In an uncertain and volatile international context characterised by competing priorities for public spending, pressure is mounting for policy makers to enhance the efficiency of public spending in all sectors, including education. There is no question that there is a strong economic and social case for continued public investments in education, so the dilemma is not on whether or not to invest in education, but rather on how to make the most of this investment and foster a “Value for money”.
Policy makers need to make smarter investment in education. They need to foster equal opportunities and quality outcomes, and the good news is that the pursuit of efficiency and equity in education can work together through smart investments in four areas. Policy makers also need to carefully design funding mechanisms, pay attention to budget planning, and build a culture of systematic evaluation in education to ensure alignment with education objectives, transparency, accountability and capacity building.
We discuss the many benefits that education brings to economies and societies, but also strategies that can help policy makers make smarter investment in education in order to reap its full benefits.
Speakers include:
– Luiz de Mello, Director of the Policy Studies Branch in the OECD Economics Department
– Andreas Schleicher, OECD Director for Education and Skills
– Andreea Minea–Pic, Analyst, OECD Directorate for Education and Skills
– Luka Boeskens, Analyst, OECD Directorate for Education and Skills
Moderated by Karine Tremblay, Senior Analyst, OECD Directorate for Education and Skills
The role of Education in an interconnected world webinar - Andreas Schleiche...EduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents Why is Global Competence so Important? at the OECD Webinar - The role of Education in an interconnected world. https://oecdedutoday.com/oecd-education-webinars/ on 9 March 2023. In this webinar a panel including teachers and experts discussed the importance of global competences and kick off the next Global Teaching InSights initiative, where teachers share best practices.
In September 2015, the sustainable development goals were adopted by the UN, defining a set of goals to be achieved by 2030 through the collaboration of all countries around the world (http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/). Each goal has specific targets regarding ending poverty, protecting the planet and ensuring prosperity for all. As part of the Technology and Innovation class in the Masters in Management at IE Business School, my workgroup developed a technology-based solution to support one of the targets in the Sustainable Development Goal #4: “Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all”. With the refugee crisis being a major current topic around the world, and in Europe especially, we developed an application to support refugee children in getting primary education. The application is based on a mentoring system, through which tutors around the world can teach children in refugee camps.
If you also want to do your part in achieving the 2030 sustainable development goals, here’s a list of actions you can take – even from your sofa: http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/takeaction/
Trends Shaping Education 2022 by Andreas SchleicherEduSkills OECD
1) The future will continue to surprise us with uncertainties like climate change, pandemics, and technological disruptions that will shape education.
2) Trends include growing inequality, new sources of economic growth in technology companies, and people pursuing better work-life balance through reduced working hours.
3) Knowledge and power are shifting as access to information increases through the internet and artificial intelligence, while science becomes more open through academic publishing and citizen participation in governance grows.
4) Identities and belonging are changing with more international migration, greater civic engagement in politics and associations, and younger minimum voting ages worldwide.
AS Macro Revision National Income and Standard of Livingtutor2u
This document provides an overview of key concepts related to measuring national income and standards of living, including:
1) National income measures the monetary value of goods and services produced in an economy over a period of time, usually one year. It is used to track economic growth, changes in living standards, and income distribution.
2) Gross domestic product (GDP) is the total value of national output and can be calculated in three ways: expenditure, factor incomes, or value of output. GDP per capita is used to measure standards of living.
3) Other indicators like the Gini coefficient and Human Development Index provide alternatives to GDP per capita by incorporating additional economic, social, and environmental factors.
How to ensure education is relevant for all in a fast-changing world - Andrea...EduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher, Director for Education and Skills, OECD presents findings of the OECD’s Education Policy Outlook 2022: Transforming Pathways for Lifelong Learners during the OECD Education Webinar: How to ensure education is relevant for all in a fast-changing world on the 5 April 2023
Education at a Glance 2022 Andreas Schleicher Global AnalysisEduSkills OECD
This document provides a summary of key findings from the OECD's 2022 report "Education at a Glance". It finds that while school closures due to COVID-19 were rare in 2021/22, assessing the pandemic's impact was a priority. Most countries implemented various recovery measures and digital tools use increased. It also examines trends in tertiary education like increasing attainment rates, employment and wage benefits of degrees, and differences in completion rates and fields of study by gender. Spending on tertiary education varies more between countries than other levels.
