Alert;
Co-Author—Mr. Kizito Charles—Program Assistant (ENR)
Presentation in the school clubs training -background n context of shc--fwd-...ENVIRONMENTALALERTEA1
SCHOOL WATER, SANITATION & HYGIENE (WASH) CLUBS; INDICATORS OF AN ACTIVE CLUB, ROLES AND
RESPONSIBILITIES FOR EFFECTIVE WASH IMPROVEMENT IN SCHOOLS
Presented by Dr. Joshua Zake (PhD)—Executive Director, Environmental Alert;
Co-Author—Mr. Kizito Charles—Program Assistant (ENR)
Teaching Sustainability and Social Justice: A Resource for High School Teache...John W. Eppensteiner III
Water is a limited global resource that is essential to life but is increasingly under threat. Over 2 billion people currently lack access to clean drinking water and sanitation, resulting in water-related disease that causes over 1 million deaths annually. As the global population and economies continue to grow, demand for water is projected to increase 55% by 2050. Many industries and businesses rely heavily on water but face increasing physical, regulatory, and reputational risks associated with water scarcity and quality issues. Innovations in water sustainability, such as water footprinting and green infrastructure, are helping to address these global water challenges.
The document summarizes the process of developing and piloting water safety plans (WSPs) in Bangladesh. Model WSPs were developed for various rural water supply technologies through expert workshops. These plans and accompanying community monitoring tools were then piloted by several organizations, including NGOs and DPHE. The results of the pilots showed improvements in water quality and sanitation. Communities responded positively and saw benefits. Based on the success, WSPs are being scaled up nationally in Bangladesh to improve water safety.
1. The study evaluated the impact of an automated chlorination technology called Chlorun on providing safe drinking water in a rural Indian village called Namiligonda.
2. Baseline water quality testing found the village's surface water source to be highly contaminated with fecal coliform. Traditional intermittent chlorine treatment was unable to consistently disinfect the water.
3. The Chlorun system was installed to provide continuous 24/7 chlorination. Post-installation testing found E. coli was eliminated from the water during the study period and residual chlorine levels of 0.5 parts per million were maintained.
4. Health outcomes like incidence of diarrhea, weight gain in children, and hygiene
This document summarizes a study on consumer attitudes toward water purifiers in Erode City, India. The study collected data through questionnaires from 250 consumers. Key findings include:
1) The maximum number of respondents said the biggest problem with water purifiers was the cost of electricity to run them.
2) The quality of the water purifier was the biggest influence on what brand respondents selected.
3) Over half (53%) of respondents were between 20-30 years old.
Drinking Water Sanitation and Hygiene after Covid-19
VURU Water Paper 2014 (1)
1. Water and Sanitation Report: First Phase
Study, June 2014, Kanungu, Uganda
Volunteer
Uganda:
Research
Uganda
In
collabora*on
with
Great
Lakes
Regional
College
2. An investigation into water access, quality
and sanitation in primary and secondary
schools in Kanungu District
June 2014
Report prepared by Anthony Demetriou and Emma Kreeger
Research Coordinators, Volunteer Uganda
Data collection conducted by Olivia Beale, Liam Davies, Jared Joseph-White, Fiona Lam,
Adam Kee and Elena Suckling
In partnership with research interns at Great Lakes Regional College,
Kanungu:
Taremwa Hanningtone, Muhumuza Jackness, Atire Jones, Amanya Macklin, Ankwasa
Mercy, Musinguzi Paxtone, Kato Rachael, Oribariho Silver
With many thanks for the warm cooperation of the teachers working at the schools involved
with this study.
3.
4. Executive summary
Whilst
developed
countries
have
largely
passed
by
the
suffering
and
indignity
that
accompanies
water
and
hygiene
related
sickness,
for
large
swathes
of
the
developing
world
it
is
a
firmly
entrenched
feature
of
life.
780
million
people
lack
access
to
an
improved
water
source,
over
10%
of
the
global
popula*on.
While
it
is
es*mated
that
2.6
billion
people
lack
access
to
adequate
sanita*on,
38%
of
the
global
popula*on.
As
a
result
of
this,
more
than
3.4
million
people
die
each
year
from
water,
sanita*on
and
hygiene
related
causes.
Though
the
water
and
sanita*on
sector
in
Uganda
has
shown
improvements
over
the
past
20
years,
there
is
s*ll
great
need
in
these
areas.
One
quarter
of
the
Ugandan
popula*on,
9.2
million
people,
lack
access
to
safe
water.
Nearly
two
thirds
of
the
popula*on,
24
million
people,
lack
access
to
adequate
sanita*on.
Consistent
reports
of
typhoid
and
diarrhoeal
disease
in
the
Kanungu
district
have
prompted
a
more
thorough
enquiry
into
the
accessibility
of
safe
drinking
water,
inves*ga*ng
common
methods
of
water
treatment,
sanita*on
and
hygiene
prac*ces,
and
knowledge
and
awareness
of
waterborne
diseases.
Schools
were
chosen
as
our
unit
of
analysis
as
it
is
children
who
are
most
vulnerable
to
water
and
hygiene
related
disease.
A
mixed
methods
approach
was
applied
to
the
design
of
this
study
allowing
for
the
collec*on
of
both
quan*ta*ve
and
qualita*ve
data
through
ques*onnaire
based
interviews
and
focus
group
discussions.
A
ques*onnaire
was
designed
by
Volunteer
Uganda
research
co-‐ordinators.
It
was
used
as
the
basis
of
30
structured
interviews
carried
out
with
head
teachers
or
senior
staff
in
each
school
studied.
Focus
group
ques*ons
were
designed
to
correspond
with
the
content
of
the
ques*onnaire.
The
discussion
consisted
of
respondents
answering
9
open-‐ended
ques*ons.
Volunteer
Uganda:
Research
Uganda
(VURU)
research
interns
moderated
focus
groups
across
30
schools
in
Kanungu
District.
Treated
drinking
water
in
each
school
studied
was
also
tested
for
faecal
contamina*on,
the
most
common
cause
of
microbial
pathogens
found
in
water.
It
was
discovered
through
ques*onnaire
data
that
whilst
most
schools
have
access
to
a
tap,
83%
of
respondents
reported
the
need
to
use
alterna*ve
sources
because
of
breakdowns.
Over
two
thirds
of
respondents
said
that
the
last
breakdown
lasted
for
over
a
week.
Addi*onally,
less
than
1
in
5
schools
use
an
adequate
amount
of
water
according
to
government
water
usage
targets.
Almost
two
thirds
of
respondents
said
that
they
felt
their
school
does
not
have
enough
water.
Only
two
thirds
of
schools
provide
drinking
water
for
students,
despite
all
schools
providing
drinking
water
for
staff.
Sadly,
85%
of
the
treated
drinking
water
tested
posi*ve
for
faecal
contamina*on,
showing
that
efforts
at
treatment
are
largely
unsuccessful.
9
broad
themes
emerged
in
focus
group
discussions.
Among
these
is
the
problem
of
school-‐community
conflict
which,
focus
groups
revealed,
is
a
problem
contribu*ng
to
and
arising
from
limited
water
access.
This
finding
is
in
line
with
what
was
wri_en
in
a
2006
Ministry
of
Educa*on
report
and
a
2013
WaterAid
report
on
water
and
sanita*on
in
schools.
Another
prominent
finding
was
how
the
use
of
water
for
hygiene
and
sanita*on
oben
sits
at
the
bo_om
of
a
hierarchy
of
perceived
importance
of
water
uses.
Whilst
a
commonly
expressed
concern
is
that
children
do
not
see
the
significance
of
trea*ng
water
and
that
it
is
near
impossible
to
prevent
them
from
drinking
untreated
water.
A
discussion
of
our
results
and
some
recommended
interven*ons
can
be
found
in
the
final
chapter
of
this
report.
