Vitamins UNIT-7 biochemistry and clinical pathology, D.Pharm 2nd year.pptx

Unit-7 Vitamins
• Definition and classification with examples
• Sources, chemical nature, functions, coenzyme form, recommended
dietary requirements, deficiency diseases of fat-and water-soluble
vitamins
Branch -Pharmacy
Biochemistry (ER20-23T)

VITAMINS
Vitamins are a group of organic nutrients required in small quantities for different
biochemical functions and which, generally, cannot be synthesized in body and must
therefore be supplied through diet. They are also called as growth factors.
All living organisms require vitamins. Some bacteria do not require vitamins at all.
The requirement of vitamins is different for different organisms. For example, man
and guinea pigs cannot produce vitamin C (ascorbic acid) and are therefore
susceptible to scurvy, whereas a rat can synthesize vitamin C and hence does not require
it in its diet.

VITAMINS
According to their property to be dissolved in fat or water, vitamins are classified as:
1) Fat-Soluble Vitamins: Vitamin A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble vitamins. These are
hydrophobic in nature and are stored in the liver. These are not excreted out of the
body; therefore, excessive intake can produce a toxic effect and also result in a
condition known as hypervitaminosis.
2) Water-Soluble Vitamins: Vitamin B complex and vitamin C are water- soluble
vitamins. These are compounds of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. These are
not stored in the body, therefore, are required daily in small quantities.

VITAMIN-A (RETINOL)
Vitamin A (or axerophthol or anti-xeropthalmic or anti-nyctalopic vitamin) is an unsaturated alcohol, called retinol.
Sources: Pro-vitamin A (B-carotene) is obtained in the diet from green vegetables, fruits, and cereals. Liver, milk, butter, and egg yolk are good
sources of vitamin A. Vitamin A2 is obtained from the liver of freshwater fish
Recommended Dietary Allowance: 600 µg/day of vitamin A is the daily requirement.
Functions
1)It is necessary for normal vision and overall body growth.
2) It accelerates the growth of neurological system and bones.
3) It keeps the membranes of cell, lysosomes and mitochondria in good shape.As a result, it keeps the skin, kidneys, and other organs intact and
preventstheir deterioration.
4) It improves carbohydrate metabolism, particularly gluconeogenesis(production of glucose from lactate, acetate, and glycerol).
5) It also has a role in mucopolysaccharide biosynthesis.
6) It boosts protein synthesis by triggering aminoacyl-tRNA synthetization.
7) It speeds up the cell's transcription and translation processes.
8) It is also necessary for DNA metabolism.
Deficiency Diseases
1)Night blindness (or nyctalopia or henerolopia) is a condition caused due to lack of vitamin A in body.
2) Vitamin A, deficiency in children causes xerophthalmia (drying ofconjunctiva) and keratomalacia (ulceration and softening of cornea), whichcan
lead to blindness.
3) Toad's skin is another early symptom of vitamin A deficiency in which the skin becomes dry and rough, especially on the lateral forearms and
sides of the thigh.
Overuse - Hypervitaminosis A: Headache, nausea, vomiting, and tiredness are noticed in acute cases of hypervitaminosis A. Anorexia (lack of
appetite). alopecia (hair loss), cracking of lips, dry itchy skin, and bone and joint pain develop in chronic cases (long-term consumption of vitamin
A).

VITAMIN-A (RETINOL)
In the intestinal cell, the central double bonds of carotene are oxidised to alcohol, to give two
molecules of vitamin A. The biologically active form of vitamin is 11-cis retinal, which is
derived from vitamin A1 by the enzyme retinol dehydrogenase. Retinal is present in two
forms that are all trans-retinal and 11-cisretinal, as shown below,

VITAMIN-A (RETINOL)
These two forms are inter convertible in the presence of light.
Vitamin A is needed for the formation of rhodopsin, which is a light receptor protein
present in the retina of vertebrates. Rhodopsin is made up of protein and chromophore,
i.e. retinal chromophore.
Opsin
(protein) + Chromophore(11 cis retinal) = Rhodopsin
Rod cells are concerned with vision in dim light and the cone cells are concerned with
vision in bright and coloured light. Light brings about excitation, and the change from cis
to trans configuration. This initiates a chain of reactions which are illustrated in Fig. In this
way, light energy is converted into chemical energy and finally performs a biological sense

