The document provides information on various aspects of Viking culture, history, and religion. It discusses their homeland in Scandinavia, farming practices, boat building, attacks on monasteries, settlements in places like Ireland, Normandy and North America. It also describes some of their most important gods like Odin, Thor, and Loki and religious practices. The conversion to Christianity is also mentioned towards the end.

1. The Time of
the Vikings

2. Table of Contents
• Early map
• Farming practices
• Writing and cultural practices
• Religion and known gods and goddesses
• Sacrifice rituals and afterlife
• Boat-building
• Early attacks
• Larger attacks
• Settling in other lands
• Conversion to Christianity

3. A Dragon, Beowulf, and Fate
• From before the epic begins to the very
end, Beowulf’s path is guided by fate.
He goes to fight Grendel with
confidence, knowing he is fated to win
this battle.
• He returns to his own people a revered
hero, and when the time comes, rises to
engage in one final battle against a
dragon, to meet his final fate.
• Beowulf does not shrink from what he
knows is to come. He has chosen to
move with fate rather than fight it, and
he continues on this path throughout
the poem.

4. Drengr: Lessons of a Good Man
• Vikings were expected to face challenges with courage and
equanimity. Worrying or complaining did nothing to improve the
situation and only diminished a man.
• The greatest test of a man was to fight to the bitter end, even in the
face of certain defeat and death.
• Norsemen expected a share of trouble, and the best of them
attempted to use it, and to rise above it creating fame for themselves
through bravery, loyalty, and generosity.

5. King Sverrir of Norway’s Parable to his Troops
• A farmer accompanied his son to the warships and gave him counsel, telling him
to be valiant and hardy in perils. "How would you act if you were engaged in
battle and knew beforehand that you were destined to be killed?"
• The son answered, "Why then should I refrain from striking right and left?"
• The farmer said, "Now suppose someone could tell you for certain that you
would not be killed?"
• The son answered, "Why then should I refrain from pushing forward to the
utmost?"
• The farmer said, "In every battle you fight, one of two things will happen: you
will either fall or come away alive. Be bold, therefore, for everything is
preordained. Nothing can bring a man to his death if his time has not come, and
nothing can save one doomed to die. To die in flight is the worst death of all."

6. Homeland of the Vikings
• The Vikings homeland has a positive impact on their growth to success.
Originating from Scandinavia, the three countries Denmark, Norway, and
Sweden, the Vikings set off in search of better farmland than their
countries had to offer.
• Norway along with parts of Sweden were very mountainous, with many
forests which supplied plenty wood, though in this area fertile soil was
scarce. The winters were long, especially to the north and east.
• Most lived in mild, fertile Denmark, rather than rugged Norway, although
Norway was eight times larger than Denmark. Here people traveled by
foot, horseback, or wagon, though much preferred to travel by sea when
they could because it was faster and safer.

7. Most Vikings were Farmers
• Most Vikings were farmers who spent much
time tending to their land. Onions and
cabbages were grown by the house, and
apples were uncovered so it is assumed that
they had apple orchards near.
• Farther out where the fields were, oats, rye,
wheat, barley were grown. Their fields were
surrounded by stone walls to keep domestic
and wild animals away.
• Each of the Vikings’ farms were fairly similar
to each other, each having the fields and a
longhouse, also known as the main building.
This is where the farmer's family and
animals lived.

8. Animal-based clothing
• Vikings were particularly fond of wool and
lots of animal skins. Viking women were very
skilled weavers, able to make beautiful
patterns from wool dyed with plants.
• For men’s fashion, it was pretty standard
with pants and shirts of varying lengths. For
women, the standard fashion was long
woolen dresses.
• For one thing, the Vikings loved jewelry. Men
and women were likely bedecked in rings,
bracelets, necklaces, armbands, and so on.
Beautifully crafted metals have survived
well, and jewelry made from leather, bone,
and wood was not uncommon either.

9. Viking Tradesmen
• Plenty of other trades were also alive
and well at the time. Boat builders and
wood craftsmen, blacksmiths, leather
workers, fishermen, even merchants
were not uncommon occupations.
Ulfberht Sword

10. Simple Living Spaces
• The structures were generally wood, mud, stone, or a collage of all the
above. The home was generally a rectangular shape and with a sweet hole
in the roof to let out the smoke of the probably always burning fire.
• Viking homes didn’t differ much from other structures around Europe of
that time period, though they were much less grand than how they are
often depicted, and perhaps with better methods of insulating the space
to keep in the heat during those long, dark, chilly Nordic winters.

