Vitamin B6, also known as pyridoxine, is an essential micronutrient that serves as a cofactor for many enzyme reactions in the body. The document discusses the structures and functions of various B vitamins, including their roles in metabolism and as coenzymes. It also covers fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, K and water-soluble vitamins C and B vitamins. Common deficiency diseases are mentioned along with sources and recommended daily intake of different vitamins.
Vitamins and minerals are essential nutrients that humans must obtain through their diet. There are two classes of vitamins - fat soluble (A, D, E, K) and water soluble. Fat soluble vitamins are absorbed with fat and can accumulate in the body, while water soluble vitamins are not readily stored. Vitamins function as coenzymes and precursors for important metabolic processes. Deficiencies can lead to diseases like rickets, osteomalacia and night blindness. Common dietary sources of vitamins and requirements are also discussed.
This document provides an overview of fat-soluble vitamins, including Vitamins A, D, E, and K. It discusses the general characteristics, functions, classification, and individual details of each vitamin. For each vitamin, the document outlines its dietary sources, mechanisms of action in the body, functions, and deficiency diseases. The presentation aims to introduce the key properties and roles of the important fat-soluble vitamins.
Vitamins UNIT-7 biochemistry and clinical pathology, D.Pharm 2nd year.pptxAanchal Gupta
Vitamins, unit-7 for D.Pharm second year, According to PCI syllabus.
Definition and classification with examples
Sources, chemical nature, functions, coenzyme form, recommended dietary requirements, deficiency diseases of fat-and water-soluble vitamins
The word "vitamin" comes from the Latin word “vita”, means "life". Vitamins are organic components in food that are required in very small amounts for growth and for maintaining good health. Vitamins are chemicals found in very small amounts in many different foods Vitamins and minerals are measured in a variety of ways. The most common are:
mg – milligram (a milligram is one thousandth of a gram)
mcg – microgram (a microgram is one millionth of a gram. 1,000 micrograms is equal to one milligram)
IU – international unit (the conversion of milligrams and micrograms into IU depends on the type of vitamin or drug)
This presentation provides an overview of vitamins, including their classification, functions, sources, and mechanisms of action. It discusses both water soluble vitamins (B vitamins and vitamin C) and fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K). Key points include:
- Vitamins are organic compounds that are needed in small amounts for growth, cell function, and disease prevention.
- They are classified as either water soluble or fat soluble depending on how they are absorbed and transported in the body.
- Vitamins act as coenzymes and play important roles in energy production, cell differentiation, bone health, vision, and other processes.
- Dietary sources of each vitamin are identified along with recommended daily intake amounts
This document provides information about Akash Mahadev Iyer, who is an S2 M.Sc Biochemistry student at the University of Kerala in Kariyavattom. It then discusses vitamins in general and provides details on the 13 essential vitamins for humans, including fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K, and water-soluble B complex vitamins and vitamin C. For each vitamin, the document outlines their chemical structure, food sources, functions in the body, deficiency and toxicity symptoms, and recommended dietary allowances.
Fat-soluble Vitamin E & K for dental studentsDeepakAravind8
Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed through the intestinal tract with the help of lipids Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed through the intestinal tract with the help of lipids , dental seminar,
Vitamins are organic compounds that are needed in small amounts for good health. They are classified as either water-soluble or fat-soluble. The presentation summarized key vitamins including their sources, functions, and daily requirements. Vitamin A supports vision and immune function. Vitamin D aids in calcium absorption and immunity. Vitamin E is a powerful antioxidant that protects cells. Vitamin K is needed for blood clotting. The B vitamins help release energy from carbohydrates and support nervous system function. Vitamin C supports immune function and collagen production.
Vitamins and minerals are essential nutrients that humans must obtain through their diet. There are two classes of vitamins - fat soluble (A, D, E, K) and water soluble. Fat soluble vitamins are absorbed with fat and can accumulate in the body, while water soluble vitamins are not readily stored. Vitamins function as coenzymes and precursors for important metabolic processes. Deficiencies can lead to diseases like rickets, osteomalacia and night blindness. Common dietary sources of vitamins and requirements are also discussed.
This document provides an overview of fat-soluble vitamins, including Vitamins A, D, E, and K. It discusses the general characteristics, functions, classification, and individual details of each vitamin. For each vitamin, the document outlines its dietary sources, mechanisms of action in the body, functions, and deficiency diseases. The presentation aims to introduce the key properties and roles of the important fat-soluble vitamins.
Vitamins UNIT-7 biochemistry and clinical pathology, D.Pharm 2nd year.pptxAanchal Gupta
Vitamins, unit-7 for D.Pharm second year, According to PCI syllabus.
Definition and classification with examples
Sources, chemical nature, functions, coenzyme form, recommended dietary requirements, deficiency diseases of fat-and water-soluble vitamins
The word "vitamin" comes from the Latin word “vita”, means "life". Vitamins are organic components in food that are required in very small amounts for growth and for maintaining good health. Vitamins are chemicals found in very small amounts in many different foods Vitamins and minerals are measured in a variety of ways. The most common are:
mg – milligram (a milligram is one thousandth of a gram)
mcg – microgram (a microgram is one millionth of a gram. 1,000 micrograms is equal to one milligram)
IU – international unit (the conversion of milligrams and micrograms into IU depends on the type of vitamin or drug)
This presentation provides an overview of vitamins, including their classification, functions, sources, and mechanisms of action. It discusses both water soluble vitamins (B vitamins and vitamin C) and fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K). Key points include:
- Vitamins are organic compounds that are needed in small amounts for growth, cell function, and disease prevention.
- They are classified as either water soluble or fat soluble depending on how they are absorbed and transported in the body.
- Vitamins act as coenzymes and play important roles in energy production, cell differentiation, bone health, vision, and other processes.