VITAMIN-D (CALCIFEROL)
Vitamin D is also known as anti-rachitic vitamin due to its property of curing or preventing
ricket.
Sources: Cod liver oil, fish liver oil, egg yolk, milk, and animal liver are good sources of
vitamin D. Vitamin D, is made photochemically from 7 dehydrocholesterol (sterol precursor
found in the epidermis or skin) by the action of sunlight or UV radiation.
Endogenous production of vitamin D3 is possible. No dietary requirements exist as long as
an individual gets regular access to sunlight.
Recommended Dietary Allowance: 100 units/day of vitamin D is the dailyrequirement.
Lactating mothers require 400 units/day.
Functions
1)Vitamin D, is a pro-hormone that produces 1,2,5-dihydroxy cholecalciferol (colcitriol
hormone) through several metabolic processes. Calcitriol has arole in the metabolism of
calcium and phosphate.
2) Vitamin D triggers m-RNA transcription for calcium binding protein.
3) It aids in the growth and development of bones andteeth.
4) It increases phosphate excretion.

Deficiency
1) Rickets -It is characterized by lack of calcification of hypertrophic cartilage zone and
thus the bones are affected. In ricketier person the phosphate blood serum level is high
which is brought down to a normal value by this vitamin. Vitamin D is used in rickets and
for the management of hypocalcaemia. The body needs vitamin D to absorb calcium from
the intestines. The ultraviolet (UV) light in sunlight helps the skin cells convert vitamin D
from an inactive to an active state.If a person does not have enough vitamin D, calcium is
not absorbed properly from the foodthey eat, causing low levels of calcium in the blood.
The treatment of rickets focuses onincreasing the patient's intake of calcium, phosphates,
and vitamin D.
2) Osteomalacia- Osteomalacia refers to a marked softening of bones, most often caused
by severe vitamin D deficiency. The softened bones of children and young adults with
osteomalacia can lead to bowing during growth, especially in weight-bearing bones of the
legs. Osteomalacia in older adults can lead to fractures. Osteomalacia differs from the
more-common condition of having a low vitamin D level. Osteomalacia also differs from
osteoporosis, which causes bone thinning. Treatment for osteomalacia involves providing
enough vitamin D and calcium, both required to harden and strengthen (mineralize)
bones, and treating underlying disorders that might cause the condition.03)

03) Osteoporosis- Osteoporosis is a condition that weakens bones, making them fragile and
more likely to break. It develops slowly over several years and is often only diagnosed
when a minor fall or sudden impact causes a bone fracture. However, they can also occur in
other bones, such as in the arm or pelvis. Sometimes a cough or sneeze can cause a rib
fracture or the partial collapse of one of the bones of the spine. Osteoporosis isn't usually
painful until a fracture occurs, but spinal fractures are a common cause of long-term
(chronic) pain. It happens when the bones in the spine have fractured, making it difficult to
support the weight of the body. This can lead to osteoporosis and an increased risk of
fractures. Women also lose bone rapidly in the first few years after the menopause (when
monthly periods stop and the ovaries stop producing an egg). Women are more at risk of
osteoporosis than men, particularly if the menopause begins early (before the age of 45).

Chemistry-
In the early 1920s, the term vitamin D was given to a group of closely related secosteroids
(steroids in which one of the bonds in the steroid rings is broken which possess anti-rachitic
properties. Cholecalciferol or vitamin D, (derived from animals) and ergocalciferol or
vitamin D (derived from plants) are the two forms of vitamin D that are obtained from
foods. These two dietary forms of vitamin D can also be synthesised in vertebrates and
some fungi by photoirradiation from their precursors 7-dehydrocholesterol and ergosterol
respectively. Vitamin D, and D, are chemically different as vitamin D, has a double bond
and a methyl group in their side chain at C-17.