5. Introduction
1.1 The global context 7
1.2 Foundation stones of development 7
1.3 Reducing water and sanitation related disease: transforming health in developing countries 8
1.4 Freshwater: supply and demand 9
1.5 Water and sanitation in Uganda 10
1.6 Water and sanitation in Kanungu 11
Volunteer Uganda: previous research
2.1 The Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI): Pilot 2012 13
2.2 The Baseline study: Needs Assessment Report 2013 13
2.3 Malaria Report: First Phase Study 2014 14
The case for further research: Water 2014
3.1 Water and sanitation in Ugandan schools 15
3.2 Success of water, sanitation and hygiene programs in Ugandan schools 16
3.3 Water sanitation and hygiene programmes in Kanungu 16
Methods and research design
4.1 Survey design 18
4.2 Focus Group design 18
4.3 Water quality Testing 18
4.4 Locations and Sampling 19
4.5 Respondents 19
4.6 Procedure
4.6.1 Questionnaire based interviews 20
4.7 Ethics 20
Questionnaire results
5.1 Adequate Water Access 21
5.1.2 Tap ownership 21
5.1.3 Water collection time 22
5.1.3.1 Collection time from primary source 22
5.1.3.2 Collection time for schools without taps 22
5.1.4 Water Usage 23
5.1.5 Perceptions on water availability and usage 23
5.1.6 Access to treated drinking water for students 23
5.2 Adequate Water Quality 24
5.2.1.1 Proportion of schools with protected primary source 24
5.2.1.2 Proportion of schools with protected alternative source 24
5.2.2 Risk of further contamination 24
5.2.2.1 Transport 24
5.2.2.2 Storage 25
5.2.2.3 Distribution 25
6. 5.2.3 Safe drinking water 26
5.2.3.1 Provision of safe drinking water for students 26
5.2.3.2 Provision of safe drinking water for staff 26
5.2.4. Coliform bacteria testing 26
5.2.4.1 Sample test results 26
5.3 Adequate Sanitation 27
5.3.1 Sanitation facilities 27
5.3.1.1 Student: stance ratio 27
5.3.1.2 Hand washing facilities 28
5.3.1.3 Availability of soap 28
5.3.2 Education 29
Focus group analysis
6.1 Water access 34
6.1.1 Tap failure and consequences 34
6.1.2 Tensions in sharing water resources with the local community and inadequate supplies 35
6.1.3 Problems of topography 36
6.1.4 Consequences of child water collection 37
6.2 Drinking water quality 37
6.2.1 Insufficient storage and equipment impeding quality 37
6.2.2 The perception that piped water is safe to drink without treatment 38
6.2.3 The perceived unimportance of water treatment among students 38
6.3 Sanitation 40
6.3.1 The need to prioritise different uses of water 40
6.3.2 Water, hygiene and sanitation education in schools 40
Conclusions, limitations and recommendations
6 Conclusions and recommendations 42
6.1 Resource insufficiency, shared resources and community conflict 42
6.2 Recommendation 1: stakeholder meetings 43
6.3 Unsuccessful treatment of water 43
6.4 Recommendation 2: the introduction of a multi-barrier approach and further research 43
6.5 Poor quality water in ‘improved’ sources and the belief that this water is safe 44
6.6 Recommendation 3: a sensitisation programme 45
6.7 Insufficient drinking water supplied to students 45
6.8 Recommendation 4: further research into why drinking water is unavailable and the promotion of
alternative treatment 45
Bibliography
7. Volunteer Uganda: Research Uganda 2014
1
Introduction
1.1
The
global
context
Inadequate
access
to
clean
water
and
sanita*on
facili*es
‘claims
more
lives
through
disease
than
any
war
claims
through
guns.’'
Whilst
developed
countries
have
largely
passed
by
the
suffering
and
indignity
that
accompanies
water
and
hygiene
related
sickness,
for
large
swathes
of
the
developing
world
it
is
a
firmly
entrenched
feature
of
life.
A
joint
study
by
the
World
Health
Organisa*on
(WHO)
and
UNICEF
es*mates
that
780
million
people
lack
access
to
an
improved
water
source,
over
10%
of
the
global
popula*on.
While
it
is
es*mated
that
2.6
billion
people
lack
access
to
adequate
sanita*on,
38%
of
the
global
popula*on.
As
a
result
of
this,
more
than
3.4
million
people
die
each
year
from
water,
sanita*on
and
hygiene
related
causes
-‐
a
figure
almost
equal
to
1
the
whole
popula*on
of
Berlin
and
double
the
size
of
es*mates
being
made
ten
years
ago.
2
These
deaths
are
almost
en*rely
concentrated
in
the
developing
world
at
a
propor*on
of
99.8%
according
to
the
WHO.
Beyond
affec*ng
the
most
vulnerable
regions,
within
those
it
is
the
most
vulnerable
people
3
who
suffer
the
most
as
90%
of
such
deaths
occur
among
children.
Indeed,
for
children
under
five
years
old,
4
the
mortality
rate
is
greater
than
the
combined
burden
of
HIV/AIDS
and
malaria.
Further
exacerba*ng
this
5
problem
is
the
fact
that
the
outcomes
of
the
kind
of
gastrointes*nal
disease
caused
by
poor
water
and
sanita*on
are
more
severe
due
to
the
under-‐nutri*on
and
lack
of
comprehensive
interven*on
strategies
in
the
worst
affected
regions.
6
1.2
Founda:on
stones
of
development
There
is
broad
agreement
in
development
discourse
that
access
to
enough
safe
drinking
water
and
adequate
hygiene
and
sanita*on
facili*es
are
founda*onal
building
blocks
without
which
development
in
other
areas
cannot
meaningfully
occur.
Water,
or
its
absence
are
central
to
poverty
and
the
link
between
adequate
water
provision
and
poverty
allevia*on
is
well
established
in
the
literature.
In
rela*on
to
educa*on,
for
instance,
it
has
been
calculated
by
the
United
Na*ons
Development
Program
(UNDP)
in
a
report
inves*ga*ng
the
effects
of
water
scarcity
on
development
that
443
million
school
days
are
lost
each
year
due
to
water-‐related
illness.
If
they
could
be
reclaimed,
there
would
be
a
tremendous
7
leap
forward
in
the
ability
of
future
genera*ons
in
poorer
regions
to
take
the
development
of
their
na*ons
into
their
own
hands.
WHO, Safer Water, Better Health: Costs, benefits, and sustainability of interventions to protect and promote health, 20041
Ashbolt, M, Microbial contamination of drinking water and disease outcomes in developing regions, Toxicology, vol. 198, 2004, pp.2
229-238
WHO, Safer Water, Better Health: Costs, benefits, and sustainability of interventions to protect and promote health, 20043
Ashbolt loc.cit4
Liu, L, Global, regional, and national causes of child mortality: an updated systematic analysis for 2010 with time trends since 2000,5
Lancet, vol. 379, 2012, p. 2151–61
Ashbolt loc.cit6
UN-HABITAT/WHO, The Right to Water, Fact Sheet No. 35. United Nations, 20107
7
8. Volunteer Uganda: Research Uganda 2014
It
is
es*mated
by
the
WHO
that
for
every
$1
invested
in
water
and
sanita*on,
there
is
an
economic
return
of
between
$3
and
$34
in
terms
of
GDP.
Whilst
transposing
the
suffering
caused
by
poor
water,
hygiene
8
and
sanita*on
into
financial
terms
may
appear
to
be
a
shallow
reading
of
the
problem,
it
is
important
to
note
that
this
limita*on
on
the
ability
of
a
developing
economy
to
grow
and
on
individuals
to
par*cipate
in
that
economy
plays
a
serious
role
in
reinforcing
the
inequali*es
between
states
reoccurring
within
current
processes
of
global
development.
In
short,
if
a
person
is
constantly
burdened
by
sickness
they
cannot
work
and
therefore
cannot
contribute
to
their
economy.
In
this
sense
sickness
is
a
factor
that
detracts
from
the
ability
of
poor
countries
to
catch
up
to
rich
ones.
There
is
also
an
important
nexus
between
water
and
food
security,
however,
it
must
be
understood
with
reference
to
the
scarcity
of
fresh
water
which
is
discussed
in
more
detail
below.
Over
70%
of
the
planet’s
freshwater
is
used
in
agricultural
irriga*on.
The
majority
of
food
products
have
huge
amounts
of
water
9
embedded
into
the
process
of
their
produc*on.
If
current
trends
in
popula*on
growth,
economic
growth
and
urbanisa*on
con*nue,
the
strain
on
water
supply
could
cause
shormalls
in
global
cereal
produc*on
of
up
30%
by
2025.
A
food
shortage
of
this
order,
while
it
would
cause
a
percep*ble
shib
in
price
in
10
developed
countries,
would
cause
a
huge
transforma*on
in
the
accessibility
of
food
in
poorer
ones
causing
more
civil
unrest
in
response
to
spikes
in
food
prices.
The
World
Bank
reports
that
there
have
been
51
‘food
riots’
in
37
countries
since
2007
and
warns
that
more
are
likely
to
come.
This
kind
of
instability
is
hugely
11
inimical
to
development
and
intrinsically
linked
to
fresh
water
supplies.
1.3
Reducing
water
and
sanita:on
related
disease:
transforming
health
in
developing
countries
In
the
19th
century,
the
outbreak
of
a
cholera
epidemic
in
Germany
prompted
the
discovery
by
German
microbiologist
Robert
Koch
that
water
treatment
methods
such
as
chlorina*on
and
sand
filtra*on
greatly
reduce
pathogen
levels
in
water,
rendering
it
safe
to
drink.
By
the
end
of
the
century
this
became
the
norm
in
the
treatment
of
piped
water
in
Europe,
the
UK
and
North
America.
This
innova*on
‘resulted
in
the
largest
reduc*on
in
the
global
disease
burden
of
any
interven*on
since.’
With
this
history
in
mind
it
12
becomes
easier
to
appreciate
the
gravity
of
a
comparable
breakthrough
in,
say,
the
con*nent
of
Africa.
Improvements
in
water,
sanita*on
and
hygiene
could
prevent
at
least
9.1%
of
the
global
disease
burden
and
6.3%
of
all
deaths.
The
WHO
and
UNICEF
es*mate
that
improved
sanita*on
could
prevent
the
deaths
of
13
1.5
million
children
each
year
who
would
otherwise
be
lost
to
diarrhoeal
disease.
The
simple
act
of
hand
washing
aber
using
the
toilet
and
before
ea*ng
can
reduce
the
number
of
cases
of
diarrhoea
by
37%,
improved
water
sources
can
reduce
diarrhoea
morbidity
by
21%
and
improved
sanita*on
can
reduce
the
figure
by
37.5.
14
The
importance
of
hygiene,
water
and
sanita*on
to
development
is
manifested
in
agreements
of
collec*ve
ac*on
which
reflect
the
values
of
the
interna*onal
community.
In
2010
the
United
Na*ons
General
Assembly
officially
recognised
access
to
clean
water
and
sanita*on
as
inalienable
human
rights
through
Resolu*on
64/292,
acknowledging
them
as
necessary
prerequisites
for
the
realisa*on
of
all
human
rights.