Two years into the pandemic: How education systems have coped with the second...EduSkills OECD
Two years into the pandemic: How education systems have coped with the second year of COVID
The COVID-19 pandemic has caused massive disruptions to the learning of students at all levels of education. Although the availability of vaccines has improved the situation in most OECD countries, the school year 2021/22 was still marked by – sometimes severe – restriction to regular teaching and learning activities.
The OECD – in collaboration with UNESCO, UNICEF and The World Bank – has been monitoring the situation across countries and is collecting data on how each education system is responding to the crisis, from school closures and remote learning to remedial measures. The latest round of data collection covers the impact of COVID-19 during the school year 2021/22 and the recovery policies implemented by countries during this period.
This presentation show the findings from a survey of more than 30 OECD education systems.
Andreas Schleicher - Education at a Glance- Global Webinar- World Education T...EduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher, OECD Director of Education and Skills, presents data and reveals insights from the 2023 Education at a Glance report, which includes a special feature on Vocational Education and Training, with the aim of empowering educators, policymakers, and stakeholders with the data and analysis to shape their education systems.
The role of Education in an interconnected world webinar - Andreas Schleiche...EduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents Why is Global Competence so Important? at the OECD Webinar - The role of Education in an interconnected world. https://oecdedutoday.com/oecd-education-webinars/ on 9 March 2023. In this webinar a panel including teachers and experts discussed the importance of global competences and kick off the next Global Teaching InSights initiative, where teachers share best practices.
In September 2015, the sustainable development goals were adopted by the UN, defining a set of goals to be achieved by 2030 through the collaboration of all countries around the world (http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/). Each goal has specific targets regarding ending poverty, protecting the planet and ensuring prosperity for all. As part of the Technology and Innovation class in the Masters in Management at IE Business School, my workgroup developed a technology-based solution to support one of the targets in the Sustainable Development Goal #4: “Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all”. With the refugee crisis being a major current topic around the world, and in Europe especially, we developed an application to support refugee children in getting primary education. The application is based on a mentoring system, through which tutors around the world can teach children in refugee camps.
If you also want to do your part in achieving the 2030 sustainable development goals, here’s a list of actions you can take – even from your sofa: http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/takeaction/
Trends Shaping Education 2022 by Andreas SchleicherEduSkills OECD
1) The future will continue to surprise us with uncertainties like climate change, pandemics, and technological disruptions that will shape education.
2) Trends include growing inequality, new sources of economic growth in technology companies, and people pursuing better work-life balance through reduced working hours.
3) Knowledge and power are shifting as access to information increases through the internet and artificial intelligence, while science becomes more open through academic publishing and citizen participation in governance grows.
4) Identities and belonging are changing with more international migration, greater civic engagement in politics and associations, and younger minimum voting ages worldwide.
AS Macro Revision National Income and Standard of Livingtutor2u
This document provides an overview of key concepts related to measuring national income and standards of living, including:
1) National income measures the monetary value of goods and services produced in an economy over a period of time, usually one year. It is used to track economic growth, changes in living standards, and income distribution.
2) Gross domestic product (GDP) is the total value of national output and can be calculated in three ways: expenditure, factor incomes, or value of output. GDP per capita is used to measure standards of living.
3) Other indicators like the Gini coefficient and Human Development Index provide alternatives to GDP per capita by incorporating additional economic, social, and environmental factors.
How to ensure education is relevant for all in a fast-changing world - Andrea...EduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher, Director for Education and Skills, OECD presents findings of the OECD’s Education Policy Outlook 2022: Transforming Pathways for Lifelong Learners during the OECD Education Webinar: How to ensure education is relevant for all in a fast-changing world on the 5 April 2023
Education at a Glance 2022 Andreas Schleicher Global AnalysisEduSkills OECD
This document provides a summary of key findings from the OECD's 2022 report "Education at a Glance". It finds that while school closures due to COVID-19 were rare in 2021/22, assessing the pandemic's impact was a priority. Most countries implemented various recovery measures and digital tools use increased. It also examines trends in tertiary education like increasing attainment rates, employment and wage benefits of degrees, and differences in completion rates and fields of study by gender. Spending on tertiary education varies more between countries than other levels.