Overuse - Hypervitaminosis D: Vitamin D poisoning, resulting in excessively high blood
calcium and phosphate levels, can occur if 100mcg (10,000 IU) or more of vitamin D
supplements are taken on a regular basis; due to which kidneys, arteries, muscles, etc.
become calcified. Kidney stones, anorexia, polyuria, nausea, frequent vomiting,
constipation, excessive thirst, excessive urination, disorientation, and weight loss are the
possible symptoms. High doses have also been linked to increased risk of cancer, cardiac
issues, and bone fractures. Presence of calcium, vitamin D, and phosphorus in blood and
urine should be tested for diagnosing the condition. Discontinuing vitamin D intake is
recommended for treatment, although in severe situations other treatments may be required.

VITAMIN-E (TOCOPHEROL)
Vitamin E is also known as anti-sterility vitamin or fertility vitamin due to its necessity in healthy functioning of
reproductive system, fertility of males, and birth process in females.
Sources: Meat, liver, fish, chicken, vegetable oils (wheat germ oil, corn oil, cotton seed oil, and safflower oil), green
leafy vegetables (spinach and lettuce). and egg yolk are the sources.
Recommended Dietary Allowance: 10mg/day for adults is the recommendeddaily dose. If Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
(PUFA) in diet is 1gm/day. vitamin E is required in high doses of 35gm/day. Pregnant or lactating women requiregreater
amounts of vitamin E.
Functions-
It prevents polyunsaturated fatty acid peroxidation in tissues and membranes.
2) It uses oxidising agents (H2O2 and dialuric acid) to prevent erythrocyte haemolysis.
3) It prevents degeneration of cellular and subcellular membranes rich in PUFA.
4) It protects liver cells from toxicity.
5) It protects nerve fibres from demyelination and prevents the axis of nerves in the spinal cord from being distorted.
6) Availability of vitamin E and the activators present in microsomal supernatant extraction of the cells are required for
mitochondrial respiration.
7) Vitamin E requirement is determined by the amount of PUFA in diet and the selenium level in body.
8) It protects from hepatic necrosis caused by a diet lacking in sulphur containing amino acids.
9) Its antioxidant properties prevent rancidity

10) It plays a role in reproductive physiology. Seminiferous epithelium in male rats,
deficient in vitamin E, undergoes irreversible degeneration, resulting in permanent sterility.
Vitamin E insufficiency has no effect on the ovary in females. Normal ovulation,
conception, and implantation occur; but, the foetus dies in the uterus a few weeks after
conception.
Deficiency diseases-
1)It causes tooth enamel discoloration due to the oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids
(present in these structures) to peroxide.
2)Anaemia in monkeys is induced by a deficiency of hemophysins in bone marrow.
3) It increases fragility of RBC.
4) It causes thrombocytosis and oedema.
5) In men, permanent sterility is seen and in females, the foetus dies in the uterus after a few
weeks of implantation.
6) It causes necrosis of hepatic cells.
Overuse - Hypervitaminosis: Over-consumption of vitamin E causes nausea.

Chemistry-
The term "vitamin E" does
not refer to a single molecule
but to two classes of
molecules with similar
structures and antioxidant
properties, comprising a
family of eight substances
Tocopherols are the most
abundant form of vitamin E in
the body, consisting of four
different forms (α,β,γ and
δtocopherol).

VITAMIN-K
(PHYLLOQUINONE)
Vitamin K is also known as anti-haemorrhagic vitamin or coagulation or vitamin for blood
clotting.
Sources: The rich sources of vitamin K are green leafy vegetables, such as cabbage, spinach,
etc. Cauliflower, soya beans, wheat germ, etc. are also goodsuppliers. Carrot tops contain a
significant quantity of vitamin K. Milk and eggscontain minuscule amounts of vitamin K. If
vitamin K2 is not provided in thediet, most bacteria in the human intestine create it.
Recommended Dietary Allowance: 140-200mg/day is the recommended daily dose of
vitamin K.
Functions
1)It increases the activity of blood clotting factors.
2) It starts the manufacture of liver cell enzyme proconvertin, which catalyses the formation
of prothrombin (precursor of thrombin protein).
3) It is a part of the election transport chain.
4) It aids in the carboxylation of glutamate to y-carboxyglutamate as a coenzyme

VITAMIN-K
(PHYLLOQUINONE)
Deficiency Symptoms
1)It delays the blood clotting process.
2) It causes haemorrhagic disease of newborn.
3) It impairs liver functioning.
Overuse- Hypervitaminosis K: Over-consumptionof vitamin K causes hyperbilirubinemia.
Chemistry- Vitamin K1 (phylloquinone) is found in plants, while vitamin K2
(menaquinone) is formed by intestinal bacteria in animals. Menadione which is a synthetic
derivative, shows a greater
biological activity than vitamin K1 and it is commonly used for
treatment.