- Dietary sources of each vitamin are identified along with recommended daily intake amounts
This document provides information about Akash Mahadev Iyer, who is an S2 M.Sc Biochemistry student at the University of Kerala in Kariyavattom. It then discusses vitamins in general and provides details on the 13 essential vitamins for humans, including fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K, and water-soluble B complex vitamins and vitamin C. For each vitamin, the document outlines their chemical structure, food sources, functions in the body, deficiency and toxicity symptoms, and recommended dietary allowances.
Fat-soluble Vitamin E & K for dental studentsDeepakAravind8
Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed through the intestinal tract with the help of lipids Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed through the intestinal tract with the help of lipids , dental seminar,
Vitamins are organic compounds that are needed in small amounts for good health. They are classified as either water-soluble or fat-soluble. The presentation summarized key vitamins including their sources, functions, and daily requirements. Vitamin A supports vision and immune function. Vitamin D aids in calcium absorption and immunity. Vitamin E is a powerful antioxidant that protects cells. Vitamin K is needed for blood clotting. The B vitamins help release energy from carbohydrates and support nervous system function. Vitamin C supports immune function and collagen production.
Contents:
Vitamins: Definition
Classification of vitamins.
Fat soluble vitamins: Vitamin A, Vitamin D, Vitamin E and Vitamin K. Chemical nature, Dietary sources, Coenzyme forms, Biochemical functions, recommended dietary allowances and deficiency diseases of fat soluble vitamins.
Vitamins are organic compounds required in small amounts for normal growth, health and biological functions. They are classified as either fat-soluble (A, D, E, K) or water-soluble (C, B vitamins). Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed with fats and stored in tissues while water-soluble vitamins are not stored and must be continuously supplied. Each vitamin plays important roles as enzyme cofactors in critical biochemical reactions related to energy production, cell growth, immune function and more. The document provides details on the chemistry, sources, functions and requirements of several key vitamins.
A vitamin is an organic compound and a vital nutrient that an organism requires in limited amounts. An organic chemical compound (or related set of compounds) is called a vitamin when the organism cannot synthesize the compound in sufficient quantities, and it must be obtained through the diet; thus, the term "vitamin" is conditional upon the circumstances and the particular organism.
Vitamins are organic compounds that cannot be synthesized by the human body and must be obtained through diet. This document discusses several key vitamins:
- Vitamin A supports vision, cell differentiation, and reproduction. It exists in retinol form in animals and beta-carotene form in plants. Deficiency can cause night blindness and increased infection risk.
- Vitamin D aids in calcium absorption and bone mineralization. It is produced endogenously from sunlight or obtained through diet. Deficiency causes rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults.
- Vitamin K acts as a coenzyme in blood clotting by allowing the carboxylation of clotting factors. Def
Vitamins are organic compounds that are essential nutrients for metabolic processes and health, but are not synthesized by the body. They act as co-enzymes and are needed in small amounts. An absence of vitamins can lead to deficiency diseases like beriberi and scurvy. Vitamins are classified as either fat-soluble (A, D, E, K) or water-soluble (B complex, C). Vitamin A is important for vision, reproduction and skin health. Too little can cause night blindness and skin issues, while too much during pregnancy can cause birth defects. Vitamin D helps absorb calcium and phosphorus for bone growth and prevents rickets. It is formed from sunlight exposure and found in
Vitamins are organic compounds that are essential for normal human metabolism. They are divided into fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) and water-soluble vitamins. Deficiencies can occur due to inadequate intake, malabsorption, or other factors. Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the body while water-soluble vitamins are not stored as much and excess is excreted. Deficiencies of specific vitamins can lead to diseases like xerophthalmia (vitamin A), rickets (vitamin D), anemia (vitamin E), or bleeding disorders (vitamin K).
This document discusses vitamins and vitamin deficiencies. It begins by defining vitamins and their essential roles in the body. It then discusses the etiology of vitamin deficiencies, including malnutrition and alcoholism. The document categorizes vitamins as either fat-soluble (A, D, E, K) or water-soluble and provides details on the physiology and deficiencies of each individual vitamin. It also discusses vitamin B complex, trace elements, and the relationship between diet and cancer.
Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin that is important for calcium absorption and bone health. It can be synthesized in the skin upon exposure to sunlight or obtained from dietary sources. The biologically active form, calcitriol, increases intestinal calcium absorption and maintains calcium and phosphate levels in the blood through actions in the intestine, kidney, and bone. A daily intake of 400 IU is recommended, and deficiency can lead to rickets in children or osteomalacia in adults.
This document provides information on fat soluble vitamins, including vitamin A, D, E, and K. It discusses the structure, sources, functions, deficiency symptoms, and sensitivity to processing for each vitamin. Vitamin A plays roles in vision and immune function. Vitamin D is important for bone health and is synthesized in the skin upon sun exposure. Vitamin E acts as an antioxidant and vitamin K is essential for blood clotting. The document also provides references on fat soluble vitamins.
The document discusses the four main fat soluble vitamins: vitamins A, D, E, and K. It provides details on their structures, functions, deficiency diseases, dietary sources, and recommended intake levels. The key points are:
- Fat soluble vitamins are absorbed with fat in the small intestine and stored in the liver and fatty tissues. They include vitamins A, D, E, and K.
- Vitamin A supports vision and immune function. Vitamin D works with calcium for bone health. Vitamin E is an antioxidant and vitamin K aids in blood clotting.
- Deficiencies can lead to conditions like rickets, osteomalacia, heart disease, or bleeding disorders.