15
WHO, Evaluation of the Costs and Benefits of Water and Sanitation Improvements at the Global Level, 20048
Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Facts Brief on Water and Food Security, 20089
Brabeck-Letmathe, P, Water scarcity and food security: the role of ‘virtual water trade’, www.water-challenge.com, accessed 2510
November 2014
Cuesta, J, No Food ,No Peace, World Bank Voices: Perspectives on Development, blogs.worldbank.org/voices/no-food-no-peace,11
accessed 25 November 2014
Ashbolt loc.cit12
WaterAid Uganda, Status of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in Primary Schools, 201313
WaterAid Uganda loc.cit14
United Nations General Assembly, Resolution A/RES/64/292, 201015
8
9. Volunteer Uganda: Research Uganda 2014
It
is
also
shown
in
the
target
to
halve
the
number
of
people
who
do
not
have
access
to
safe
drinking
water,
set
in
2000
as
one
of
the
Millennium
Development
Goals
(MDGs).
It
has
been
widely
reported
that
this
16
target
has
been
met
before
the
2015
deadline.
The
WHO
and
UNICEF
Joint
Monitoring
Programme
(JMP)
17
has
found
that
more
than
2
billion
people
gained
access
to
improved
drinking
water
sources
between
1990
and
2010.
‘Improved
drinking
water
sources’
are
defined
by
the
JMP
as
public
taps,
protected
dug
wells,
protected
springs,
or
rainwater
collec*on.
That
brings
the
total
up
to
6.1
billion
people
-‐
89%
of
the
global
18
popula*on.
Yet
the
same
progress
has
not
been
made
with
sanita*on,
with
around
2.6
billion
people
s*ll
lacking
basic
facili*es.
‘Basic
facili*es’
are
defined
by
the
JMP
as
those
which
‘do
not
ensure
hygienic
19
separa*on
of
human
excreta
from
human
contact’
-‐
including
pit
latrines
or
bucket
latrines.
20
Though
greater
access
to
improved
water
sources
such
as
protected
wells
or
piped
water
is
undoubtedly
a
step
forward,
it
is
worth
men*oning
here
that
water
quality
at
these
sources
has
not
been
tested.
They
protect
from
outside
contamina*on
but
this
protec*on
is
not
complete
and
is
not
comparable
to
a
comprehensive
mul*-‐barrier
treatment
system
-‐
one
in
which
pathogen
levels
are
minimised
through
mul*ple
processes,
such
as
sand
filtra*on,
solar
disinfec*on
or
chlorina*on.
It
is
unclear
how
safe
the
water
that
this
addi*onal
2
billion
people
are
drinking
really
is.
Furthermore,
very
significant
regional
dispari*es
have
emerged.
Nearly
half
of
the
2
billion
who
have
gained
access
to
improved
sources
of
water
are
in
China
and
India,
while
Africa
has
been
leb
behind.
Even
within
countries,
there
are
grave
inequali*es
between
rural
and
urban
areas.
21
1.4
Freshwater:
supply
and
demand
Though
it
is
a
renewable
resource,
with
precipita*on
renewing
supplies,
as
the
supply
of
water
remains
a
constant,
global
demand
is
constantly
increasing.
One
factor
in
this
is
the
rapid
urbanisa*on
occurring
in
the
developing
world.
As
more
and
more
people
flock
to
ci*es
in
search
of
a
be_er
standard
of
living,
their
water
consump*on
increases,
crea*ng
a
larger
aggregate
demand
and
need
for
sanita*on
facili*es.
Of
the
60
million
that
move
to
urban
areas
annually,
most
move
to
informal
se_lements
with
no
sanita*on
facili*es.
Adding
to
this
is
the
rapid
rate
at
which
the
global
popula*on
is
growing
-‐
surging
from
2.5
billion
22
in
1950
to
7
billion
in
2011.
United
Na*ons
projec*ons
expect
a
popula*on
of
8.9
billion
by
2050.
This
23
suggests
that
already
strained
water
supplies
and
sanita*on
facili*es
will
come
under
increasing
pressure.
A
report
by
the
Interna*onal
Water
Management
Ins*tute
(IWMI)
projects
that
if
water
use
is
not
made
more
efficient
in
terms
of
reducing
waste,
then
there
will
be
a
57%
rise
in
global
water
demand
by
2025.
24
With
these
facts
in
mind
it
becomes
clear
that
compe**on
for
water
is
likely
to
intensify
in
coming
decades
as
popula*on
growth,
urbanisa*on
and
industry
demand
greater
quan**es.
Sadly,
it
is
those
who
have
the
least
who
stand
to
lose
the
most.
The
IWMI
report
men*oned
above
warns
that
it
is
likely
that
those
‘people
with
the
weakest
rights
-‐
small
farmers
and
women
among
them
-‐
will
see
their
en*tlements
to
water
eroded
by
more
powerful
cons*tuencies.’
25
www.un.org/millenniumgoals/environ16
United Nations, Millennium Development Goals Report 2012, 201217
WHO/UNICEF, Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation 2012 Update, 201218
ibid19
ibid20
ibid21
UN Water, Tackling a Global Crisis: International Year of Sanitation, 200822
United Nations Population Division, World Population Prospects The 2012 Revision: Highlights and Advance Tables, 201223
International Water Management Institute, World Water Demand and Supply, 1990 to 2025: Scenarios and Issues, 199824
ibid25
9
10. Volunteer Uganda: Research Uganda 2014
1.5
Water
and
sanita:on
in
Uganda
Though
the
water
and
sanita*on
sector
in
Uganda
has
improved
considerably
over
the
past
20
years,
there
is
s*ll
great
need
in
these
areas.
One
quarter
of
the
Ugandan
popula*on,
9.2
million
people,
lack
access
to
safe
water.
Nearly
two
thirds
of
the
popula*on,
24
million
people,
lack
access
to
adequate
sanita*on.
26
Should
Uganda
meet
the
Millennium
Development
Goal
on
water
and
sanita*on,
72%
of
the
total
popula*on
would
need
to
have
access
to
safe
drinking
water
and
70%
would
need
to
have
access
to
improved
sanita*on.
The
Ugandan
government’s
own
target
is
to
increase
access
to
improved
water
in
rural
areas
to
77%
and
access
in
urban
areas
to
100%.
It
also
aims
to
increase
access
to
improved
sanita*on
in
rural
areas
to
80%
and
to
100%
in
urban
areas.
27
The
Ministry
for
Water
and
Environment’s
(MWE)
Annual
Water
and
Environment
Sector
Performance
Report
for
2014
states
that
as
of
June,
the
popula*on
with
access
to
safe
water
in
urban
areas
amounted
to
73%.
The
rural
popula*on
with
access
to
safe
water
remained
stagnant
at
64%.
Inadequate
funding
was
reportedly
the
cause
of
this
stagna*on.
28
The
WHO/UNIFEC
JMP
for
water
and
sanita*on,
drawing
on
a
mul*tude
of
datapoints,
is
more
posi*ve.
These
figures
state
that
72%
had
access
to
safe
water
by
2010,
5
years
ahead
of
the
2015
target.
Yet
it
also
notes
a
worrying
rural/urban
inequality
in
coverage
at
68%
and
95%. 29
The
MWE
2014
Sector
Performance
Report
states
that
74.6%
of
the
rural
popula*on
has
access
to
sanita*on,
up
from
71%
in
the
previous
year.
This
puts
Uganda
on
track
to
meet
the
na*onal
target
of
77%
access
to
sanita*on
by
2015.
Sanita*on
in
urban
areas
is
at
84%
excluding
Kampala
(for
which
data
does
not
exist)
and
is
is
unlikely
to
rise
to
the
100%
target
by
2015.
30
The
WHO/UNIFEC
JMP
is
less
op*mis*c.
According
to
their
2014
report,
only
34%
enjoy
improved
sanita*on
in
rural
areas
whilst
in
urban
areas
the
figure
is
33%.
The
total
propor*on
of
the
popula*on
that
enjoy
improved
sanita*on,
according
to
the
report
is
34%.
MWE
na*onal
es*mates
include
facili*es
which
are
shared
in
its
defini*on
of
improved
sanita*on,
where
as
the
JMP
does
not.
The
discrepancy
in
the
31
sta*s*cs
produced
by
the
MWE
and
the
JMP
show
that
figures
are
not
facts
when
it
comes
to
assessing
access
to
water
and
sanita*on
and
that
precise
measurement
is
difficult.
WaterAid, Where we work, www.wateraid.org/where-we-work/page/uganda, accessed 26 November 201426
WaterAid Uganda, Status of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in Primary Schools, 201327
Ugandan Ministry for Water and Environment, Annual Water and Environment Sector Performance Report for 2014, 201428
WHO/UNICEF, Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation 2012 Update, 201229
Ugandan Ministry for Water and Environment, op.cit30
WHO/UNICEF, Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation 2012 Update, 201231
10
Figure 1. Map of Uganda showing Kanungu, Mapbox,
www.mapbox.com retrieved 2 December 2014
11. Volunteer Uganda: Research Uganda 2014
Despite
the
clear
need
for
investment
in
improved
water
and
sanita*on
infrastructure,
government
investment
into
the
sector
as
a
propor*on
of
total
budget
has
been
spiralling
downward
over
the
past
10
years.
Budget
alloca*on
to
the
Ministry
of
Water
and
Environment
has
been
reduced
from
7.4%
of
the
total
budget
in
2004
to
2.8%
in
2014.
These
cuts
have
occurred
whilst
the
popula*on
of
Uganda
is
swibly
expanding
and
urbanising,
crea*ng
a
demand
for
water
and
sanita*on
facili*es
which
is
grows.