11. Food from the ocean and the farms
• Unsurprisingly, fish made up a large portion of a Vikings diet. They
also had plenty of other proteins to choose from. Pork was the most
popular, while horse meat kebabs graced many a table.
• Bread was made from the different grains they grew on their farms.
Added to that were the fruits, berries, and nuts that could be foraged
from around the farms.

12. Fun through competitive sports
• Like many other archaic societies, a lot of the entertainment came from
sports such as wrestling, racing, and fighting games.
• Vikings even had board games to occupy their time. Researchers suggest
that the famous Isle of Lewis Chessmen were created right here in
Trondheim before ending up off the coast of Scotland, although these are
dated to be from the very tail end of the time of Vikings.
• Warrior poets seem to have been commonplace as well. On many days
the towns, the farm, or the great halls were filled with music, poetry, and
storytelling. The Vikings also loved skiing and drinking mead!

13. The Norse Pagan Religion
• Helped to propel the Norse expansion through two key beliefs:
• There is no existence after death. Death is the end for all but a few.
These few include the chosen warriors who enjoyed the pleasures of
Valhalla after death. And they include oath breakers, thieves, and the
like who, after death, were taken to Niflheim for torment.
• Since there was no afterlife, the only thing that survived after death
was one's reputation, one's "good name". Norsemen risked
everything to gain and protect their good name.

14. The Norse Pagan Religion
• The second key belief of Norsemen is that the time of one's death is
determined by fate and is chosen by the Norms at the time of one's birth.
Therefore, nothing one did could change the moment of one's death.
• However, what one did up until that moment was strictly one's own doing.
Therefore, one ought to make the very best of every moment of life,
because the worst that could happen would be death, and the best that
could happen would be fame and an enhancement to one's reputation.
• Since one couldn't effect the time of one's own death, which was
predestined anyway, there was nothing to lose and everything to gain by
being bold and adventurous.

16. Odin, the Supreme God
• Odin has just one eye as he gave the
other to Mímir in order to be allowed to
drink from the source of wisdom –
“Mímir’s well”. Odin is the god of war and
of the dead. He rules over Valhalla – “the
hall of the slain”. All Vikings who died in
battle belonged to him. They were
collected by his female handmaidens, the
Valkyries. Odin was first and foremost
worshipped by kings, warrior chieftains
and their men. It was the requirements of
these people that he could satisfy.

17. Thor, God of War and Fertility
• Thor was the most popular of all the gods.
He created thunder and lightning as he rode
over the clouds in a chariot drawn by goats,
swinging his hammer “Mjöllnir”. Thor was
physically strong and, with his weapon
Mjöllnir, could defeat evil giants who lived in
Jötunheimar.
• Thor was worshipped by most Vikings; he
was the god of the people. He was
comprehensible and could be trusted, in
contrast to his father Odin, who could be
completely unpredictable. Therefore Thor’s
role was also to uphold law and order.

18. Frey and Freyja
• Frey is connected with fertility and a good harvest. He makes the crops
in the fields grow. One of Frey’s attributes is his magic boar, Gullinborsti.
The boar shines like gold, and Frey rides it faster than any horse over
land and through water.
• Frey’s twin sister is Freyja. She is the most beautiful of the female gods
and rules from her abode of Fólkvang in Ásgard. She is the goddess of
love, fertility and the practice of seid.
• “Seid” enables the soul to travel to other worlds to seek information.
The practice of seid is related to shamanism, with the seid expert’s work
carried out while in a trance.

19. Loki, the Clever Deceiver
• Loki is originally of giant stock, but lives in
Ásgard and is respected by the gods as he is a
blood brother with Odin. Loki is crafty and
not to be trusted. On many occasions he
cheats both the giants and gods, and plays
them off against each other.
• Even though Loki is often up to no good, the
gods still tolerate his presence. He is sly and
lies – abilities that the gods can use to their
advantage. This is shown when Loki
persuades the equally cunning dwarves to
smith various magical objects for the gods –
notably Thor’s hammer Mjöllnir.