The document discusses the four main fat soluble vitamins: vitamins A, D, E, and K. It provides details on their structures, functions, food sources, deficiency diseases, and dietary recommendations. The fat soluble vitamins are essential nutrients that must be obtained through diet as they are involved in many important processes in the body like vision, bone health, cell growth and blood clotting. Maintaining adequate levels of these vitamins is important for overall health.
This document provides an overview of vitamins presented by three students. It defines vitamins as organic compounds needed in small quantities to sustain life that humans obtain from food. The document discusses the characteristics, classifications, functions and examples of various vitamins including Vitamin A, D, E, C. It also explains the mechanisms of action, sources, deficiencies and daily allowances of these vitamins.
This document provides information on Vitamins D and K. It discusses the sources, structures, functions, recommended daily intake and deficiency symptoms of each vitamin. Vitamin D helps regulate calcium levels and bone mineralization, while Vitamin K is required for blood clotting through the gamma-carboxylation of clotting factors in the liver. Both vitamins are fat-soluble and absorbed through the intestine with dietary fats and bile salts.
Vitamins are organic compounds that are required in small amounts for normal growth, maintenance and reproduction. Vitamin A is important for vision, growth, and epithelial cell maintenance. It can be found in animal foods like liver and plant foods like carrots. Too much vitamin A can cause toxicity. Vitamin D aids in calcium absorption and is synthesized from cholesterol when skin is exposed to sunlight. It helps maintain adequate calcium and phosphorus levels. Vitamin E is an antioxidant that protects cell components from oxidative damage. It exists as tocopherols with alpha-tocopherol being the most active form.
1) Vitamin D is produced in the skin from sunlight exposure and is also obtained in small amounts from dietary sources like fatty fish.
2) In the liver and kidneys, vitamin D is activated to its biological form which acts to regulate calcium and phosphate levels in the body by increasing their absorption in the intestines and mobilization from bones.
3) Vitamin D deficiency can lead to rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults, characterized by soft, weak bones due to poor mineralization.
The document discusses vitamins, including their classification, functions, sources, and deficiencies. It covers key details about vitamins A, D, E, K, B1, and B2. Specifically, it describes:
- Vitamins are organic compounds required as nutrients and cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities. They are classified as lipid-soluble or water-soluble.
- Vitamin A is important for vision, cell differentiation, and immune function. Deficiency can cause night blindness and increased infection risk.
- Vitamin D regulates calcium and phosphate levels and is synthesized from sunlight exposure. It supports bone and immune health.
- Vitamin E is a powerful antioxidant that protects cell membranes from free radical damage.
This document discusses vitamin D, including its forms, functions, metabolism, and deficiency/toxicity. Some key points:
- Vitamin D exists in two forms, D2 and D3. D3 is produced in the skin upon sun exposure and converted to its active form in the liver and kidneys.
- Its active form, calcitriol, regulates calcium and phosphorus levels by increasing their absorption in the intestine and reabsorption in kidneys. It also mobilizes calcium from bones.
- Deficiency causes rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults due to impaired bone mineralization. Toxicity leads to hypercalcemia which can damage soft tissues like kidneys.
The document discusses vitamin D, including its forms, production, metabolism, and role in regulating calcium levels. Vitamin D exists in two major forms - D2 and D3. D3 is produced in the skin upon exposure to UVB light, while D2 is derived from plant sources. Both forms are metabolized to the active form calcitriol, which works with parathyroid hormone and calcitonin to maintain appropriate calcium levels in the blood and bones. Deficiency can lead to bone softening diseases like rickets or osteomalacia.
INSTRUMENTATION AND LABORATORY ANIMAL SCIENCE.pptTemGemechu
This document provides an overview of the content that will be covered in a course on Instrumentation and Laboratory Animal Science. It discusses the history of animal experimentation from ancient times to modern developments. It also examines the ethical, scientific, and legal issues surrounding the use of animals in research. The 3Rs concept of replacement, reduction and refinement is introduced to minimize harm to animals. Common laboratory animals like mice and rats are described. The course will cover topics like anesthesia, euthanasia, administration of substances, and collection of bodily samples in animal experiments.
The document discusses the male reproductive system and spermatogenesis. It describes the main structures of the male reproductive system including the testes, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland and penis. It explains their functions in sperm production and transport. Spermatogenesis, the process of sperm formation, occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes and involves spermatogonia developing into spermatocytes and then spermatids and mature sperm. Hormones like FSH, LH and testosterone regulate spermatogenesis. During sexual arousal, erection, ejaculation and the three stages of the male sexual act are described.
Contents:
Vitamins: Definition
Classification of vitamins.
Fat soluble vitamins: Vitamin A, Vitamin D, Vitamin E and Vitamin K. Chemical nature, Dietary sources, Coenzyme forms, Biochemical functions, recommended dietary allowances and deficiency diseases of fat soluble vitamins.
Vitamins are organic compounds required in small amounts for normal growth, health and biological functions. They are classified as either fat-soluble (A, D, E, K) or water-soluble (C, B vitamins). Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed with fats and stored in tissues while water-soluble vitamins are not stored and must be continuously supplied. Each vitamin plays important roles as enzyme cofactors in critical biochemical reactions related to energy production, cell growth, immune function and more. The document provides details on the chemistry, sources, functions and requirements of several key vitamins.
A vitamin is an organic compound and a vital nutrient that an organism requires in limited amounts. An organic chemical compound (or related set of compounds) is called a vitamin when the organism cannot synthesize the compound in sufficient quantities, and it must be obtained through the diet; thus, the term "vitamin" is conditional upon the circumstances and the particular organism.
Vitamins are organic compounds that cannot be synthesized by the human body and must be obtained through diet. This document discusses several key vitamins:
- Vitamin A supports vision, cell differentiation, and reproduction. It exists in retinol form in animals and beta-carotene form in plants. Deficiency can cause night blindness and increased infection risk.