This
chronic
underinvestment
is
ironically
causing
considerable
economic
losses.
A
2012
report
es*mated
that
Uganda
loses
UGX
386
or
US$177
million
per
year
due
to
poor
sanita*on.
32
1.6
Water
and
sanita:on
in
Kanungu
Kanungu
District
is
located
in
southwestern
Uganda
and
is
split
into
9
sub-‐coun*es
and
2
town-‐councils.
It
has
a
popula*on
of
241,800
-‐
90%
of
which,
according
to
government
figures,
have
access
to
safe
water.
33
Safe
water
access
rates,
according
to
these
government
es*mates,
vary
from
72%
in
Kihihi
sub-‐country
to
95%
in
Kanyatorogo,
Kayonza,
Kirima,
Kambuga,
Mpungu,
Nyamirama,
Rugyeyo
and
Rutenga
sub-‐coun*es
as
well
as
Kanungu
Town
Council.
34
The
district
has
1,669
water
sources
in
total.
238
of
these
are
non-‐func*onal,
31
of
which
have
been
so
for
more
than
5
years
and
are
considered
by
the
MWE
to
be
abandoned.
The
breakdown
of
source
types
can
be
seen
in
figure
2.
35
Technical
breakdown,
that
is
a
breakdown
where
the
physical
equipment
cons*tu*ng
a
water
source
becomes
non-‐func*onal,
accounts
for
the
greatest
propor*on
of
breakdowns
at
nearly
a
third
(29%).
According
to
the
district
assistant
water
officer
this
is
because
few
people
pay
user
fees
for
the
maintenance
of
water
facili*es
-‐
when
facili*es
break
down,
there
are
insufficient
funds
to
cover
their
repair.
This
is
36
perhaps
a
predictable
outcome
of
the
Government
of
Uganda’s
1999
Na*onal
Water
Policy
which
shibs
the
responsibility
for
maintaining
and
mee*ng
the
costs
of
water
sources
away
from
government
and
onto
users.
The
second
most
significant
reason,
affec*ng
over
1
in
5
sources
(23.5%)
is
that
they
have
become
dry
or
low
yielding.
The
third,
affec*ng
a
similar
propor*on
(21.1%)
is
compromised
water
quality,
showing
that
though
a
source
may
have
all
of
the
trappings
of
protec*on.
this
does
not
always
ensure
quality.
37
Figure
2
38
The
district
is
equipped
with
3
pumped
water
supply
systems,
2
of
which
are
surface
water
based
whilst
1
is
groundwater
based.
Surface
water
being
that
which
collects
on
the
surface
of
the
ground:
streams,
rivers,
lakes,
swamps,
puddles
and
so
on.
Whilst
ground
water
is
held
underground
in
the
soil
or
in
the
pores
or
crevices
of
rock.
39
WHO/UNICEF, op.cit32
Ugandan Ministry of Water and Environment, Water Supply Atlas 2010, 201033
Ibid34
Ibid35
N. Wesonga, Pulse Check for New Districts: Kanungu’s Case, The Daily Monitor, 27 July 2014, retrieved from www.monitor.co.ug 236
December 2014
Ugandan Ministry of Water and Environment, Water Supply Atlas 2010, 201037
Adapted from Ugandan Ministry of Water and Environment, Water Supply Atlas 2010, 201038
Ibid39
11
12. Volunteer Uganda: Research Uganda 2014
Rainfall
is
an
important
source
of
water
and
driver
of
agricultural
produc*on
in
Kanungu,
a
district
in
which
73%
of
the
working
popula*on
are
employed
in
the
agricultural
sector,
as
irriga*on
is
rarely
used.
The
40
district
enjoys
a
tropical
climate,
with
far
more
rainfall
in
the
summer.
The
average
annual
temperature
in
Kanungu
is
18.9°C.
The
average
annual
rainfall
is
1,222mm,
double
the
received
precipita*on
of
London
which
received
601mm
and
is
seen
as
a
‘rainy
city’.
41
Ugandan Bureau of Statistics, Uganda Population and Housing Census Analytical Report, 200240
www.en.climate-data.org/location/50845/41
12
13. Volunteer Uganda: Research Uganda 2014
2
Volunteer Uganda: previous research
2.1
The
Multidimensional
Poverty
Index
(MPI):
Pilot
2012
The
MPI
research
undertaken
in
2012
tracked
changes
in
poverty
levels
of
participants
from
2007
to
2012
using
a
multidimensional
poverty
index
tool
designed
in
collaboration
with
Makerere
University,
Kampala.
An
improvement
was
seen
in
how
far
participants
had
to
travel
from
the
household
to
collect
water
for
consumption
as
the
report
shows
that
in
2007,
44%
of
participants
accessed
water
from
a
distance
over
500m
and
in
2012
this
figure
decreases
to
32%.
However,
in
2012
only
10%
had
access
to
piped
water
in
the
household,
20%
accessing
water
for
consumption
from
streams
and
swamps
and
the
remaining
70%
from
protected
taps
or
communal
springs,
with
little
change
from
2007.
2.2
The
Baseline
study:
Needs
Assessment
Report
2013
The
Needs
Assessment
Report
conducted
in
September
2013
represents
Volunteer
Uganda’s
most
recent
findings
across
multidimensional
levels
of
poverty
in
Kanungu.
Data
was
collected
by
mapping
surveys
conducted
in
structured
household
interviews
in
a
range
of
sub-‐counties
throughout
the
district.
The
report
offers
a
baseline
of
statistics
on
water
access,
quality
and
sanitation
which
feature
within
the
six
dimensions
of
poverty
the
report
covers:
education
and
culture,
organisation
and
participation,
income
and
employment,
interiority
and
motivation,
health
and
environment,
housing
and
infrastructure.
Indicators
of
poverty
were
classified
into
three
categories
according
to
responses
from
participants.
In
response
to
each
question
a
participant
was
ranked
as
to
whether
their
answer
corresponded
to
being
‘in
poverty’
(1)
‘at
risk
of
poverty’
(2)
or
‘not
in
poverty’
(3),
following
the
Stoplight
Approach
to
poverty
measurement
developed
by
Fundacion
Paraguaya.
42
(i)Water
access
Most
importantly,
the
data
highlights
that
access
to
water
for
consumption
is
among
1
of
the
top
three
most
pressing
needs
within
the
Kanungu
district.
93%
of
551
households
fall
within
category
1
and
2
responses
when
looking
at
adequate
water
for
consumption
as
an
indicator
of
poverty.
Furthermore
it
was
recorded
that
only
7%
of
respondents
have
access
to
piped
water
in
their
homes,
meaning
that
the
remaining
93%
fetch
water
or
must
travel
a
distance
to
collect
water
for
consumption
from
outside
the
household
in
the
form
of
communal
protected
springs
or
streams
and
swamps.
76%
of
respondents
travelled
over
a
distance
of
30
minutes
to
collect
water
for
the
household.
(ii)Water
quality
and
sanitation
Interestingly
‘water
treatment’
and
‘hand
hygiene,
sanitation’
had
the
highest
number
of
category
3
responses
at
94%
and
89%
respectively.
‘Clean
water
consumption’
was
also
amongst
the
higher
percentages
at
67%.
As
a
means
of
treating
water
for
consumption
94%
of
respondents
boiled
as
their
preferred
method
of
treating
water
for
consumption
opposed
to
using
other
methods
such
as
chlorination
tablets,
solar
disinfection
or
water
filtration.
However,
92%
of
respondents
were
sourcing
water
from
communal
protected
and
non-‐protected
springs,
rainwater,
streams
and
swamps
with
high
contamination
risks
making
the
water
unsafe
to
consume
without
treating
in
some
form.
As
income
and
employment
is
the
dimension
in
which
most
respondents
were
in
or
at
risk
of
poverty,
it
is
a
worrying
Burt, M, ’The “Poverty Stoplight” Approach to Eliminating Multidimensional Poverty: Business, Civil Society, and Government Working42
Together in Paraguay’, Innovations, pp.53-75, 2013
13
14. Volunteer Uganda: Research Uganda 2014
factor
that
a
lack
of
money
for
firewood
or
coal
could
cause
a
problem
in
water
treatment
for
consumption
and
lead
to
many
households
drinking
contaminated
water.
2.3
Malaria
Report:
First
Phase
Study
2014
This
report
focuses
primarily
upon
mosquito
net
possession,
usage
and
malaria
knowledge
in
the
Kanungu
district.
Data
was
obtained
through
structured
household
interviews
encompassing
a
sample
size
of
234
households.
It
is
important
to
note
that,
with
respect
to
knowledge
and
awareness
of
transition
of
malaria,
a
high
proportion
of
respondents
were
displayed
inadequate
of
education
on
this
topic.
The
second
most
popular
response
when
asked
what
could
be
done
to
prevent
malaria,
was
‘to
avoid
drinking
dirty
water’,
mentioned
94
times.
This
suggests
a
distinct
lack
of
knowledge
or
perhaps
misunderstanding
of
the
difference
between
malaria
and
water
borne
disease.
14
15. Volunteer Uganda: Research Uganda 2014
3
The case for further research: Water
2014
Previous
research
conducted
by
Volunteer
Uganda
has
highlighted
access
to
safe
water
and
knowledge
of
waterborne
disease
as
inadequate
in
the
district.
The
obtainability
of
safe
drinking
water,
the
common
methods
of
water
treatment
and
sanitation
and
hygiene
practices
in
Kanungu
District
all
warrant
further
investigation.