VITAMIN-B1 (THIAMINE)
Anti-beri beri vitamin and anti-neuritic vitamin are other names for vitaminB. It plays a
crucial role in muscle contraction, nerve signal transmission, energy release from food, and
appetite promotion.
Sources: Rice bran, wheat bran, whole grains, nuts, germinating seeds, pulses, beans,
lentils, yeast, liver, eggs, fish, meat and milk are the sources.
Recommended Dietary Allowance: The amount of calories required and the amount of
carbohydrates consumed determine the daily thiamine requirement. 1.5mg/day of thiamine
is necessary for 3000Kcal of energy. However, 1.5-2.0mg/day for healthy adult males and
1.01.2mg/day for healthy adult females is the recommended daily dose of thiamine.
Functions
1)It is needed for utilising the carbohydrates in body.
2) It is needed for maintaining good appetite.
3) It is needed for normal brain metabolism.

Deficiency Diseases:
Thiamine insufficiency hampers glucose metabolism, resulting in accumulation of
pyruvate and lactate in cells. This impairment, however, is not constant, so skeletal
muscles are less affected than brain cell.
Anorexia (loss of appetite) is one of the common signs of thiamine insufficiency.
Beri-Beri is the clinical term for thiamine deficiency, characterised bypolyneuritis (nervous
system problems), oedema, cardiovascular changes, weakness, muscular atrophy,
headache, insomnia, gastrointestinal disorders, etc.
Beri-Beri is of the following four types:
1)Dry Beri-Beri: In this type, symptoms related to nervous system and polyneuritis occur.
2) Wet Beri-Beri: In this type, symptoms associated vith oedema and serous effusions
occur.
3) Acute Pernicious Beri-Beri: In this type, symptoms related to heart occur.
4) Mixed Beri-Beri: In this type, all the above symptoms occur.
5) Infantile Beri-Beri: This type occurs in breast-fed children if sufficient thiamine is not
present in the mothers' milk.Wernicke's encephalopathy (acute thiamine deficiency) occurs
in alcoholics. Overuse: Over-consumption of Vitamin B, is not known to cause any
problems.

The active form of the vitamin known as thiamine (also spelled thiamin), or vitamin B-1.
Thiamine pyrophosphate, the biologically active form of thiamine, acts as a coenzyme in
carbohydrate metabolism through the decarboxylation of alpha ketoacids. It also takes part
in the formation of glucose by acting as a coenzyme for the transketolase in the pentose
monophosphate pathway.

VITAMIN-B2 (RIBOFLAVIN)
Riboflavin aids in the release of energy from foods, is essential for growth,development, and
cellular function in body. It also aids conversion of tryptophanamino acid (found in protein)
to niacin.
Sources: Milk, liver, kidney, heart, egg yolk, and sprouts are the sources.
Recommended Dietary Allowance: The amount of calories required determines the daily
riboflavin requirement. 0.5mg/day of riboflavin is necessary for 1000Kcal of energy.
However, 1.5-2.0mg/day is the recommended daily dose of riboflavin.
Biochemical Function
01)Riboflavin plays a major role in the production of energy by assisting in the metabolism
of fats, carbohydrates, and proteins.
02)Vitamin B2 is essential for the formation of fresh red blood cells and antibodies in
humans,which increases circulation and oxygenation to various organs of the body.
03) Vitamin B2 can regulate thyroid activity.
04) Riboflavin helps to improve the mucus secretion of the skin and might clean up the
skinpustules that are common with acne.
05) Vitamin B2 may help in providing relief from symptoms of various nervous system
conditions such as numbness and anxiety among others. It is thought that riboflavin, when
used along with vitamin B6, is effective for treating the painful symptoms of carpal tunnel
syndrome(CTS).
06) It helps in the absorption of minerals such as iron, folic acid, and other vitamins such as
B1,B3, and B6..