Two years into the pandemic: How education systems have coped with the second...EduSkills OECD
Two years into the pandemic: How education systems have coped with the second year of COVID
The COVID-19 pandemic has caused massive disruptions to the learning of students at all levels of education. Although the availability of vaccines has improved the situation in most OECD countries, the school year 2021/22 was still marked by – sometimes severe – restriction to regular teaching and learning activities.
The OECD – in collaboration with UNESCO, UNICEF and The World Bank – has been monitoring the situation across countries and is collecting data on how each education system is responding to the crisis, from school closures and remote learning to remedial measures. The latest round of data collection covers the impact of COVID-19 during the school year 2021/22 and the recovery policies implemented by countries during this period.
This presentation show the findings from a survey of more than 30 OECD education systems.
Andreas Schleicher - Education at a Glance- Global Webinar- World Education T...EduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher, OECD Director of Education and Skills, presents data and reveals insights from the 2023 Education at a Glance report, which includes a special feature on Vocational Education and Training, with the aim of empowering educators, policymakers, and stakeholders with the data and analysis to shape their education systems.
A2 Macroeconomics - Revision on the Balance of Paymentstutor2u
The balance of payments (BOP) records all financial transactions made between consumers, businesses and the government in one country with other nations.
The current account measures the difference between money and credit going in and out of an economy (through exports, imports and income paid on assets both home and abroad)
The document discusses economic growth and its key drivers. It defines economic growth as a long-term expansion of a country's productive potential. The main drivers of growth include increasing capital stock, labor supply, productivity, and innovation. However, growth also faces limitations such as infrastructure gaps, export dependency, human capital problems, and rising inequality within countries. Rapid growth can increase a nation's income but also widen inequality, posing challenges for maintaining balanced and sustainable development.
The document summarizes the key points from an economic forum held by the Office for National Statistics on April 25th, 2022. It includes:
1) Presentations were given on the state of the UK economy, rising cost of living pressures, and their impacts. The economy has grown above pre-pandemic levels but some sectors are lagging. Inflation is at a 30-year high and impacting households and businesses.
2) Data shows cost of living increases reported by nearly 90% of adults in March 2022. Those in deprived areas face more difficulty paying bills and affording housing. Financial resilience is decreasing as savings rates fall.
3) The global economic outlook has worsened due
Are schools ready to be hubs of social and emotional learning? New findings o...EduSkills OECD
Hannah Ulferts, Analyst at the Directorate for Education and Skills, OECD presents new findings of the Survey on Social and Emotional Skills at the OECD Education Webinar 'Are schools ready to be hubs of social and emotional learning? 30 March 2023
This presentation outlines the PISA 2022 creative thinking assessment, what is involved, why and how we are testing creative thinking. It informed the discussion of our recent webinar: Assessing creative thinking: what, why and how? where we discussed how can we make creative thinking visible, comparable, and amenable to policy and classroom action? as well as other approaches to measuring creative thinking both at scale and in the classroom.
👉 Watch the webinar https://www.facebook.com/100064368054456/videos/432306195668560
👉 Read the PISA 2022 Creative Thinking Framework at https://oe.cd/4Eq
👉Find out more about OECD work in Education and Skills at https://www.oecd.org/education/
E-Government and sustainable developmentsamossummit
How e-government plays an important role for implementing, follow-up and review of the progress made in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. How to align and integrate the 17 SDG to the e-government strategy.
Soumaya Ben Dhaou, Researcher, United Nations University, PT
Understanding price perception in the airline industry is essential given the large differences between propositions. However, perception of consumers does not reflect actual price positioning.
This and other insights are derived from recent EY-Parthenon consumer research across 6 countries and multiple travel & leisure categories
The following slides contain just a snap shot of the results. Learn more? Please reach out to EY-Parthenon, wouter.vincken@parthenon.ey.com
This document contains data and statistics from PISA and other international education assessments related to equity in education outcomes and opportunities across OECD countries. It includes data on performance differences between socioeconomically advantaged and disadvantaged students, access to resources like technology and qualified teachers in advantaged vs. disadvantaged schools, gender gaps in education and employment outcomes, private vs. public spending on education levels, and other metrics related to equity.