Education
has
arisen
as
an
important
behaviour
change
technique
to
reduce
waterborne
disease,
based
on
the
idea
that
raising
knowledge
and
awareness
of
good
and
bad
practices
and
their
outcomes
will
help
people
to
make
the
right
choices
to
mitigate
against
risk
of
disease.
43
3.1
Water
and
sanitation
in
Ugandan
schools
The
pursuit
of
Universal
Primary
Education
has
been
a
key
policy
used
by
the
Government
of
Uganda
in
the
drive
to
reduce
poverty.
Through
the
UPE
programme
the
Ugandan
government
abolished
tuition
fees
and
Parents
and
Teachers
Association
charges
for
primary
education.
Since
the
advent
of
this
policy,
enrolment
in
primary
school
increased
from
3.1
million
in
1996
to
7.6
million
in
2003,
a
figure
which
has
since
been
steadily
increasing.
This
increase
has
put
greater
strain
on
already
inadequate
water
and
sanitation
facilities
in
schools
and
has
resulted
in
low
hygiene
and
sanitation
standards
country-‐wide.
44
One
aspect
of
inadequate
sanitation
in
Ugandan
primary
schools
which
is
particularly
likely
to
cause
school
absence
is
inadequate
hygienic
facilities
for
girls.
Toilet
facilities,
according
to
a
report
by
the
Ugandan
Ministry
of
Education
and
Sports
admits
that
‘toilet
facilities
in
primary
schools
remain
inadequate
for
girls.’
28%
of
schools
had
shared
facilities,
eradicating
the
possibility
of
privacy.
Special
washrooms
were
seen
in
only
36%
of
primary
schools
-‐
even
of
these,
half
functioned
poorly
and
had
no
soap
or
basin.
The
study
found
that
rural
and
government
aided
schools
were
especially
ill-‐
equipped
and
were
less
likely
to
make
soap
or
a
basin
a
priority,
rendering
hygiene
facilities
ineffectual.
16%
of
girls
interviewed
cited
lack
of
privacy,
31%
cited
fear
of
soiling
toilets
and
51%
cited
poor
toilet
hygiene
as
factors
which
greatly
contribute
to
discomfort
during
menstruation,
potentially
leading
to
school
absence.
45
Overall,
toilet
hygiene
was
found
to
be
poor.
80%
of
primary
school
floors
were
wet
and
dirty,
whilst
the
figure
for
secondary
schools
is
79%.
Faeces
was
smeared
on
the
walls
of
33%
of
primary
schools
and
25%
of
primary
schools.
The
area
surrounding
toilets
was
soiled
in
40%
of
primary
schools
and
20%
of
secondary
schools
-‐
indicating
a
desire
to
avoid
the
use
of
dirty
facilities.
46
The
national
guidance
for
pupil:
stance
(a
stance
is
a
single
cubicle
of
a
latrine
block)
ratio
is
40:1.
Though
the
average
ratio
across
Uganda
has
improved
since
1997,
in
which
it
was
150:1,
the
proportion
of
primary
schools
achieving
this
benchmark
ratio
was
reported
to
be
only
25%
in
2006
and
a
more
recent
WaterAid
report
claims
that
only
22%
of
their
sample
achieved
it.
47
WHO, Combating Waterborne Disease at the Household Level, 200743
Bategeka, L and Okurut, N, Universal Primary Education Uganda, (Policy brief 10), 2005, retrieved from www.odi.org44
Ministry of Education and Sports, Sanitation and Hygiene in Primary Schools in Uganda, 200645
ibid46
WaterAid Uganda, Status of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in Primary Schools, 201347
15
16. Volunteer Uganda: Research Uganda 2014
The
same
WaterAid
report
found
that
though
all
primary
schools
in
their
sample
had
‘some
kind
of
sanitary
facility’,
there
was
a
real
shortage
of
hand
washing
facilities.
57%,
over
half,
lacked
hand
washing
facilities.
A
significant
deficit,
especially
in
light
of
the
fact
that
had
washing
can
reduce
the
prevalence
of
diarrheal
disease
by
47%.
48
In
the
WaterAid
study,
resources,
especially
financial
resources
were
highlighted
as
one
of
the
main
challenges
to
providing
adequate
facilities.
Interviewees
referred
to
NGO
work
as
the
main
source
of
improvement
for
HWS
standards,
whilst
government
funding
dwindles.
Another
was
limited
technical
skills:
appropriate
technologies
may
be
available,
but
there
is
a
shortage
of
personnel
with
the
expertise
to
construct
these
facilities.
Beyond
this,
limited
user
awareness
of
the
importance
of
and
the
proper
use
of
water
and
hygiene
facilities
was
considered
to
be
a
cause
of
improper
use
leading
to
degradation
as
well
as
non-‐use.
With
regard
to
water
accessibility,
conditions
were
also
found
to
be
inadequate.
The
MWE
recommends
a
minimum
of
5
litres
per
day
per
student
should
be
used
in
day
schools,
whilst
the
figure
is
higher
at
25
litres
per
student
per
day
in
boarding
schools.
According
to
this
threshold,
less
than
20%
of
primary
schools
use
an
adequate
amount
of
water.
Rural
schools
were
more
likely
to
meet
the
standard
at
22%,
whilst
only
13%
of
urban
schools
did.
49
Distance
to
the
main
water
source
has
also
proven
to
be
a
problem
in
Ugandan
schools.
In
their
nation-‐wide
study,
the
MWE
found
that
most
water
sources
were
further
than
the
recommended
distance
of
0.5km.
In
terms
of
the
operation
of
these
sources,
government
was
the
most
common
funder
of
water
facilities,
providing
for
48%
of
primary
schools.
Next
were
parents
and
the
community
which
fund
water
in
38%.
50
3.2
Success
of
water,
sanitation
and
hygiene
programs
in
Ugandan
schools
In
addition
to
the
above
projects
there
are
many
more
initiatives
that
have
been
implemented
throughout
Uganda.
These
include
many
more
WaterAid
projects,
a
WES
(water,
environment
and
sanitation)
programme
run
by
UNICEF,
the
Government
led
–
Global
Sanitation
Fund
(committed
to
expanding
to
reach
30
districts
from
2014),
Water
School
51
Uganda
and
The
Water
Project
which
provides
communities
with
wells,
are
just
but
a
few.
Dr
Albert
Rugumayo,
a
consultant
for
the
Ministry
of
Education,
has
published
a
report
in
which
he
discusses
the
successes
of
sanitation
programs
in
schools.
He
begins
by
acknowledging
the
virtual
non-‐existence
of
water
and
52
sanitation
provision
in
the
mid
1990’s
and
the
clear
improvement
there
has
been
since
sanitation
programs
have
been
implemented
to
date,
such
as
the
building
of
latrines
and
improved
access
to
drinking
water.
Importantly,
he
admits
that
less
progress
has
been
made
in
hygiene
education.
In
evaluating
the
impact
of
WASH
programs
across
Uganda
he
raises
the
issue
of
sustainability
and
highlights
that
whilst
performance
of
NGO’s
and
Government
action
can
be
measured
by
infrastructure,
there
is
little
measuring
actual
change
in
practices.
He
calls
for
monitoring
and
evaluation
systems
to
be
in
operation
to
ensure
behavioural
change
in
hygiene
habits
and
life
skills,
such
as
the
simple
act
of
hand
washing
correctly
with
soap
and
water.
As
WASH
projects
currently
stand,
without
real
change
in
behavioural
practices
when
initiatives
end
or
funding
stops,
schools
return
to
bad
sanitation
and
hygiene
habits
and
risk
water
related
illness.
3.3
Water
sanitation
and
hygiene
programmes
in
Kanungu
As
with
the
experience
of
WASH
(water,
sanitation
and
hygiene)
programmes
at
the
national
level,
in
Kanungu
there
has
been
success
in
terms
of
the
programs
which
ave
been
initiated
but
a
gaping
deficit
in
their
coverage
and
a
lack
of
monitoring
and
evaluation.
There
are
several
WASH
projects
currently
running
in
the
Kanungu
District.
In
August
2012
the
construction
of
the
government
backed
Banyara
Gravity
Flow
Scheme
was
completed.
Supported
by
the
Swarovski
53
jewellery
company’s
Waterschool
Uganda
project
the
scheme
facilitated
access
to
safe
water
for
24
schools
in
the
ibid48
ibid49
ibid50
Collaborative Council www.wsscc.org/countries/africa/uganda/global-sanitation-fund51
Rugumayo, A, Ministry of Education, Uganda - Scaling up School Sanitation Programmes at National Level, 200452
Magula, M, ‘Uganda: Mbabazi Hails Landmark Kanungu Water Scheme’, The Observer, 201453
16
17. Volunteer Uganda: Research Uganda 2014
Kayonza
sub-‐county,
3
health
units,
the
Kayonza
tea
factory
and
hundreds
of
households,
as
well
as
significantly
reducing
water
collection
time;
which
in
turn
has
largely
done
away
with
the
burden
of
an
arduous
journey
collecting
water
for
women
and
children.
The
Swarovski
Waterschool
Uganda
program
also
provides
water
boiling
equipment
and
teaches
sustainable
water
use.
They
operate
in
20
local
schools,
have
trained
80
teachers
and
impacted
nearly
25,000
community
members
in
Bwindi.
Schools
also
benefit
from
WASH
clubs
where
local
residents
are
taught
about
the
importance
of
sustainable
water
use,
effective
sanitation
and
good
hygiene
practices.