20. The Blood Eagle
• This torture method of execution would first start with a victim being
restrained, laying on his stomach. An axe would then be used by an
executioner to take the ribs out of the poor soul until all the ribs would
create “wings” on the back of the person being executed. Somehow, the
person would still be alive. The victim would then have saltwater rubbed
into the wound to make it even more painful, and then the lungs would
be pulled out to accentuate the wings before the person died.

21. Raiders from the Sea
• When the Norse "Great Army" invaded the Frankish kingdoms, they
routinely set up such bases on islands in rivers such as the Seine. Similarly,
Norse raiders landed in England in places where the Anglo-Saxons, with
their deeper draft ships, could not reach by sea.
• In addition, the shallow draft made for fast and easy disembarkation
during a raid. When the ship was beached, a Viking could be certain that if
he jumped out near the stem, the water would scarcely be over his knees.
The crew could leave the ship and join the raid quickly and confidently.

23. Vikings Attack Churches & Monasteries
• Vikings raided St. Cuthbert church at Lindisfarne (the
"Holy Island") in Northumbria, England, as well as
other churches and monasteries in Scotland, Ireland,
and France;
• In 806 AD the Vikings massacred 68 monks on the
island of Iona, called Martyr's Bay.
• Attacks on the helpless and most vulnerable, especially
those doing “God’s work”, sent shock waves
throughout Europe.
• Monasteries were frequent targets of Norse raiders not
because the raiders were particularly anti-Christian,
rather because that's where the money was.

24. Raiding Parties to Establish Trade Partners
and Occupy Fertile Lands
• Norsemen were looking for three things: new victims to raid; new partners
with which to trade; and new land on which to settle.
• The raids were usually opportunistic, against targets that could be
attacked, plundered, and departed from quickly. Vikings stayed along the
coast or on navigable rivers; overland marches were avoided.
• The goal was to grab as much treasure as possible before an effective
defense could be raised. Typically weapons, tools, clothing, jewelry,
precious metals, and people who could be sold as slaves.

26. Vikings in Ireland
• 836-839 – Viking sea king Turgeis led 60 ships through the river systems of Ireland,
causing great destruction.
• 840-845 - Vikings build a longphort fortification at the “Black Pool” near Ath Cliath,
later becoming the city of Dublin, a center of Viking activity for the next 200 years.
• 845 – The first mention of Vikings and Irish working together and intermarrying.
These would become the Norse-Irish and would play a large role in Irish history
over the next centuries.
• 1014 – Irish High King Brian Boru faces an alliance of Irish and Viking forces at the
Battle of Clontarf, marking the end of the Viking Age in Ireland.

27. IVAR THE BONELESS
• A lot of what we know about Ivar the Boneless
comes from legend. Said to be the youngest son
of Ragnar Lothbrok, Ivar gained his epithet due to
an apparent medical condition that made his
bones brittle and easy to break.
• Considering he suffered from such an ailment it is
impressive he built the fearsome warrior
reputation that he did. According to the Norse
sagas he is often depicted as leading his brothers
into battle while sitting on top of a shield,
wielding a bow.
• After King Ælla of Northumbria had thrown his
father into a pit full of venomous snakes, Ivar and
his brothers gathered together a force known as
the Great Heathen Army and invaded England in
865 AD to exact revenge.

28. ERIC BLOODAXE
• Eric was the son of Harald Finehair, the first
King of Norway, and secured his inheritance
by murdering his brothers.
• He ruled Norway until his last surviving
brother, Haakon the Good defeated him,
forcing him to surrender his throne.
• Eric fought his way throughout England,
becoming King of Northumbria.
• He violently raided Scotland and Ireland,
driven by a thirst for plunder and power.
• The Norse Sagas paint Eric Bloodaxe as a
barbarian, a murderous tyrant whose
savagery was shocking even by Viking
standards.

29. Vikings in France
• Paris is besieged again by Rollo the Walker. The Parisians held out
valiantly under their leader, Count Odo.
• Emperor, Charles the Fat, eventually came to relieve them but when he
saw the fury of the Vikings he paid them to go fight someone else.
• This act of perceived cowardice was one of the last nails in the coffin for
the Carolingians in France. Count Odo replaced Charles as ruler.
• 911 - The Viking chief Rollo the Walker (or Hrolf Ganger) is granted land
by the Franks and founds Normandy in France.