- Vitamin D aids in calcium absorption and bone mineralization. It is produced endogenously from sunlight or obtained through diet. Deficiency causes rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults.
- Vitamin K acts as a coenzyme in blood clotting by allowing the carboxylation of clotting factors. Def
Vitamins are organic compounds that are essential nutrients for metabolic processes and health, but are not synthesized by the body. They act as co-enzymes and are needed in small amounts. An absence of vitamins can lead to deficiency diseases like beriberi and scurvy. Vitamins are classified as either fat-soluble (A, D, E, K) or water-soluble (B complex, C). Vitamin A is important for vision, reproduction and skin health. Too little can cause night blindness and skin issues, while too much during pregnancy can cause birth defects. Vitamin D helps absorb calcium and phosphorus for bone growth and prevents rickets. It is formed from sunlight exposure and found in
Vitamins are organic compounds that are essential for normal human metabolism. They are divided into fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) and water-soluble vitamins. Deficiencies can occur due to inadequate intake, malabsorption, or other factors. Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the body while water-soluble vitamins are not stored as much and excess is excreted. Deficiencies of specific vitamins can lead to diseases like xerophthalmia (vitamin A), rickets (vitamin D), anemia (vitamin E), or bleeding disorders (vitamin K).
This document discusses vitamins and vitamin deficiencies. It begins by defining vitamins and their essential roles in the body. It then discusses the etiology of vitamin deficiencies, including malnutrition and alcoholism. The document categorizes vitamins as either fat-soluble (A, D, E, K) or water-soluble and provides details on the physiology and deficiencies of each individual vitamin. It also discusses vitamin B complex, trace elements, and the relationship between diet and cancer.
Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin that is important for calcium absorption and bone health. It can be synthesized in the skin upon exposure to sunlight or obtained from dietary sources. The biologically active form, calcitriol, increases intestinal calcium absorption and maintains calcium and phosphate levels in the blood through actions in the intestine, kidney, and bone. A daily intake of 400 IU is recommended, and deficiency can lead to rickets in children or osteomalacia in adults.
This document provides information on fat soluble vitamins, including vitamin A, D, E, and K. It discusses the structure, sources, functions, deficiency symptoms, and sensitivity to processing for each vitamin. Vitamin A plays roles in vision and immune function. Vitamin D is important for bone health and is synthesized in the skin upon sun exposure. Vitamin E acts as an antioxidant and vitamin K is essential for blood clotting. The document also provides references on fat soluble vitamins.
The document discusses the four main fat soluble vitamins: vitamins A, D, E, and K. It provides details on their structures, functions, deficiency diseases, dietary sources, and recommended intake levels. The key points are:
- Fat soluble vitamins are absorbed with fat in the small intestine and stored in the liver and fatty tissues. They include vitamins A, D, E, and K.
- Vitamin A supports vision and immune function. Vitamin D works with calcium for bone health. Vitamin E is an antioxidant and vitamin K aids in blood clotting.
- Deficiencies can lead to conditions like rickets, osteomalacia, heart disease, or bleeding disorders.
The document discusses the four main fat soluble vitamins: vitamins A, D, E, and K. It provides details on their structures, functions, food sources, deficiency diseases, and dietary recommendations. The fat soluble vitamins are essential nutrients that must be obtained through diet as they are involved in many important processes in the body like vision, bone health, cell growth and blood clotting. Maintaining adequate levels of these vitamins is important for overall health.
This document provides an overview of vitamins presented by three students. It defines vitamins as organic compounds needed in small quantities to sustain life that humans obtain from food. The document discusses the characteristics, classifications, functions and examples of various vitamins including Vitamin A, D, E, C. It also explains the mechanisms of action, sources, deficiencies and daily allowances of these vitamins.
This document provides information on Vitamins D and K. It discusses the sources, structures, functions, recommended daily intake and deficiency symptoms of each vitamin. Vitamin D helps regulate calcium levels and bone mineralization, while Vitamin K is required for blood clotting through the gamma-carboxylation of clotting factors in the liver. Both vitamins are fat-soluble and absorbed through the intestine with dietary fats and bile salts.
Vitamins are organic compounds that are required in small amounts for normal growth, maintenance and reproduction. Vitamin A is important for vision, growth, and epithelial cell maintenance. It can be found in animal foods like liver and plant foods like carrots. Too much vitamin A can cause toxicity. Vitamin D aids in calcium absorption and is synthesized from cholesterol when skin is exposed to sunlight. It helps maintain adequate calcium and phosphorus levels. Vitamin E is an antioxidant that protects cell components from oxidative damage. It exists as tocopherols with alpha-tocopherol being the most active form.
1) Vitamin D is produced in the skin from sunlight exposure and is also obtained in small amounts from dietary sources like fatty fish.
2) In the liver and kidneys, vitamin D is activated to its biological form which acts to regulate calcium and phosphate levels in the body by increasing their absorption in the intestines and mobilization from bones.
3) Vitamin D deficiency can lead to rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults, characterized by soft, weak bones due to poor mineralization.
The document discusses vitamins, including their classification, functions, sources, and deficiencies. It covers key details about vitamins A, D, E, K, B1, and B2. Specifically, it describes:
- Vitamins are organic compounds required as nutrients and cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities. They are classified as lipid-soluble or water-soluble.
- Vitamin A is important for vision, cell differentiation, and immune function. Deficiency can cause night blindness and increased infection risk.
- Vitamin D regulates calcium and phosphate levels and is synthesized from sunlight exposure. It supports bone and immune health.
- Vitamin E is a powerful antioxidant that protects cell membranes from free radical damage.