All
schools
participating
in
the
program
are
provided
with
rainwater
54
harvesting
tanks
and
sanitary
facilities.
In
addition,
52
schools
in
Kanungu
are
benefiting
from
the
WASH
campaign
run
by
Bwindi
Community
Hospital
in
collaboration
with
the
Vision
Group
(a
Ugandan
publishing
company)
and
WaterAid
Uganda.
This
initiative
gave
55
teachers
in
the
selected
schools
training
in
how
to
improve
hygiene
and
sanitation
in
their
schools.
Schools
were
also
shown
how
to
make
and
use
‘tippy
taps’
(a
plastic
jerry
can
or
water
bottle,
hung
from
a
rope
and
releases
water
when
tipped)
to
improve
hygiene
practices
such
as
washing
hands
after
using
the
toilet
and
before
eating
or
preparing
meals.
www.swarovskiwaterschool.com/uganda54
Bwindi Community Hospital, Annual Report 2011/2012, www.bwindihospital.com55
17
18. Volunteer Uganda: Research Uganda 2014
4
Methods and research design
A
mixed
methods
approach
was
applied
to
the
design
of
this
study
allowing
for
both
quantitative
and
qualitative
data
and
a
marriage
of
surveys
and
focus
group
discussions
to
improve
on
accuracy,
reliability
and
depth
of
findings.
4.1
Survey
design
The
survey
was
designed
by
Volunteer
Uganda
research
co-‐ordinators.
It
took
into
consideration
VU:
RU’s
previous
studies
and
recommendations
for
further
research
alongside
information
gathered
across
prominent
water,
sanitation
and
hygiene
focused
organisations,
NGO’s
and
charities
working
in
Uganda.
The
survey
consisted
of
50
questions,
set
out
in
8
sections:
school
demographics,
water
quantity
and
storage,
water
quality
and
usage,
water
source
and
collection,
water
reliability
and
dependence,
health
and
wellbeing,
treatment
of
water
and
toilets
and
sanitation.
The
survey
incorporated
both
open
and
closed
questions
to
allow
for
the
recording
of
both
precise
and
concrete
data
alongside
more
detailed
and
opinion
led
responses.
The
majority
of
questions
were
coded
for
quantitative
analysis
and
a
selection
left
open
to
allow
for
more
free-‐flowing
answers
to
be
later
categorised
and
coded.
4.2
Focus
Group
design
Focus
Group
questions
were
designed
to
encourage
discussion
in
line
with
the
eight
sections
of
the
survey.
The
discussion
consisted
of
9
key
questions.
4.3
Water
quality
Testing
In
order
to
measure
water
quality
within
each
school
in
the
study
it
became
apparent
that
water
quality
testing
would
play
an
essential
role
in
the
study’s
design.
According
to
the
World
Health
Organisation’s
(WHO)
Guideline
for
Drinking
Water
Quality,
safe
drinking
water
is
defined
as
water
that
“does
not
represent
any
significant
risk
to
health
over
a
lifetime
of
consumption,
including
different
sensitivities
that
may
occur
between
life
stages.” In
order
for
drinking
water
to
be
potable
it
is
important
that
it
is
free
56
from
contamination
of
bacterial
pathogens
responsible
for
waterborne
disease.
The
guidelines
describe
faecal
contamination
as
“the
greatest
microbial
risk”
to
drinking
water
as
most
disease
causing
pathogens
found
in
water
originate
in
the
faeces
of
humans
and
warm
blooded
animals.
57
Volunteer
Uganda
research
co-‐ordinators
decided
that
the
most
effective
method
of
testing
for
coliform
bacteria
(E-‐Coli)
would
be
to
use
a
water
testing
kit
known
as
the
total
coliform
bacteria
test
to
test
a
sample
of
drinking
water
from
each
school.
This
test
is
ultimately
a
test
of
suitability
for
human
consumption.
It
involves
a
simple
colour
indicator
providing
a
positive
or
negative
reading
for
the
presence
of
coliform
bacteria
in
the
sample,
a
strain
indicating
faecal
contamination.
An
example
can
be
seen
in
the
image
below.
World Health Organisation, Guideline for Safe Drinking Water, 4th Ed, 201156
ibid57
18
19. Volunteer Uganda: Research Uganda 2014
It
was
decided
that
within
each
school
a
sample
of
both
treated
and
untreated
water
would
be
taken,
and
any
water
sample
which
was
consumed
as
drinking
water
by
members
of
the
school
would
be
tested
for
the
coliform
bacteria.
4.4
Locations
and
Sampling
Schools
were
chosen
as
the
unit
of
analysis
of
the
study.
The
sampling
frame
was
based
on
a
purposive
sampling
technique,
operating
on
the
principle
that
the
best
information
can
be
obtained
through
deliberately
focusing
on
a
small
number
of
instances
selected
on
the
basis
of
their
known
attributes.
In
this
instance
selecting
30
schools
from
across
the
district,
15
primary
and
15
secondary,
and
within
each
of
these
groups
allowing
for
a
selection
of
both
private
and
government
schools,
and
boarding
and
non-‐boarding
schools.
The
study
returned
to
sub-‐counties
in
which
households
were
examined
in
the
2013
Needs
Assessment
Report:
Kazuru,
Kihihi,
and
Kanungu
Town.
In
addition
Kambuga,
Kirima,
Kanyantoroogo
and
Nyamerama
were
also
visited.
At
least
one
primary
and
one
secondary
were
sought
in
each
of
the
sub-‐counties
where
possible,
although
limitations
were
met
in
that
some
sub-‐counties
did
not
contain
secondary
schools.
4.5
Respondents
A
total
of
30
schools
were
visited,
within
each
school
one
senior
member
of
staff
was
selected
for
participation
in
the
questionnaire.
A
total
of
30
participants
were
interviewed;
26
males
and
4
females.
Focus
groups
were
held
in
29
schools,
of
which
14
were
primary
and
15
were
secondary.
Focus
group
participants
were
selected
across
varying
positions
throughout
the
school
to
provide
viewpoints
across
both
genders
and
levels
of
responsibility
to
present
a
more
accurate
picture
of
the
water
situation
within
each
school
setting.
A
total
of
146
people
took
part
in
focus
group
discussions,
an
average
of
5
participants
in
each
focus
group;
participants
held
positions
such
as
teacher,
matron,
cook,
cleaner,
school
advisor,
security
guard,
groundskeeper,
gatekeeper
and
director.
Involvement
in
the
study
was
entirely
voluntary
for
all
participants.
Each
school
was
given
a
small
facilitation
towards
lunch
costs
for
research
interns.
Both
survey
and
focus
group
questions
focused
on
responses
that
represented
the
whole
school
as
well
as
responses
that
focused
on
individual
opinions.
Representing
a
total
population
of
9,534
community
members
across
30
schools.
At
each
school
both
treated
and
non-‐treated
water
samples
were
collected.
A
total
of
27
schools
provided
water
samples,
of
which
all
were
treated
water
samples.
3
schools
did
not
have
any
water
available
for
testing
on
the
day
of
data
collection.
All
samples
were
taken
back
to
the
Volunteer
Uganda
lodge
where
water
quality
testing
was
carried
out
on
all
samples
confirmed
as
water
used
for
consumption.
19
20. Volunteer Uganda: Research Uganda 2014
4.6
Procedure
4.6.1
Questionnaire
based
interviews
All
interviews
were
conducted
by
research
teams
comprising
of
one
or
two
field
research
interns
from
Volunteer
Uganda
and
one
or
two
research
interns
selected
from
Great
Lakes
Regional
College
(GLRC).
On
occasion,
GLRC
interns
would
58
assist
in
translation
when
needed.
Each
interview
followed
a
standardised
procedure.
A
formal
brief
outlining
the
purposes
and
objectives
of
the
study
were
read
out
in
both
English
and
the
local
language,
Rukiga.
Consent
forms
were
read
and
signed
by
the
participant
and
then
the
interview
proceeded
with
a
series
of
structured
questions.
Each
interview
ended
with
a
formal
debriefing.
4.6.2
Focus
groups
The
focus
group
discussions
were
conducted
by
the
same
team
of
research
interns
from
Volunteer
Uganda
and
GLRC.
In
line
with
the
format
of
the
interview,
a
brief
would
be
read
in
English
and
Rukiga
to
the
participants
and
consent
forms
would
then
be
read
and
signed.
One
volunteer
would
act
as
a
facilitator,
directing
discussion,
whilst
another
would
transcribe
and
a
third
translate
where
necessary.
Upon
the
conclusion
of
the
focus
group
discussion
a
debrief
would
be
read
in
English
and
Rukiga.
4.7
Ethics
All
field
researchers
and
GLRC
students
were
issued
with
VU:
RU’s
research
ethics
guidelines
prior
to
the
start
of
the
project,
made
aware
of
the
responsibilities
held
within
their
roles
and
the
ethical
regulations
they
must
commit
to
before
entering
the
field.
A
number
of
steps
were
taken
to
ensure
that
research
integrity
and
validity
was
preserved
at
all
times.
Both
survey
and
focus
group
respondents
were
required
to
be
over
the
age
of
18
years.
All
participants
were
required
to
have
read
a
project
brief
in
both
English
and
Rukiga
and
signed
a
consent
form
before
any
formal
interviewing
took
place.
All
participants
were
made
aware
of
their
right
to
terminate
the
interview
at
any
point
before
and
have
any
data
removed
from
the
dataset
and
destroyed
upon
withdrawal.
All
respondents
were
made
aware
of
the
anonymity
of
their
responses.