30. Rollo: First ruler of Normandy
• Rollo began conducting raids on France in the ninth century. Later signed
a peace treaty with Charles the Simple, king of the West Franks, who gave
Rollo part of the area now called Normandy (for Northman’s land)
• Rollo, in turn, protected the land from other Viking raiders. Rollo later
expanded his control of the region
• One of Rollo’s descendants, William, duke of Normandy, known as
“William the Conqueror, led a successful invasion of England in 1066.

31. Vikings in Iceland & Greenland
• By 930 AD, Iceland was fully settled with all the arable land claimed. The
population would grow to 50,000 by the end of the Viking Age
• In 981 AD, while serving a three-year exile from Iceland for murder,
Viking leader Erik the Red colonized Greenland.
• While too remote to be a base of many Viking raids, Greenland became
an essential part of the Viking trade in luxury goods, like walrus ivory,
white falcons, furs, and polar bears.
• Iceland later officially converted to Christianity while allowing the
worship of the old gods to continue in private.

32. Leif Eriksson
• Generally considered the first European to set foot on the North American continent, Leif
got there nearly 500 years before Christopher Columbus.
• Believed to have been born in Iceland around 970, Leif moved to Greenland, where his
father, Erik the Red, founded the first Norse settlement.
• The Vikings then set up camp at a location that possibly was Newfoundland and explored
the surrounding region, which Leif named Vinland (“wineland”) because grapes or berries
supposedly were discovered there. Leif also brought Christianity to the new shores.
• After Leif returned to Greenland with valuable timber cargo, other Norsemen decided to
journey to Vinland (Leif never went back). However, the Viking presence in North America
was short-lived, possibly due in part to clashes with hostile natives.

33. The Spread of Christianity
• After many attempts of newly Christianized Viking tribes infiltrating many
neighboring villages, burning down pagan temples, Christianity eventually
began to take hold within Viking communities.
• Christianity's introduction to Scandinavia was slow and steady rather than
an overnight occurrence. One of the key figures behind this change was
the Danish King Harald Bluetooth.
• King Olav Haraldsson of Norway, who came to power in 1015 AD, was
later receognized as “Saint Olav” by being the last Viking king to solidify
the new faith in his country.

34. Cnut the Great: England’s Viking King
• The son of Denmark’s King, Cnut defeated Edmund Ironside at the Battle of
Ashingdon, that eventually gave Cnut power over all of England.
• His reign brought stability after years of raids and battles. Denmark, Norway
and portions of Sweden also came under Cnut’s control, forming a vast
empire, choosing peace over war.
• His death in 1042 AD marked the end of Danish rule in England.

35. HARALD HARDRADA
• His name meant 'Hard Ruler‘, described as cold, ruthless and
aggressively ambitious
• Went to Constantinople, joined the Varangian Guard – an elite force of
mostly Norse fighters who served to protect the Byzantine Empire.
• Harald soon amassed himself a large wealth and became King of Norway
• Turned his sights on the English throne, invaded in 1066 AD. Harald was
defeated at the Battle of Stamford Bridge by the forces of Harold II, who
would go on to lose to William the Conqueror at the Battle of Hastings a
few weeks later.
• Harald fought with the fury of a Beserker, with no body armor on,
wearing nothing but animal furs and heads, these men would go to war,
using their bare hands and teeth to fight. According to legends, they also
felt no pain and kept fighting despite being badly injured.
• His death marked the end of the Viking Age, making Harald the last great
Viking ruler.

36. End of an Age
• The Viking raids didn't come to an end with any singular event. Some would
say the widespread conversion to Christianity in the Norse lands at the
beginning of the 11th century signaled the end of the Viking age. The
teachings of the Christian religion did not encompass the kinds of activities
that took place on a typical raid.
• In the year 1066, King Haraldr Harðráði of Norway died trying to conquer
England. It would be the last major Norse raid. In the same year, Polish
tribesmen overran and destroyed Hedeby, the primary Norse trading center.