This document discusses vitamin D, including its forms, functions, metabolism, and deficiency/toxicity. Some key points:
- Vitamin D exists in two forms, D2 and D3. D3 is produced in the skin upon sun exposure and converted to its active form in the liver and kidneys.
- Its active form, calcitriol, regulates calcium and phosphorus levels by increasing their absorption in the intestine and reabsorption in kidneys. It also mobilizes calcium from bones.
- Deficiency causes rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults due to impaired bone mineralization. Toxicity leads to hypercalcemia which can damage soft tissues like kidneys.
The document discusses vitamin D, including its forms, production, metabolism, and role in regulating calcium levels. Vitamin D exists in two major forms - D2 and D3. D3 is produced in the skin upon exposure to UVB light, while D2 is derived from plant sources. Both forms are metabolized to the active form calcitriol, which works with parathyroid hormone and calcitonin to maintain appropriate calcium levels in the blood and bones. Deficiency can lead to bone softening diseases like rickets or osteomalacia.
INSTRUMENTATION AND LABORATORY ANIMAL SCIENCE.pptTemGemechu
This document provides an overview of the content that will be covered in a course on Instrumentation and Laboratory Animal Science. It discusses the history of animal experimentation from ancient times to modern developments. It also examines the ethical, scientific, and legal issues surrounding the use of animals in research. The 3Rs concept of replacement, reduction and refinement is introduced to minimize harm to animals. Common laboratory animals like mice and rats are described. The course will cover topics like anesthesia, euthanasia, administration of substances, and collection of bodily samples in animal experiments.
The document discusses the male reproductive system and spermatogenesis. It describes the main structures of the male reproductive system including the testes, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland and penis. It explains their functions in sperm production and transport. Spermatogenesis, the process of sperm formation, occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes and involves spermatogonia developing into spermatocytes and then spermatids and mature sperm. Hormones like FSH, LH and testosterone regulate spermatogenesis. During sexual arousal, erection, ejaculation and the three stages of the male sexual act are described.
The document discusses the cardiovascular changes that occur during pregnancy and the fetal circulation system. Physiologically, pregnancy results in increased blood volume, cardiac output, and stroke volume. The fetal circulation differs in that it involves shunts that bypass the lungs and liver while in the womb, allowing oxygenated blood to reach the fetus. At birth, the circulation undergoes changes as the shunts close and the lungs become functional, redirecting blood flow.
The document summarizes the anatomy and function of the thymus gland. It discusses that the thymus is largest in infants and children and plays a critical role in immunity by facilitating the maturation of T cells. The thymus contains two lobes with an outer cortex and inner medulla and produces hormones that regulate T cell development. Conditions like hyperactivity, cancer, and atrophy can affect thymus size and function. The primary role of the thymus is inducing T cell differentiation to fight diseases, cancers, allergens and pathogens.
This document summarizes an advanced endocrinology seminar on pheromones. It defines pheromones as chemicals secreted by organisms that trigger social responses in others of the same species. The presentation covers the classification of pheromones such as sex, aggregation, and alarm pheromones. It discusses how pheromones are produced and perceived, and notes evidence that humans may communicate using pheromones as well. The document concludes by explaining applications like using synthetic pheromones to control pest insects and influence breeding programs.
Physiologic changes of pregnancy lect 2.pptTemGemechu
The document discusses the physiological changes that occur during pregnancy across multiple body systems. Key changes include increased blood volume, cardiac output, and respiration to support the growing fetus. The uterus enlarges dramatically under the influence of hormones. Other systems like digestion and urination are impacted to accommodate pregnancy. Understanding these normal changes is important for health care providers to recognize pathological deviations and advise women appropriately during this period.
Physiologic changes of pregnancy lect 2.pptTemGemechu
The document discusses the physiological changes that occur during pregnancy across multiple body systems. Key changes include increased blood volume, cardiac output, and respiration to support the growing fetus. The uterus grows enormously under the influence of hormones like estrogen and progesterone. Other systems like digestion and urination are also affected as the body adapts to accommodate the pregnancy. The document provides an overview of normal anatomical and physiological adaptations to help medical professionals understand and monitor pregnancies.
The document discusses growth hormone (GH), including its molecular structure, physiological effects, regulation and abnormalities. Some key points:
- GH is a protein made up of 191 amino acids with a molecular weight of 22,124 daltons. It stimulates growth and has direct effects on tissues and indirect effects via stimulating IGF-1.
- GH secretion is regulated by GHRH and somatostatin from the hypothalamus as well as ghrelin from the stomach. It is secreted in pulses, with the largest pulse an hour after sleep onset.
- Physiological effects of GH include promoting linear growth, increasing lipolysis and protein synthesis while decreasing glucose utilization.
- Abnormal
This document discusses heart disease in pregnancy. It begins by noting that heart disease complicates around 1% of pregnancies. It then covers cardiovascular changes in pregnancy like increased blood volume and cardiac output. Grades of cardiac disease severity are described. Diagnosis involves history, exams, ECGs, echocardiograms. Effects on the fetus and mother are outlined. Classifications of cardiac diseases seen in pregnancy like rheumatic heart disease and congenital heart diseases are summarized. Nursing management focuses on monitoring, positioning, oxygen supplementation and controlling cardiac failure. Guidelines for pregnant women with heart disease emphasize treating existing conditions, testing for defects, controlling risks, and regular consultations.
Vitamin D is a prohormone that must undergo two hydroxylations in the liver and kidneys to become its active form, calcitriol. Calcitriol regulates calcium and phosphate absorption in the intestines and their levels in the blood through interactions with parathyroid hormone. Vitamin D deficiency can lead to rickets in children, causing soft and deformed bones, and osteomalacia in adults, making bones brittle. The main sources of vitamin D are skin exposure to sunlight and dietary intake from oily fish and fortified foods.