Unleashing the potential of digital technologies for education - Andreas Schl...EduSkills OECD
Unleashing the potential of digital technologies for education
The document discusses how digital technologies have untapped potential for education but are not always utilized effectively. It notes that shortages of digital devices and lack of powerful software inhibit digital education in many school systems. Even where technologies are used, the potential is not fully exploited as uses tend to be teacher-led rather than student-led. A diverse, coordinated policy approach is needed to address issues like insufficient funding, professional development and outdated curricula. The document outlines some country examples of policies targeting these challenges and argues that an explicit national strategy can align different policy strands by outlining a bold vision, concrete goals and distribution of responsibilities. Continuous monitoring of inputs, outputs and outcomes is
This document discusses economics of education and analyzes the costs and benefits of education projects using cost-benefit analysis. It summarizes two randomized trials that show financial incentives can increase school enrollment and participation. Conditional cash transfers in Mexico increased primary/secondary enrollment by 3.6%, while free uniforms/textbooks in Kenya reduced dropouts by 15%. The document also presents an example cost-benefit analysis of a higher education project in Mauritius, finding the private rate of return for an engineering degree is 14.2% while the social rate of return is 18.7%. It concludes cost-benefit analysis can evaluate the feasibility of education projects by comparing discounted lifetime earnings to costs over an individual's working life.
This document is the 2023 Global Sustainable Development Report produced by the Independent Group of Scientists appointed by the UN Secretary-General. It examines progress towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals and identifies the transformations needed to accelerate progress by 2030. The report finds that while awareness and uptake of the SDGs has increased, the world is off track to meet many of the goals due to insufficient action in the face of ongoing crises like the COVID-19 pandemic, conflicts, and climate change impacts. It outlines pathways, entry points, and interventions that could drive the necessary transformations across sectors like food systems, energy, and the global environmental commons. The report emphasizes the critical role of science in supporting these transformations through multidisciplinary
Green Industry towards Green Economy in the RMGAyub Ali
This document discusses cleaner production and green industry in the context of Bangladesh's ready-made garment (RMG) sector. It defines cleaner production as a preventative environmental strategy applied to processes, products, and services to increase efficiency and reduce risks. Green industry aims to mainstream environmental considerations into business operations through greening existing industries and creating new green industries. The document outlines cleaner production techniques like reduction, process change, and technology change that can be applied in RMG facilities. It also identifies capacity needs like technological, training, institutional, and government capacity for cleaner production implementation.
Equity and Inclusion in Education PPT Webinar 7 February 2023 Andreas SchleicherEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents findings from Equity and Inclusion in Education: Finding Strength through Diversity at a webinar of the same name on 7 February 2023.
At the webinar OECD analysts and country experts outlined how education systems can cater to students from different background with varied needs. It follows the release of a report by OECD’s Strength in Diversity project that highlights six key steps to reforming education systems to help all students achieve their potential.
If you are a policy maker, teacher or are interested in learning more about how to respond to the challenges, please check out the webinar recording at https://oecdedutoday.com/oecd-education-webinars/
You can find the report at https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/equity-and-inclusion-in-education_e9072e21-en
You can also check out our blog space https://oecdedutoday.com/equity-and-inclusion-in-education/ which contains the six key steps plus more context for the report Equity and Inclusion in Education: Finding Strength through Diversity
SlideShare ONS Economic Forum Slidepack - 17 July 2023.pptxMattBaker737276
This document summarizes findings from the Office for National Statistics' Opinions and Lifestyle Survey regarding the impact of increased cost of living on adults in Great Britain from February to May 2023. Key findings include:
- 9 in 10 adults reported that the cost of living is an important issue facing UK society.
- Over this period, more adults reported making cuts to essential spending like food and utilities or falling behind on bills and payments compared to previous periods.
- Those already in vulnerable financial circumstances before the increased costs, including disabled people, families with children, and low-income households, continued to report the greatest impacts.
India ranked 43rd in the 2021 World Competitiveness Index published by the International Institute for Management Development, maintaining its position from the past three years. The index ranks 64 nations based on four key factors: economic performance, government efficiency, business efficiency, and infrastructure. Switzerland, Sweden, Denmark, and the Netherlands topped the rankings due to their innovation, digitalization, welfare benefits, and social cohesion contributing to strong economic performance.