Deficiency Diseases
1) Typical lesions of the lips
2) Cheilosis (cracks at the mouth's angle)
3) Eczema on face
4) Hair loss
5) Coloured tongue
6) Itchy and red eyes
7) Reproductive problems
8) Cataracts
Overuse: Over-consumption of riboflavin is not known to cause any problems.

Chemistry
Riboflavin contains 6,7-dimethyl isoalloxazine attached to D-ribitol by nitrogen atom.
Ribitol is an open chain form of sugar ribose with the aldehyde group reduced to alcohol.
FMN (flavin mononucleotide) and FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide) are the two
coenzyme forms of riboflavin

VITAMIN-B3
Niacin is one of the eight B vitamins, and it's also called vitamin B3. There are two main
chemical forms and each has different effects on your body. Both forms are found in foods
as well as supplements. Nicotinic acid supplement, nicotinic acid is a form of niacin used
to reduce cholesterol levels and lower your risk of heart disease. Niacin amide doesn't
lower cholesterol. However, it may help treat psoriasis and reduce your risk of non-
melanoma skin cancer.
Sources: Liver, fish, beans, and peanuts are the sources. Tryptophan amino acid also helps
in the formation of niacin in human body.
Recommended Dietary Allowance: 15-20mg/day is the recommended daily dose of
niacin. Because niacin can be made from tryptophan, its requirement is determined by the
quality and quantity of dietary protein.

VITAMIN-B3
1) It helps for production of energy from nutrient material available in food.
02) Niacin may help lower cholesterol, ease arthritis and boost brain function.
03) Niacin is a major component of NAD and NADP, two coenzymes involved in cellular
metabolism.
04) Niacin involved for cell signaling and making and repairing DNA.
05) Niacin helps protect skin cells from sun damage, whether it's used orally or applied as a
lotion.
Deficiency
01) Pellagra - A disorder due to inadequate dietary intake of niacin and tryptophan,
manifested by a characteristic dermatitis on areas of the skin that are exposed to the sun,
beginning as an erythema with pruritus that may lead to vesticulation but more frequently
becomes chronic, rough, scaly, and hard with the formation of crusts as the result of
hemorrhage; a broad band of this dermatitis frequently encircles the neck. The digestive
tract and nervous system may be involved, with glossitis, stomatitis, gastroenteritis,
diarrhea with profuse watery and sometimes bloody stools, anxiety, depression, tremor, and
reduced or absent tendon reflexes; encephalopathy may occur in severe cases. The disease
is classically associated with a diet based on non-alkali-treated maize

VITAMIN-B3
Overuse: Taking >35mg/day of niacin might induce flushed skin, rashes, hypotension, and
liver damage. If niacin is obtained via food, excessive consumption is not an issue.
Chemistry-
Nicotinic acid

VITAMIN-B5 (PANTOTHENIC
ACID)
Pantothenic acid is involved in energy production, hormone formation, andmetabolism of
dietary fats, proteins, and carbohydrates.
Sources: Pantothenic is a Greek word that means from everywhere, as it is found in all types
of food. Honey is the most abundant source. Cereals, nuts, oil seeds, eggs, liver, wheat grain,
legumes, rice polishing, milk, meat, and fish are the sources. Potatoes also have a less
amount of this vitamin. This vitamin is also supplied in large quantities by the intestinal
flora.
Recommended Dietary Allowance: 6 mg/day vitamin B, is the daily requirement.
01)Vitamin B5 is often added to hair and skin products, as well as makeup. Dexpanthenol, a
chemical made from B5, is used in creams and lotions designed to moisturize the skin.
02) Dexpanthenol has also been used to prevent and treat skin reactions from radiation
therapy.
03) Vitamin B5 is widely known to be beneficial in treating serious mental disorders like
chronic stress and anxiety.
04) Vitamin B5 is essential for the metabolic processes in the body; it helps the body break
down fats and complex carbohydrates to energize the body.