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
1. JIMMA UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF HEALTH SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSIOLOGY (MSc)
BIOCHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT
Prepared By: Temam Gemechu
Submitted To: Instructor Mengistu
5/8/2023 1
3. Introduction
Nutrients are divided into two classes: macronutrients and
micronutrients. Macronutrients include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins
and nucleic-acids. Vitamins and minerals are called micronutrients.
Vitamin is an organic compound that can not be synthesized by man
but is essential for normal health and development.
vitamins are heterogeneous group of compounds.
5/8/2023 3
4. Continued…..
They do not have any chemical or structural similarities but similar
general function in metabolism, they are studied together.
It is worth remembering the following facts when dealing with
vitamins.
1. They are needed in microgram(smaller) quantities.
2. Vitamin deficiency leads to disease
5/8/2023 4
6. General features of fat soluble Vitamins
Adsorbed with dietary fat in micelles.
Excreted much more slowly.
Stored in adipose tissue & liver so pose a greater risk of toxicity when
consumed in excess.
Chylomicrons containing fat-soluble vitamins are transported via the
lymph to the bloodstream and eventually to the liver.
5/8/2023 6
7. Vitamin A
Vitamin A refers to the derivatives of beta-ionone having biological activity of
all-trans retinol.
Retinol, retinal and retinoic acid are the most commonly used vitamin A.
Three other terms used frequently with this vitamin are retinoid, carotenoids
and pro-vitamin A.
Retinoids
Comprise of
• Retinol
• Retinaldehyde
• Retinoic acid
Preformed Vitamin A found in food in animal origin
5/8/2023 7
8. Continued…..
Carotenoids
Comprise carotenes
Known as pro-vitamin A
alpha,beta,gamma carotenes
kryptoxanthin
Can be cleaved to yield
Retinaldehyde
Retinol
Retinoic acid
Carotene dioxygenase
Cleaved carotenes and other pro-vitamin A.
5/8/2023 8
11. Metabolism of Vitamin A
Digestion &Transport to the liver
Retinol esters present in the diet are hydrolyzed in the intestinal mucosa,
releasing retinol and free fatty acids.
Diets critically low in dietary fat (under about 5–10 g daily) or disease
conditions that interfere with normal digestion and absorption leading to
steatorrhea(e.g., pancreatic and liver diseases and frequent gastroenteritis)
can therefore impede the efficient absorption of retinol and carotenoids.
5/8/2023 11
12. Continued…
Retinol derived from esters and from the cleavage and reduction of
carotenes is re-esterified to long-chain fatty acids in the intestinal
mucosa and secreted as a component of chylomicrons into the
lymphatic system and delivered to the blood through the thoracic duct.
Retinol esters contained in chylomicron remnants are taken up by, and
stored in, the liver.
5/8/2023 12
14. Functions of Vitamin A
1. Involved in visual cycle: Rhodopsin, the visual pigment of the rods
in the retina, consists of 11 cis-retinal specifically bound to the
protein opsin.
when a person shifts from a bright light to dim light, rhodopsin stores
are depleted and vision is impaired.
However, within few minutes, known as dark adaptation time,
rhodopsin is resynthesized and vision is improved.
Dark adaptation time is increased in Vitamin A deficient individuals.
5/8/2023 14
15. Continued….
2.For growth and development.
All-trans retinoic acid and 9-cis-retinoic acid regulate growth,
development, and tissue differentiation ( acts like hormone).
3. For reproduction: Retinol and retinal support spermatogenesis in the
male and prevents fetal resorption in the female.
4. Maintenance of epithelial cell: Essential for normal differentiation of
epithelial tissues and mucus secretion.
6. Maintains the antioxidant potential of different tissues(Anticancer
effect).
7. The Immune Response
8. For synthesis of transferrin
9. Been used dermatologically in treatment of acne, psoriasis
5/8/2023 15
16. Sources of Vitamin A
Vitamin A comes from animal sources such as meat, egg , fish & diary products.
Beta- carotene, a precursor of Vitamin A comes from green, leafy vegetables &
intensely colored fruits & vegetables.
Daily requirement: 2-3 mg
Hypervitaminosis A/Toxicity of retinoids
Results from excessive intake of
Vitamin A (intake of > 7.5 mg/day)
5/8/2023 16
17. Vitamins D
The two most prominent members of this group are vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol)
and vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol).
Vitamin D2(C28H44O) is derived from a common plant steroid, ergo sterol.
Vitamin D3(C27H44O) is the form of vitamin D obtained when radiant energy
from the sun strikes the skin and converts the precursor 7-dehydrocholesterol.
5/8/2023 17
18. Continued…
Since the body is capable of producing vitamin D3, vitamin D does
not meet the classical definition of a vitamin.
A more accurate description of vitamin D is that it is a prohormone;
thus, vitamin D is metabolized to a biologically active form that
functions as a steroid hormone.
5/8/2023 18
19. The structure and activation of vitamin D
• It may be noted that the two vitamins, D2 and D3 differ only in their side chains
attached to C17.
5/8/2023 19
20. Metabolism of Vitamin D/ activation
The production of 25(OH)D3 is catalyzed by the cytochrome P450 enzyme,
vitamin D3 25-hydroxylase. The 25-hydroxylase activity is found in both liver
microsomes and mitochondria.
From the liver, 25(OH)D3 is returned to the circulatory system where it is
transported via DBP to the kidney where a second hydroxyl group can be added
at the C-1 position by the 25(OH)D3-1-α-hydroxylase.
5/8/2023 20
21. Continued..
1,25(OH)2D3 is transported by the blood to intestinal mucosa and bone (target
tissues), where it functions in the processes for the absorption, reabsorption and
mobilization of calcium and phosphate ions.