38. Vikings in Eastern Europe
• 838 – “Rhos” merchants from Constantinople are recognized as
Swedish Vikings when they come to the Carolingian court. This is the
first known use of the word “Rus” and a clear association between
the Russian/Ukrainian/Belarusian forbearers and Vikings.
• 859-865 – Bjorn Ironside and Halfdan lead an estimated 60 ships in
raids throughout France and the Mediterranean.
• 860 - Rus Vikings first attack Constantinople (Istanbul, Turkey), the
seat of the Byzantine Empire.
• 862 – Novgorod (in modern Russia) was founded by Rurik, a Rus
chieftain thought to be from Sweden. Rurik was the progenitor of the
Rurikid dynasty that would rule the Rus for hundreds of years.

39. Vikings in Eastern Europe
• 978 – with the help of Viking mercenaries, Sviatoslav’s younger son,
Vladimir, becomes Prince of the Rus. Vladimir would send his Vikings
to serve his brother-in-law, the Byzantine emperor Basil the Bulgar
Slayer. These Vikings would become the world-famous Varangian
Guard, which would play a key role in Byzantine history for centuries.

40. The Epic Sea Battle of Niz (or Nisa)
• 1062 naval battle between Norwegian and Danish Vikings for control of Scandinavia. Harald Hardrada won
but was unable to press his advantage.
between the fleets of King Harald III Hardrada of Norway and King Sveinn Estridson of Denmark. This was the
second battle between the two rival monarchs and seems to have been joined by mutual consent. Hardrada,
unhappy about being unable to conquer Denmark despite successful annual raids, hoped for a large decisive
victory over Estridson. Having raised a large army from the whole of Norway, Hardrada placed the men on 300
ships, leading the armada from his own seventy-oar drekkar (Map 2.5(a)). He sailed to the appointed spot at
the prearranged time and waited for his Danish foe to arrive, but Estridson’s fleet was not there. Believing the
Danes had refused battle, Hardrada dismissed the half of his ships containing the militia to return to their
farms and prepared for another year of raiding (Map 2.5(b)). Those warriors who remained were the veterans
of numerous raids, and some may have fought at Hardrada’s side during his days in Russia and Byzantium.
• But as half of the Norwegian navy sailed out of sight, the Danish fleet appeared, 300 ships strong (Map
2.5(c)). Refusing to flee from his numerically superior enemy, Hardrada ordered his remaining ships lashed
together, placing his own ‘dragon ship’ in the centre of the line. Unfettered longships protected the flanks,
including the warships of Earl Hakon Ivarsson. Mirroring the Norwegians, Estridson ordered his warships
roped together in a line, his own ship in the centre, and seizing the initiative, rowed against the enemy (Map
2.5(d)). As the tethered Danish line slowly rowed forward, Hardrada ordered his own Norwegian fleet to
meet the advancing Danes. The two bound Viking armadas clashed as the sun began to set.

41. THE BATTLE OF EDINGTON
• In the 9th Century, Britain was no stranger to sudden, devastating Viking raids.
But things took on a new, ominous form in 865, when the Vikings became far
more audacious and created a vast invading force, known as the Great Heathen
Army. They didn’t arrive merely to pillage an isolated community – they came to
conquer. Over the following years, the Vikings spread right throughout Anglo-
Saxon England, toppling various kingdoms, until they came up against Alfred the
Great, King of Wessex.
• At first, Alfred seemed to be yet another victim of the Viking invaders. His forces
were decimated, and the king himself was reduced to the status of an outlaw,
mounting a guerrilla war against the Vikings. It’s during this period that, according
to legend, a disguised Alfred took shelter in a peasant woman’s house, who asked
him to look after a batch of bread she was baking, and then scolded the hapless
king when he accidentally allowed them to burn.

42. Battle of Edington cont’d
• Eventually, Alfred gathered together an army of local men and met
the Vikings in fierce combat. This pivotal confrontation is now known
as the Battle of Edington. It was a resounding victory for the Anglo-
Saxons, and a contemporary account described how Alfred
“overthrew the pagans with great slaughter”. The leader of the Viking
forces, Guthrum, even converted to Christianity soon afterwards,
while Alfred’s position as a great English monarch was assured.