VITAMIN-B5 (PANTOTHENIC
ACID)
Deficiency
1) Burning feet syndrome
2) Numbness in the toes
3) Sleeplessness
4) Fatigue
Overuse: Over-consumption of pantothenic acid is not known to cause any problem. But,
excessive high doses can cause diarrhoea and gastrointestinal upset in some people.
Chemistry-

VITAMIN-B6 (PYRIDOXINE)
Pyridoxine (or pyridoxal or pyridoxamine) is an antioxidant that helps in protein
metabolism, and production of RBCs, neurotransmitters, and haemoglobin in the body.
These vitamins are collectively represent the three compounds namely pyridoxine, pridoxal
and pyridoxamine.
Sources: Yeast, rice polishing, milk, meat, eggs, leafy vegetables, and liver are the sources.
This vitamin can also be synthesised by intestinal bacteria.
Recommended Dietary Allowance: 1.6-2.0mg/day is the recommended daily dose of
pyridoxine
01)Vitamin B6 has been used to treat symptoms of premenstrual syndrome.
02) Vitamin B6 has been used for decades to treat nausea and vomiting during pregnancy.
03) Vitamin B6 may prevent clogged arteries and minimize heart disease risk.
04) Vitamin B6 may help reduce symptoms associated with rheumatoid arthritis.
05) It is necessary for maintaining important functions in the body such as glucose and
amino acid metabolism, production of RBCs, proper functioning of the nervous system.
06) It is also used for the treatment of anemia in adults and for vitamin B6-dependent
seizures in children.

VITAMIN-B6 (PYRIDOXINE)
Deficiency
pyridoxine deficiency associated with neurological symptoms such as depression, irritability,
nervousness, and mental confusion. Convulsion and peripheral neuropathy are observed in
severe disorder. Demyelization of neurons is also observed in pyridoxine deficiency.
Overuse: Over-consumption of vitamin B is not known to cause any adverse health effects;
but chronically high doses of supplements cause nerve damage. An upper limit of
100mg/day for adults has been established by the Food and Nutrition Board (FNB).
Chemistry-

VITAMIN-B7 (VITAMIN H/
BIOTIN)
Biotin helps in metabolism of lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates from food, and releases
energy from carbohydrates.
Sources: Eggs, liver, fish, meat, beans, germinating seeds, intestinal flora, and peanuts are
the sources. Honey is the most abundant source. Fruits and vegetables are the poor sources.
Recommended Dietary Allowance: The daily requirement for biotin ranges from 100-
300µg/day if intestinal flora is altered.
01)Coenzyme for carboxylase is required for synthesizing fatty acid, glucose and amino
acid.
02) Biotin may improve the strength and durability of fingernails and enhance hair and skin
health.
03) Biotin's ability to lower blood glucose in people with type 1 and type 2 diabetes.
04) Biotin helps for the growth of hair.

VITAMIN-B7 (VITAMIN H/
BIOTIN)
Deficiency
01)Dry and irritated skin
02) Hair loss
03) Chronic fatigue
04) Menstural cramps
05) Nerve damage
06) Glossitits
Overuse: Over-consumption of biotin is not known to cause any problems.
Chemistry- Biotin is a heterocyclic sulfur containing monocarboxylic acid. The structure
formed by fusion of imidazole and thiophene rings with valeric acid side chain.

VITAMIN-B9 (FOLIC ACID)
Folic acid (or folate or folacin) helps in protein metabolism, RBC stimulation, reduces the
risk of neural tube birth defects, controls homocysteine levels, and reduces the risk of
coronary heart disease.
Sources: Folic acid is synthesised in large quantities by intestinal flora using PABA. Thus,
folic acid demand can be fulfilled if adequate amounts of PABA are provided. Because the
microflora dies during antibiotic medication, folic acid shortage occurs, and thus
exogenous sources (liver, eggs, and leafy vegetables)are recommended.
Recommended Dietary Allowance: An adult human liver can retain 5-20mg offolic acid,
thus its daily requirement is 300-400µg, which can be supplied by intestinal flora.

Biochemical function
01)It aids in the production of DNA and RNA, the body's genetic material, and is
especially important when cells and tissues are growing rapidly, such as in infancy,
adolescence, and pregnancy.
02) Folic acid also works closely with vitamin B12 to help make red blood cells and help
ironwork properly in the body.
03) The most essential function is THF is required for one carbon metabolism and many
important compounds are synthesized for one carbon metabolism such as
a) Purines which are incorporated in to DNAAND RNA
b) Pyrimidine nucleotide-deoxythymidylic acid involved in the synthesis of DNA.
c) N-Formyl methionine the initiator of protein biosynthesis is formed.
04) Folic acid reduces the miscarriage in women during pregnancy.
05) Folic acid is a synthetic form of vitamin B9, also known as pteroylmonoglutamic acid.
It is used in supplements and added to processed food products, such as flour and breakfast
cereals.
06) Folic acid helps your body produce and maintain new cells, and also helps prevent
changes to DNA that may lead to cancer.