4.8
Data
Analysis
All
survey
data
was
transferred
into
a
Microsoft
Excel
spreadsheet.
Any
qualitative
data
was
coded
so
as
to
make
all
responses
quantitative.
Data
was
split
into
subtopics
within
access,
quality
and
sanitation,
analysed
using
data
analysis
tools
in
Excel
and
presented
as
descriptive
statistics.
The
approach
to
the
analysis
of
qualitative
focus
group
data
was
based
on
the
framework
analysis
approach
developed
by
Richard
A.
Krueger.
Analysis
progressed
through
the
stages
of
familiarisation,
identifying
a
thematic
framework,
indexing,
charting,
and
interpretation.
In
the
familiarisation
stage,
all
transcripts
were
read
thoroughly
and
consecutively
as
major
themes
began
to
emerge.
From
here
a
thematic
framework
within
which
to
organise
the
data
was
developed.
Once
the
thematic
framework
was
in
place,
researchers
sifted
through
and
indexed
the
data
as
passages
relevant
to
particular
themes
were
highlighted
and
sorted.
In
the
charting
stage,
these
passages
were
lifted
from
their
original
transcripts
and
grouped
in
terms
of
their
relevant
theme
in
order
to
facilitate
comparison
between
focus
groups
and
a
view
of
what
our
data
says
about
each
theme
on
the
whole,
an
important
stage
in
the
management
and
reduction
of
data.
From
there
the
data
was
interpreted,
with
the
intention
of
identifying
links
between
the
passages
and
the
data
as
a
whole.
The
focus
at
this
stage
was
on
identifying
larger
trends
and
emerging
ideas
which
cut
across
focus
group
discussions.
Local educational institution. GLRC alongside VU: RU offers research led internship programmes to students studying for diplomas58
and degree level qualifications.
20
21. Volunteer Uganda: Research Uganda 2014
5
Questionnaire results
5.1
Adequate
Water
Access
This
sec*on
will
analyse
responses
gathered
in
the
ques*onnaire
in
an
assessment
of
water
access
focusing
on:
water
sources,
tap
ownership,
collec*on
*me,
water
usage,
percep*ons
of
access
to
an
adequate
water
supply,
and
drinking
water
availability.
5.1.1
Main
water
source
used
by
schools
Figure
3:
Main
water
source
used
by
schools.
Values
refer
to
the
number
of
schools
in
each
category.
Data
revealed
that
the
majority
of
schools
are
accessing
water
from
springs
and
wells.
As
demonstrated
in
figure
3.
5.1.2
Tap
ownership
21
Figure
4:
20
schools
reported
tap
breakdowns,
the
dura*on
of
*me
the
tap
was
broken
for
(B)
is
displayed
here.
Values
show
the
number
of
schools
which
fall
into
each
category.
22. Volunteer Uganda: Research Uganda 2014
24
schools
own
taps
on
their
premises,
5
are
without
and
1
school
did
not
answer.
11
schools
owning
a
tap
are
primary
and
13
secondary,
no
differences
were
found
between
government
and
private
schools
in
tap
ownership.
Of
those
that
had
taps
83.33%
of
respondents
reported
tap
breakdowns
or
taps
ceasing
to
work,
figure
4
displays
how
long
taps
were
out
of
ac*on
for.
Respondents
stated
that
it
is
common
for
schools
to
share
taps
with
communi*es
which
can
oben
expose
them
to
a
higher
risk
of
breakdown
or
sabotage.
It
was
found
that
only
16.67%
of
school
taps
were
recorded
as
having
restricted
access
with
a
physical
barrier
in
place,
stopping
students
or
community
members
having
unlimited
access.
5.1.3
Water
collec:on
:me
5.1.3.1
Collec:on
:me
from
primary
source
Respondents
with
taps
were
asked
how
long
water
collec*on
took
on
a
return
journey
(going
to
collect
water
and
back
again).
22
of
24
schools
provided
data.
On
average
water
collec*on
*me
for
a
school
with
a
tap
is
13.5
minutes
(SD
=
20.03)
with
a
range
of
70
minutes.
The
vast
majority
of
schools
collect
water
on
foot,
1
school
has
use
of
a
bicycle
and
2
did
not
answer.
Time
taken
to
collect
water
from
the
source
for
the
5
schools
without
taps
varied.
The
average
collec*on
*me
(going
to
collect
water
and
back
again)
for
a
school
without
a
tap
is
34.79
minutes
(SD
=25.58)
with
a
range
of
56
minutes.
All
5
schools
collected
water
on
foot.
5.1.3.2
Collec:on
:me
for
schools
without
taps
24
schools
use
alternate
water
sources
when
access
to
their
primary
water
source
or
tap
is
unavailable,
of
these
19
schools
provided
data;
16
with
taps
and
3
without
taps.
The
average
collec*on
*me
(going
to
collect
water
and
back
again)
from
an
alterna*ve
source
for
schools
without
taps
is
31.7
minutes
(SD:
24.66)
with
a
range
of
35
minutes.
Indica*ng
here
minimal
change
from
the
primary
source
collec*on
*me.
Schools
with
taps
are
most
affected.
The
average
collec*on
*me
(going
to
collect
water
and
back
again)
from
an
alterna*ve
source,
for
a
school
with
a
tap
is
76.3
minutes
(SD
24.66)
with
a
range
of
35
minutes.
This
shows
a
very
high
increase
in
collec*on
*me
compared
to
when
the
taps
are
accessible.
This
is
further
displayed
in
figure
5
which
shows
only
one
school
with
a
tap
was
not
affected
with
a
*me
increase
when
using
an
alternate
water
source.
Figure
5:
Data
recorded
from
16
schools,
shows
the
minutes
(m)
added
in
collec*on
*me
for
schools
with
taps
when
collec*ng
water
from
an
alterna*ve
water
source.
Values
show
the
number
of
schools
which
fall
into
each
category.
22
23. Volunteer Uganda: Research Uganda 2014
5.1.4
Water
Usage
Ques*onnaire
respondents
were
asked
to
es*mate
their
school’s
daily
water
usage.
Less
than
1
in
5
schools
use
an
adequate
amount
of
water
according
to
government
water
usage
targets
of
5
litres
per
pupil
per
day
in
non-‐boarding
schools
and
25
litres
per
pupil
per
day
in
boarding
schools.
This
figure
reflects
every
form
of
water
use
from
consump*on
and
cooking
to
cleaning
and
personal
hygiene.
Water
usage
data
for
7
of
our
30
case
sample
is
unknown.
Results
also
show
that
the
average
amount
of
water
used
per
student
per
day
across
all
schools
is
just
2.98
(SD
=
3.76)
litres,
well
below
the
na*onal
targets
for
both
day
and
boarding
schools.
Secondary
schools
tend
to
fare
be_er
than
primary
schools
in
providing
adequate
water
as
3
of
the
10
for
which
we
have
data
meet
the
government
minimum
water
usage
threshold.
On
the
other
hand,
only
1
primary
school
of
the
13
for
which
we
have
data
is
mee*ng
the
target.
Secondary
schools
also
use
well
over
double
the
amount
of
water
per
student
per
day
than
primary
schools
do.
Secondary
schools
were
found
to
use
4.67
litres
on
average
whilst
primary
schools
use
only
1.67
litres.
5.1.5
Percep:ons
on
water
availability
and
usage
Each
respondent
was
asked
whether
or
not
they
felt
the
school
had
enough
water
in
which
63.33%
of
all
schools
responded
‘No’.
The
most
common
reasons
for
this
were
overconsump*on
of
water
from
others
using
the
same
source,
the
effects
of
dry
season
on
supply
and
demand
and
mechanical
breakdowns
of
taps.
In
addi*on
respondents
were
asked
to
rate
the
impact
of
dry
season
on
their
water
supply
according
to
the
following
scale:
1.
Very
severely
2.
Severely
3.
Moderately
4.
Not
very
much
5.
Not
at
all
All
schools
answered,
one
third
of
schools
repor*ng
a
moderate
effect,
27%
of
schools
repor*ng
not
very
much
or
none
at
all
and
the
remaining
37%
a
severe
or
very
severe
effect.
5.1.6
Access
to
treated
drinking
water
for
students
Only
2
thirds
of
schools
provide
treated
drinking
water
for
students,
despite
all
schools
providing
treated
drinking
water
for
staff.
Secondary
schools
perform
marginally
be_er
than
primary
schools
here,
with
73.33%
of
secondary
schools
providing
treated
drinking
water
for
students
and
only
60.00%
of
primary.
Results
also
showed
that
75.00%
of
private
schools
were
providing
treated
drinking
water
for
students
compared
to
just
50%
of
government
schools.
5
schools
could
not
provide
data
on
how
much
treated
water
was
made
available
to
students
for
drinking
on
an
average
day.
For
the
remaining
15
schools
a
child
would
receive
307ml
of
drinking
water
on
average
per
day
at
school
(SD:
171.24)
with
a
range
of
603ml.
Only
11
schools
are
able
to
provide
the
equivalent
of
a
200ml
glass
of
water
or
more,
one
of
these
schools
is
a
government
school.
A
full
breakdown
of
this
can
be
seen
in
table
2.
23
24. Volunteer Uganda: Research Uganda 2014
5.2
Adequate
Water
Quality
This
sec*on
will
analyse
data
collected
in
rela*on
to
the
quality
of
water
within
each
school
from
collec*on
at
the
source
through
to
*me
of
consump*on.