In conjunction with parathyroid hormone and calcitonin, it has a major role in
homeostasis of Ca and P in the body’s fluids and tissues.
Thus, the function of vitamin D is to cause increased absorption, longer
retention and better utilization of calcium and phosphorus in the body.
5/8/2023 21
22. Continued…
Recently, 1α,25(OH)2D3 has been shown to act on novel target tissues
not related to calcium homeostasis.
These studies suggest that vitamin D status is important for insulin
and prolactin secretion, muscle function, immune and stress response,
melanin synthesis, and cellular differentiation of skin and blood cells.
5/8/2023 22
23. Vitamin D Deficiency Syndromes
Rickets- There is under mineralization of bone in children due to less
absorption of Calcium.
Osteomalacia – clinical manifestation of Vitamin D deficiency in adults.
Results due to demineralization of bone.
Vitamin D Toxicity/Hypervitaminosis D
Serum concentrations of both calcium and phosphate are greatly raised,
resulting in metabolic calcification of many soft tissues and the formation
of renal calculi.
5/8/2023 23
24. Vitamin E
• Consists of eight naturally occurring tocopherols, of which α-tocopherol is the
most active.
• It does act as a lipid-soluble antioxidant in cell membranes, where many of its
functions can be provided by synthetic antioxidants.
• Vitamin E is the generic descriptor for two families of compounds, the
tocopherols and the tocotrienols.
5/8/2023 24
25. Continued..
the biological activity of vitamin E is mainly attributed to their ability
to donate their phenolic hydrogen to lipid free radicals.
Tocopherols, as well as tocotrienols, can react with peroxyl radicals
more rapidly than can polyunsaturated fatty acids and, therefore, are
very effective free-radical chain-breaking antioxidants.
5/8/2023 25
26. Continued…
Antioxidant activity of tocopherols is determined by their chemical
reactivity with molecular oxygen, superoxide radicals, peroxyl
radicals, or other radicals, or by their ability to inhibit autoxidation of
fats and oils.
It is for this reason that they are commercially added to foods to retard
their spoilage.
5/8/2023 26
27. Continued…
The tocopheroxyl radical is reduced back to tocopherol by reaction
with Vit C from plasma.
The resultant monodehydroascorbate free radical then undergoes
enzymic or nonenzymic reaction to yield ascorbate &
dehydroascorbate, neither of which is a free radical.
5/8/2023 27
28. Vitamin K
Exists in several forms:
a. Phylloquinone (Vit.k1) – present in plants.
b. Menaquinone (Vit. K2) – present in intestinal bacterial flora.
c. Menadione, menadiol and menadiol acetate
– a synthetic derivative
Functions:
a. Formation of mature clotting factors.
b. Promotes blood clotting on surface of platelets.
5/8/2023 28
30. Role of vitamin K in blood coagulation
Vitamin K is a Coenzyme for carboxylation of Glutamate, so Vitamin
K promotes the carboxylation of the glutamic acid residues of the
precursors of clotting factors II, VII, IX and X.
Carboxylation produces mature forms of the clotting factors and hence
capable of subsequent activation.
Vitamin K is also important in the synthesis of bone calcium-binding
proteins.
5/8/2023 30
31. General features of water soluble Vitamins
Readily excreted by kidney.
Function as a coenzyme & in energy metabolism .
Vitamin C, thiamin and riboflavin are especially susceptible to heat
and alkalinity.
Hydrophilic compounds and water leach them from vegetables .
Marginal deficiency more common.
5/8/2023 31
32. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C)
The active form of vitamin C is ascorbic acid.
Vitamin C is designated as ascorbic acid because of its ability to cure and
prevent scurvy.
5/8/2023 32
33. Functions of vitamin C
The main function of ascorbate is as a reducing agent in several different
reactions & O2 radical quencher (antioxidant).
Vitamin C has a well-documented role as a coenzyme in hydroxylation
reactions, for example, hydroxylation of prolyl and lysyl residues of collagen.
Vitamin C also facilitates the absorption of dietary iron from the intestine.
A deficiency of ascorbic acid results in scurvy, a disease characterized by
sore and spongy gums, loose teeth, fragile blood vessels, swollen joints, and
anemia
5/8/2023 33
34. Thiamine (Vitamin B1)
Thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP), the active form of the vitamin, is
formed by the transfer of a pyrophosphate group from ATP to
thiamine.
Thiamine diphosphate is the coenzyme in the 3 multi enzyme complex
that catalyze oxidative decarboxylation
• PDH-complex– carbohydrate metabolism
• KGDH-complex– TCA cycle
• Branched chain keto acid dehaydrogenase – branch chain AAs
It is also a coenzyme for transketolase in PPP (pentose phosphate
pathway).
5/8/2023 34
36. Thiamine Deficiencies
1. Beriberi is a severe thiamine deficiency syndrome.
• Infantile form manifests as tachycardia, vomiting, convulsions and
death if untreated.
• Adult forms – dry skin, irritability, wasting, disorderly thinking and
progressive paralysis.
2. Wernicke-Korsakoffs syndrome – thiamine deficiency in association
with chronic alcoholism. It is due to dietary insufficiency or impaired
intestinal absorption of the vitamin.
3. Lactic acidosis
5/8/2023 36
37. Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)
• There are 2 biologically active forms of riboflavin: Flavin
Mononucleotide(FMN) and Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD).
• FMN is formed by the transfer of phosphate ion from ATP to riboflavin.
• FAD is formed by the transfer of AMP from ATP to FMN.
5/8/2023 37
38. Role of FMN and FAD in redox reactions
Both FMN and FAD are components of NADH dehydrogenase and
succinate dehydrogenase/glycerol 3-P dehydrogenase respectively, that
are capable of accepting electrons and donating electrons to the other
components of the ETC system.