Deficiency
Folic acid deficiency is most of common in primarily pregnant woman and lactating
woman. In both developed and developing countries the following deficiency arises.
1) Macrocytic anemia- In this disorder abnormally increase the size of RBCs. This
changes arises due to the changes in bone marrow characteristic feature of folate
deficiency. Folic acid deficiency in pregnant women cause neural defects in the fetus.
Hence high doses of folic acid recommended during pregnancy to prevent birth defects
Overuse: Over-consumption of folic acid has no proven benefits, and can conceal B12
insufficiency, while also interfering with several drugs. As a result, the FNB established
1000mcg/day as the upper limit for folic acid from supplements or fortified foods.
Chemistry-
Folic acid consists of three components made up of pteridine ring, p-amino benzoic acid
(PABA), glutamic acid. The active form of folic acid is tetrahydrofolate (THF). It is
synthesized from folic acid by enzyme dihydrofolate reductase. THF coenzyme of folic
acid is actively involved in the one carbon metabolism.

Co-enzyme- THF

VITAMIN-B12 (COBALAMIN)
Cobalamin is involved in the formation of genetic material, RBC production, and nervous
system maintenance.
Sources: Vitamin B12 can neither be synthesised by plants nor animals. It can only be
synthesised by specific microbes. However, liver, egg, meat, and fish are the sources of
vitamin B12.
Recommended Dietary Allowance: 5µg/day is the recommended daily dose of
cobalamine.
Functions-
1) Vitamin B12 plays a vital role in helping your body produce red blood cells.
02) Vitamin B12 influences cell division and blood formation.
03) Vitamin B12 is important for the building and maintenance of the cell membrane and
myelin sheaths, a protector of the nerves in the central nervous system and brain.
04) Homocysteine and cyanide are neutralized by B12, as well as radicals such as nitric
oxide and peroxynitrite. Nitrosative stress is associated with a variety of diseases, such as:
autoimmune diseases, eczema, psoriasis, asthma, heart attacks, strokes, dementia,
Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and cancer.

05) Vitamin B12 needed to produce crucial neurotransmitters and therefore influences
mood, psyche and perceptions
Deficiency
01)Pernicious (Megaloblastic) anemia Megaloblastic anemia is a type of anemia
characterized by very large red blood cells. In addition to the cells being large, the inner
contents of each cell are not completely developed. This malformation causes the bone
marrow to produce fewer cells, and sometimes the cells die earlier than the 120-day life
expectancy. Instead of being round or disk-shaped, the red blood cells can be oval.
Cause-There are many causes of megaloblastic anemia, but the most common source in
children occurs from a vitamin deficiency of folic acid or vitamin B12. Other sources of
megaloblastic anemia include the following:
01] Digestive diseases: Certain diseases of the lower digestive tract can lead to
megaloblastic anemia. These include celiac disease, chronic infectious enteritis, and
enteroenteric fistulas. Pernicious anemia is a type of megaloblastic anemia caused by an
inability to absorb vitamin B12 due to a lack of intrinsic factor in gastric (stomach)
secretions. Intrinsic factor enables the absorption of vitamin B12.
02] Malabsorption: Inherited congenital folate malabsorption, a genetic problem in which
infants cannot absorb folic acid in their intestines, can lead to megaloblastic anemia. This

requires early intensive treatment to prevent long-term problems, such as intellectual
disability.
03] Medication-induced folic acid deficiency: Certain medications, specifically ones that
prevent seizures, such as phenytoin, primidone, and phenobarbital, can impair the
absorption of folic acid. The deficiency can usually be treated with a dietary supplement.
04] Folic acid deficiency: Folic acid is a B vitamin required for the production of normal
red blood cells. Folate, the naturally occurring form, is present in foods, such as green
vegetables, liver, and yeast. Folic acid is produced synthetically and added to many food
items, including breads and cereals.
Symptoms
• Abnormal paleness or lack of color of the skin
• Decreased appetite
• Irritability.
• Lack of energy or tiring easily (fatigue)
• Diarrhea
• Difficulty walking
• Numbness or tingling in hands and feet
• Smooth and tender tongue
• Weak muscles