43. THE BATTLE OF MALDON
• Another savage confrontation unfolded in 991, during the time of King Aethelred the
Unready, but this time the Anglo-Saxons didn’t come out of it quite as well. After a long
period in which the Vikings had seemingly become less of a threat to England, the raids
flared up again in the late 10th Century. Some believed the best way to deal with them
was to pay them off, but others had a more indignant view, believing Viking violence
should be met with violence.
• One such fighter was Byrhtnoth, a royal official in Essex, who rallied his forces against
Viking warriors when the latter sailed up the Blackwater River. Geography was against
the Vikings, who were rather awkwardly forced to congregate on a small patch of land in
the river – probably Northey Island. Yet, a streak of gallantry meant Byrhtnoth didn’t
exploit his position. He actually agreed to the Vikings’ request to be allowed to cross
from the island onto the mainland without being picked off, in the interests of a fair fight.
• Battle then commenced, with the overly-chivalrous Byrhtnoth being slain and his forces
defeated. Afterwards, the English agreed to pay the Viking “tax”, or Danegeld, to prevent
further violence, while Byrhtnoth’s doomed skirmish inspired a great piece of Old English
poetry, called the Battle of Maldon.

44. THE BATTLE OF ASSANDUN
• The 11th Century confrontation everyone knows is the Battle of Hastings. But, some decades
before 1066, in the year 1016, there was another battle which saw a foreign force charge into the
country, overthrow the existing aristocracy and establish a new royal house. This was the Battle of
Assandun, which resulted in a short-lived line of Viking kings. It’s only because the country was
taken by William the Conqueror 50 years later that Assandun and its aftermath are not better
remembered today.
• The leader of the English soldiers at the time was Edmund Ironside, son of Aethelred the Unready,
who had been shoved into exile in Europe by a previous invading force of Vikings. When
Aethelred returned to retake his kingdom, it triggered an epic tussle for power between the
Anglo-Saxon monarchy and the Viking claimant, who was the soon-to-be-legendary Cnut the
Great.
• Cnut and his invading warriors were ranged against forces led by Aethelred’s son, Edmund
Ironside, who became king himself when Aethelred died in April 1016. The stage was set for a
final confrontation between the new king, Edmund, and the man who wanted his freshly-placed
crown, Cnut. Things came to a head at the Battle of Assandun in October 1016, when Edmund
was roundly defeated by Cnut. The two men agreed to carve up England between them, but
Edmund’s death just a few weeks later meant that Cnut became the absolute, Viking King of
Englan.

45. Gunnar Hámundarson
• Gunnar was an imposing fighter, and the saga author says that no man has
ever been his equal. He was handsome, fearless, generous and even-
tempered. He fought equally well with either hand, and his sword strokes
were so fast that it seemed like he wielded three swords at once. He could
jump more than his own height while wearing full battle gear, either
forward or backwards. There was no sport at which anyone could compete
with him.
• Gunnar was involved with many disputes which he tried to settle
peaceably, but with weapons if no agreeable settlement could be reached.
Gunnar's desire to settle without bloodshed caused him to wonder aloud if
he was more cowardly than other men, because he disliked killing more
than other men. Yet, his actions throughout the saga confirm his ability to
use his weapons when called upon.

46. • 740 – The massive legendary Battle of Bravellir was fought between Harald
Wartooth, King of Denmark, and Sigurd Hring, King of Sweden. Sigurd won
and became King of Denmark and Sweden. The battle is celebrated in
numerous sagas and recorded in the Gesta Danorum. It is depicted as an
apocalyptic battle between many tribes and heroes. If these stories are
accurate, the Battle of Bravellir sets the stage for the Viking Age.
• 800 – Charlemagne builds coastal defenses against the Vikings.
• 834 – Historians note a change in Viking activity around this year from
smaller-scale raids to larger, longer-term movement of armies. After a
generation or two of success, the Vikings began to reach full momentum.

47. • 958-986 – Reign of Harald Bluetooth, whose runestone at Jelling
claims "won for himself all of Denmark and Norway and made the
Danes Christian.
• 1028 - Knut (Canute) conquered Norway, adding it to his domains in
England and Denmark. Though seldom remembered in English
history, Knut the Great ruled his North Sea Empire well.