With severe deficiency of riboflavin, there is decreased ATP synthesis
by the mitochondria via oxidative phosphorylation.
FAD and FMN also plays role In Nitric Oxide (NO) synthesis.
5/8/2023 38
39. NIACIN (NICOTINIC ACID, VITAMIN B3)
• The term niacin is used to describe chemicals having biological activity
associated with nicotinamide, including nicotinamide, nicotinic acid, and a
variety of pyridine nucleotide structures.
5/8/2023 39
40. Functions of niacin
1. The biologically active forms of niacin are Nicotinamide Adenine
Dinucleotide (NAD+) and its phosphorylated derivative, Nicotinamide
Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate (NADP)+).
3. NAD+ and NADP+ serve as coenzymes in many oxidation-reductions
reactions.
4. Also a source of ADP-ribose in nuclear proteins. Poly(ADP-ribose)
synthesis makes use of NADP as substrate, rather than as an electron-
transporting intermediate. Poly(ADP-ribose) formation has been
shown to be important in DNA repair and genomic stability and
provides an explanation for sensitivity to ultraviolet radiation
observed in pellagra.
5/8/2023 40
41. Pyridoxine (vitamin B6)
Vitamin B6 is a collective term for pyridoxine, pyridoxal, and pyridoxamine, all
derivatives of pyridine.
Pyridoxine occurs primarily in plants, whereas pyridoxal and pyridoxamine are
found in foods obtained from animals.
They differ only in the nature of the functional group attached to the ring.
These three compounds can serve as precursors of the biologically active
coenzyme, pyridoxal phosphate /PLP/
5/8/2023 41
43. Functions of pyridoxine
• Pyridoxal phosphate functions as a coenzyme for a large number of enzymes,
particularly those that catalyze reactions involving amino acids.
5/8/2023 43
44. Continued….
Isoniazid (isonicotinic acid hydrazide), a drug frequently used to treat
tuberculosis, can induce a vitamin B6 deficiency by forming an inactive
derivative with pyridoxal phosphate.
Dietary supplementation with B6 is, thus, an adjunct to isoniazid
treatment.
Toxicity of pyridoxine
Pyridoxine is the only water-soluble vitamin with significant toxicity.
5/8/2023 44
45. BIOTIN/anti-egg white injury factor
Biotin is a coenzyme in carboxylation reactions, in which it serves as
a carrier of activated carbon dioxide.
Biotin is covalently bound to the ε-amino groups of lysine residues in
biotin-dependent enzymes.
Also, a large percentage of the biotin requirement in humans is
supplied by intestinal bacteria.
Raw egg white contains a glycoprotein, avidin, which tightly binds
biotin and prevents its absorption from the intestine.
Native avidin is resistant to intestinal proteolysis in both the free and
biotin combined form.
5/8/2023 45
47. Pantothenic acid
Pantothenic acid is a component of Coenzyme A, which therefore
functions in the transfer of acyl groups because of its thiol (SH) group.
Coenzyme A takes part in reactions of the TCA cycle, FA synthesis and
oxidation, acylations and cholesterol synthesis.
5/8/2023 47
48. Folic acid (Pteroyl glutamate)
Folic acid (or folate), which plays a key role in one-carbon metabolism, is
essential for the biosynthesis of several compounds.
Tetra hydro folate (reduced folate) receives one-carbon fragments from
donors such as serine, glycine, and histidine and transfers them to
intermediates in the synthesis of amino acids, purines, and thymidine
mono phosphate (TMP)—a pyrimidine found in DNA.
The active form of folic acid is tetrahydrofolate (THF).
Different forms of THF are used in the synthesis of amino acids, purines,
and thymine – a pyrimidine found in DNA.
5/8/2023 48
49. Folate and anemia
Inadequate serum levels of folate can be caused by increased demand (for
example, pregnancy and lactation), poor absorption caused by pathology of the
small intestine, alcoholism, or treatment with drugs that are dihydrofolate
reductase inhibitors, for example, methotrexate.
A primary result of folic acid deficiency is megaloblastic anemia , caused by
diminished synthesis of purines and TMP, which leads to an inability of cells
(including red cell precursors) to make DNA and, therefore, they cannot divide.
5/8/2023 49
50. COBALAMIN (VITAMIN B12)
• Vitamin B12 is required in humans for two essential enzymatic reactions: the
remethylation of homocysteine to methionine and the isomerization of
methylmalonyl coenzyme A (CoA) that is produced during the degradation of
some amino acids, and fatty acids with odd numbers of carbon.
• With deficiency of Vitamin B12, there is impaired methionine synthase activity,
resulting in the accumulation of N5-Methyltetrahydrofolate with a decrease of
the other forms of tetrahydrofolate.
5/8/2023 50
52. Continued…
Cobalamin contains a corrin ring system that differs from the porphyrins in
that 2 of the pyrrole rings are linked directly rather than via a methene
bridge.
Cobalt is held in the center of the corrin ring.
5,6-dimethylbenzimidazole and cyanide fill up 2 of the 4 coordination sites
of the corrin ring.
The coenzyme forms of cobalamin are 5’-deoxyadenosylcobalamin
(cyanide is replaced with 5’-deoxy adenosine and methylcobalamin
(cyanide is replaced by a methyl group).
5/8/2023 52
54. Pernicious anemia due to vitamin B12 deficiency
Vitamin B12 absorption requires an intrinsic factor (IF) produced by the
gastric parietal cells.
This cobalamin-intrinsic factor complex travels through the gut and into
the general circulation.
In the presence of an autoimmune destruction of the gastric parietal cells,
the deficiency of intrinsic factor prevents absorption of Vitamin. B12,
resulting to a clinical condition called pernicious anemia.
5/8/2023 54