Treatment
Treatment for megaloblastic anemia due to a folic acid deficiency usually involves your
child taking an oral dietary folic acid supplement for at least two to three months. If the
disorder is caused by an absorption problem in the digestive tract, this may need to be
treated first. Vitamin B12 supplements are best absorbed when given by injection. Animal
proteins are the only food sources of vitamin B12.
Overuse: Over-consumption of cobalamine is not known to cause any problems.
Chemistry- The active form of cynocobalamine is co-enzyme B12. The cyanide ion is
replaced by a 5 deoxyadinosyl group

VITAMIN-C (ASCORBIC ACID)
Vitamin C is also named as antiscorbutic acid because it prevents scurvy. It is also recognised
as an anti-rabies or anti-cancer vitamin.
Sources: Citrus fruits (lemons, oranges), grapes, apple, papaya, guava,vegetables, etc. are the
sources.
Recommended Dietary Allowance: 30mg/day for infants and 70mg/day for adults are the
recommended daily dose of vitamin C.
Functions
1) It is necessary for iron absorption.
2) It keeps gums and capillary walls healthy.
3) It is also known as anti-viral vitamin as it provides immunity against cold and viruses.
4) It is required for wound healing,
5) It functions as a co-enzyme in hydroxylation and oxidation-reduction processes. As a
result, it helps in amino acid metabolism, collagen formation, etc.

VITAMIN-C (ASCORBIC ACID)
Deficiency Diseases: Scurvy (Sailor's illness) is a vitamin C-deficient disease, characterised
by swollen, bleeding and decaying gums, poor dentine formation, loosening teeth, tooth loss,
risk of haemorrhage due to fragile capillaries, delayed wound healing due to lack of collagen
production, anaemia, weakness, fractures due to weak bones, etc. The fundamental defect is
lack of intercellular cement material (i.e., collagen) deposition.
Overuse: Vitamin C is generally non-toxic; however, high doses of 2000mg/day might cause
diarrhoea, cramps, and nausea.
Chemistry-

CO-ENZYME
The non-protein, low molecular weight and organic substances associated with functions
of enzymes are called as coenzymes. Vitamins are necessary for cell growth. They are
needed for the action of certain enzymes. Mostly, water soluble vitamins are converted to
their active form in the body. These active forms of vitamins are co-enzymes.
Vitamins Co-enzymes
Thiamine (Vit. B1) Thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP)
Lipoic acid Lipoic acid
Riboflavin (Vit. B2) FMN and FAD
Nicotinic acid (Niacin,
Vit. B3)
NAD+ and NADP+
Pantothenic acid (Vit. B5) Co-enzyme A
Pyridoxine (Vit. B6) Pyridoxal phosphate
Biotin (Vit. H) Biotin carboxyl-carrier protein
Folic acid Tetra hydrofolate (THF)
Cynocobalamine (Vit. B12) Deoxyadenosine cobalamine
Ascorbic acid (Vit. C) Ascorbic acid

QUESTIONS
1) Write short notes on:
i)Classification of vitamins
ii) Source and functions of vitamin Ai
ii) Source and functions of vitamin
iv) Source and functions of vitamin E
v) Source and functions of vitamin K
2)What are co-enzymes? Give any two examples
3) Write in detail about the fat –soluble vitamins and its deficiency diseases.
4) Draw a chart for recommended dietary alllowances for vitamin
5)Give structure, biochemical role and deficiency diseases of pyridoxine.
6) State the classification, source and function of vitamins.
7) Briefly explain the role, source and deficiency disease of each vitamins
8) Enlist any three functions of Vit.-D
9) Which vitamin causes the following diseases-
i. Night blindness
ii. Xerophthalmia
iii. Rickets
iv. Anaemia

Vitamins UNIT-7 biochemistry and clinical pathology, D.Pharm 2nd year.pptx

Vitamins UNIT-7 biochemistry and clinical pathology, D.Pharm 2nd year.pptx

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