This document discusses how economic growth is measured and the factors that influence it. It explains that a country's gross domestic product (GDP) measures economic growth and is the total value of goods and services produced in one year. The four main factors that determine a country's GDP are natural resources, human capital, capital goods, and entrepreneurship. Investing in education, health, and skills training improves human capital and standard of living.
Starting Strong - Empowering Young Children in the Digital Age - EDU Webinar ...EduSkills OECD
OECD’s Director for Education and Skills Andreas Schleicher presents findings from the report 'Empowering Young Children in the Digital Age' at the OECD Education Webinar on 23 May 2023.
Digitalisation and AI are transforming social and economic life at lightning speeds, creating new demands for education systems.
The use of new technologies can help develop the digital skills of young children and enrich their learning environment. But what are the challenges? And how can we support parents and early educators and carers in creating positive technology experiences for young children whilst also understanding and managing the risks that exist?
The webinar recording is available on https://oecdedutoday.com/oecd-education-webinars/
The document discusses sustainable development goals (SDGs) and is a presentation by Samrat Gurung, a SDG activist and co-founder of SDG Network Nepal. It provides background on SDGs, including their origins from the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and goals to promote social, economic, and environmental sustainability globally by 2030. It also outlines Nepal's involvement in SDGs through activities like students and the SDG community as well as government participation.
Discussion on economic aspects of education has acquired great significance in education research during the new millennium earmarked as Knowledge Economy. Education for the Knowledge Economy (EKE) refers to efforts at production of the highly skilled and flexible human capital needed to compete effectively in today’s dynamic global markets. Experiences of last one decade in the IT enabled BPO sector has proved India’s ability to produce and use knowledge as a major factor in economic development and has proved to be critical to India’s comparative advantage. Economists have recognized importance of EKE to develop a workforce that is well-trained and capable of generating knowledge-driven economic growth.
Economics of Education analyzes both what determines or creates education and what impact education has on individuals and the societies and economies in which they live. Historically a great deal of emphasis has been placed on determining outcomes to educational investment and the creation of human capital. The primary mission of the economics of education group is to identify opportunities for improved efficiency, equity, and quality of education and promote effective education reform processes, to enhance knowledge of what drives education outcomes and results; to better understanding how to strengthen the links of education systems with the labour market; and to build and support a network of education economists for education policy planning and evolve structures and mechanisms for implementation.
While continuing the World Bank’s commitment to help countries reach the education Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the new Education Strategy 2020 focuses on the goal of Learning for All. Learning for All means giving all people equitable opportunities to acquire the knowledge and skills they need to have healthy and satisfying lives, to be good citizens, and to be productive
contributors to their countries’ economic development.
A2 Macroeconomics - Revision on the Balance of Paymentstutor2u
The balance of payments (BOP) records all financial transactions made between consumers, businesses and the government in one country with other nations.
The current account measures the difference between money and credit going in and out of an economy (through exports, imports and income paid on assets both home and abroad)
The document discusses economic growth and its key drivers. It defines economic growth as a long-term expansion of a country's productive potential. The main drivers of growth include increasing capital stock, labor supply, productivity, and innovation. However, growth also faces limitations such as infrastructure gaps, export dependency, human capital problems, and rising inequality within countries. Rapid growth can increase a nation's income but also widen inequality, posing challenges for maintaining balanced and sustainable development.
The document summarizes the key points from an economic forum held by the Office for National Statistics on April 25th, 2022. It includes:
1) Presentations were given on the state of the UK economy, rising cost of living pressures, and their impacts. The economy has grown above pre-pandemic levels but some sectors are lagging. Inflation is at a 30-year high and impacting households and businesses.
2) Data shows cost of living increases reported by nearly 90% of adults in March 2022. Those in deprived areas face more difficulty paying bills and affording housing. Financial resilience is decreasing as savings rates fall.
3) The global economic outlook has worsened due
Are schools ready to be hubs of social and emotional learning? New findings o...EduSkills OECD
Hannah Ulferts, Analyst at the Directorate for Education and Skills, OECD presents new findings of the Survey on Social and Emotional Skills at the OECD Education Webinar 'Are schools ready to be hubs of social and emotional learning? 30 March 2023
This presentation outlines the PISA 2022 creative thinking assessment, what is involved, why and how we are testing creative thinking. It informed the discussion of our recent webinar: Assessing creative thinking: what, why and how? where we discussed how can we make creative thinking visible, comparable, and amenable to policy and classroom action? as well as other approaches to measuring creative thinking both at scale and in the classroom.