This
process
will
be
carried
out
by
analysing
data
points
in
rela*on
to;
accessibility
of
water
from
a
protected
site,
risks
of
further
contamina*on
through
passage
of
collec*on,
transport
and
storage,
provision
of
safe
drinking
water,
absence
due
to
water
related
disease
and
results
from
coliform
bacteria
tes*ng.
5.2.1.1
Propor:on
of
schools
with
protected
primary
source
Respondents
were
asked
to
state
which
type
of
water
source
they
normally
use
to
draw
water
from
(see
figure
3).
The
vast
majority
of
schools
are
obtaining
water
from
either
ground
or
surface
sites,
however
only
a
limited
number
of
these
are
protected.
Of
schools
accessing
water
from
a
spring
or
well
57.14%
of
those
sites
were
reported
as
protected
and
9.52%
were
not
known
to
be
protected
or
not.
Of
the
12
schools
accessing
water
from
a
protected
site
7
were
primary
(2
government
and
5
private)
and
were
5
secondary
(all
private).
4
schools
answered
rain
as
their
main
source
of
water
and
all
responded
‘Yes’
when
asked
if
their
water
source
was
protected,
one
respondent
also
claimed
to
have
a
protected
bore
hole.
This
suggests
there
may
be
some
inaccuracy
in
the
understanding
of
respondents
to
the
criteria
of
a
protected
water
site
or
a
lack
of
knowledge
regarding
their
water
source.
5.2.1.2
Propor:on
of
schools
with
protected
alterna:ve
source
Many
of
the
schools
in
the
study
stated
that
they
use
more
than
one
site
to
source
water.
Focusing
on
the
popula*on
that
use
a
protected
well
or
spring
as
their
main
water
source,
5
of
the
12
schools
use
alternate
sources
such
as
rivers
and
rainfall
which
are
non-‐protected
sites.
Therefore
sugges*ng
that
only
7
of
the
12
schools
(23.33%
of
all
schools)
are
accessing
water
solely
from
a
protected
site.
5.2.2
Risk
of
further
contamina:on
5.2.2.1
Transport
The
use
of
an
uncapped
container
in
transpor*ng
water
further
increases
the
risk
of
contamina*on
as
it
offers
an
open
passage
for
bacteria
to
enter,
whilst
a
capped
container
or
commonly
used
‘jerry
can’
can
reduce
this
risk.
In
transpor*ng
water
from
the
water
source
to
the
school
83.33%
of
schools
are
using
jerry
cans.
The
remaining
16.67%
are
using
a
mix
of
jerry
cans,
bo_les
and
uncapped
containers.
When
asked
if
these
par*cular
containers
used
for
collec*ng
water
are
used
for
any
other
purposes
3
schools
answered
‘Yes’
and
1
school
did
not
know.
Despite
these
4
schools
using
jerry
cans
they
are
increasing
the
risk
of
contamina*ng
the
water
by
using
the
containers
for
alternate
purposes
as
the
water
is
exposed
to
cross
contamina*on.
All
schools
that
answered
yes
to
this
ques*on
were
government
schools.
24
25. Volunteer Uganda: Research Uganda 2014
5.2.2.2
Storage
The
number
of
schools
using
shop
bought
or
capped
storage
containers
to
store
water
used
for
consump*on
in
the
school
stands
at
43.33%.
Schools
using
either
uncapped
containers
or
a
mix
of
capped
and
uncapped
containers
to
store
their
water
are
at
a
higher
risk
of
contamina*on.
Figure
6:
Type
of
storage
facility
used
for
school
water
supply.
Values
show
the
number
of
schools
that
fall
into
each
category.
Half
of
schools
either
admi_ed
or
did
not
know
if
storage
containers
were
used
for
different
purposes
other
than
storing
water.
Three
of
these
schools
were
using
capped
containers
but
increase
their
risk
of
water
contamina*on
when
those
containers
are
used
for
other
purposes,
these
three
schools
are
all
government
schools.
5.2.2.3
Distribu:on
Distribu*ng
water
using
a
dipping
method
can
further
increase
the
risk
of
contamina*on
four
schools
are
using
this
method.
4
schools
are
using
this
method.
This
can
be
seen
in
figure
7.
Figure
7:
Water
distribu*on
risk.
Data
displays
the
number
of
schools
that
dip
cups
or
vessels
into
the
water
compared
to
pouring
when
distribu*ng
water.
Values
show
the
number
of
schools
that
fall
into
each
category.
25
26. Volunteer Uganda: Research Uganda 2014
5.2.3
Safe
drinking
water
5.2.3.1
Provision
of
safe
drinking
water
for
students
Of
the
19
schools
that
provided
treated
drinking
water
for
students
the
majority
of
schools
are
using
firewood
to
boil
water
as
their
treatment
method
and
2
schools
use
water
purifica*on
or
chlorine
tablets.
When
the
school
that
did
not
treat
water
before
consump*on
for
students
was
asked
why
they
responded
“no
facili*es”.
When
respondents
were
asked
whether
or
not
to
their
knowledge
students
are
drinking
untreated
water
an
alarming
83.33%
responded
‘Yes’.
The
most
cited
reason
was
‘insufficient
boiled
water
available
at
school’,
the
second
most
recorded
answer
was
an
‘ignorance
or
lack
of
knowledge’.
5.2.3.2
Provision
of
safe
drinking
water
for
staff
In
contrast
to
students,
100%
of
schools
in
the
survey
provided
drinking
water
for
staff,
29
treated
water
before
consump*on
and
one
did
not.
29
of
the
schools
that
treat
water
for
staff
are
also
using
the
boiling
method
(fuelled
by
firewood)
and
one
school
use
chlorine
tablets.
When
respondents
were
asked
whether
to
their
knowledge
staff
ever
drink
untreated
water
only
one
school
responded
‘Yes’
and
three
schools
could
not
answer
or
did
not
know
the
answer.
5.2.4.
Coliform
bacteria
tes:ng
5.2.4.1
Sample
test
results
27
schools
provided
a
sample
of
water
used
for
consump*on
for
tes*ng,
all
of
the
samples
received
were
assured
to
be
treated
water
samples.
All
samples
were
tested
for
coliform
bacteria
using
a
water
safe
colour
indicator
to
test
either
yellow
(posi*ve)
or
purple
(nega*ve)
for
the
presence
of
the
pathogen.
85.18%
turned
yellow
indica*ng
the
presence
of
coliform
bacteria
and
14.82%
showed
a
nega*ve
purple
reading.
Figure
8:
An
example
of
a
posi*ve
(yellow)
on
the
leb
and
nega*ve
(purple)
reading
on
the
right,
indica*ng
the
presence
or
absence
of
coliform
bacteria.
26
27. Volunteer Uganda: Research Uganda 2014
Figure
9:
Number
of
schools
indica*ng
a
posi*ve
or
nega*ve
result
for
the
presence
of
coliform
bacteria
in
a
treated
water
sample
collected
on
day
of
data
collec*on.
Values
correspond
to
the
number
of
schools
within
each
category.
5.3
Adequate
Sanita:on
This
sec*on
will
look
at
how
we
can
measure
adequate
sanita*on
facili*es
and
prac*ces
within
schools
by
assessing
access
to
toilets,
hand
washing
facili*es,
good
and
bad
hygiene
and
sanita*on
prac*ces
and
hygiene
educa*on.
Where
appropriate
findings
will
be
compared
to
na*onal
approved
standards.
5.3.1
Sanita:on
facili:es
5.3.1.1
Student:
stance
ra:o
Interviewees
were
asked
how
many
latrine
stances
(single
cubicles
within
a
latrine
block)
their
school
has
available
for
students
to
use.
Across
our
sample,
26
of
30
schools
are
mee*ng
the
government
target
of
a
student:
stance
ra*o
of
40:1.
The
average
ra*o
across
all
schools
is
in-‐fact
exceeding
these
targets
at
30:1
(rounded
to
the
nearest
measure)
with
a
standard
devia*on
of
16.94
and
a
range
of
76.50.
Figure
10
shows
the
number
of
schools
mee*ng
the
government
targets.
27
Figure
10:
Government
student:
stance
ra*o
is
40:1.
Values
show
the
number
of
schools
within
each
category.
28. Volunteer Uganda: Research Uganda 2014
There
is
li_le
to
separate
the
performance
of
primary
and
secondary
schools
here.
13
of
15
primary
schools
are
mee*ng
the
target
of
40:1
whilst
12
of
15
secondary
schools
are.
The
average
student:
stance
ra*o
in
primary
schools
is
28:1
(SD
=
16.94)
with
a
range
of
48.18.
In
secondary
schools
the
figure
is
31:1
(SD
=
19.31)
with
a
range
of
76.50.
5.3.1.2
Hand
washing
facili:es
Respondents
were
asked
what
type
of
hand
washing
facili*es
were
available
for
both
staff
and
students
to
access
throughout
the
school
day.
Only
1
school
did
not
have
any
hand
washing
facili*es,
over
half
of
schools
used
water
in
jerry
cans,
and
small
number
of
schools
had
use
of
sinks
or
taps,
displayed
in
figure
11
below.
13.33%
primary
schools
have
a
tap
or
sink
used
as
a
hand
washing
facility
compared
to
53.33%
of
secondary
schools.
More
government
schools
have
a
sink
or
a
tap
at
40.00%
compared
to
30.00%
of
private
schools.
Figure
11:
Type
of
hand
washing
facili*es
available.
Values
show
the
number
of
schools
within
each
category.
5.3.1.3
Availability
of
soap
Figure
12:
Availability
of
soap
at
hand
washing
facility.
Values
show
the
number
of
schools
within
each
category.
28