👉 Watch the webinar https://www.facebook.com/100064368054456/videos/432306195668560
👉 Read the PISA 2022 Creative Thinking Framework at https://oe.cd/4Eq
👉Find out more about OECD work in Education and Skills at https://www.oecd.org/education/
E-Government and sustainable developmentsamossummit
How e-government plays an important role for implementing, follow-up and review of the progress made in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. How to align and integrate the 17 SDG to the e-government strategy.
Soumaya Ben Dhaou, Researcher, United Nations University, PT
Understanding price perception in the airline industry is essential given the large differences between propositions. However, perception of consumers does not reflect actual price positioning.
This and other insights are derived from recent EY-Parthenon consumer research across 6 countries and multiple travel & leisure categories
The following slides contain just a snap shot of the results. Learn more? Please reach out to EY-Parthenon, wouter.vincken@parthenon.ey.com
This document contains data and statistics from PISA and other international education assessments related to equity in education outcomes and opportunities across OECD countries. It includes data on performance differences between socioeconomically advantaged and disadvantaged students, access to resources like technology and qualified teachers in advantaged vs. disadvantaged schools, gender gaps in education and employment outcomes, private vs. public spending on education levels, and other metrics related to equity.
Unleashing the potential of digital technologies for education - Andreas Schl...EduSkills OECD
Unleashing the potential of digital technologies for education
The document discusses how digital technologies have untapped potential for education but are not always utilized effectively. It notes that shortages of digital devices and lack of powerful software inhibit digital education in many school systems. Even where technologies are used, the potential is not fully exploited as uses tend to be teacher-led rather than student-led. A diverse, coordinated policy approach is needed to address issues like insufficient funding, professional development and outdated curricula. The document outlines some country examples of policies targeting these challenges and argues that an explicit national strategy can align different policy strands by outlining a bold vision, concrete goals and distribution of responsibilities. Continuous monitoring of inputs, outputs and outcomes is
This document discusses economics of education and analyzes the costs and benefits of education projects using cost-benefit analysis. It summarizes two randomized trials that show financial incentives can increase school enrollment and participation. Conditional cash transfers in Mexico increased primary/secondary enrollment by 3.6%, while free uniforms/textbooks in Kenya reduced dropouts by 15%. The document also presents an example cost-benefit analysis of a higher education project in Mauritius, finding the private rate of return for an engineering degree is 14.2% while the social rate of return is 18.7%. It concludes cost-benefit analysis can evaluate the feasibility of education projects by comparing discounted lifetime earnings to costs over an individual's working life.
This document is the 2023 Global Sustainable Development Report produced by the Independent Group of Scientists appointed by the UN Secretary-General. It examines progress towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals and identifies the transformations needed to accelerate progress by 2030. The report finds that while awareness and uptake of the SDGs has increased, the world is off track to meet many of the goals due to insufficient action in the face of ongoing crises like the COVID-19 pandemic, conflicts, and climate change impacts. It outlines pathways, entry points, and interventions that could drive the necessary transformations across sectors like food systems, energy, and the global environmental commons. The report emphasizes the critical role of science in supporting these transformations through multidisciplinary
Green Industry towards Green Economy in the RMGAyub Ali
This document discusses cleaner production and green industry in the context of Bangladesh's ready-made garment (RMG) sector. It defines cleaner production as a preventative environmental strategy applied to processes, products, and services to increase efficiency and reduce risks. Green industry aims to mainstream environmental considerations into business operations through greening existing industries and creating new green industries. The document outlines cleaner production techniques like reduction, process change, and technology change that can be applied in RMG facilities. It also identifies capacity needs like technological, training, institutional, and government capacity for cleaner production implementation.
Equity and Inclusion in Education PPT Webinar 7 February 2023 Andreas SchleicherEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents findings from Equity and Inclusion in Education: Finding Strength through Diversity at a webinar of the same name on 7 February 2023.
At the webinar OECD analysts and country experts outlined how education systems can cater to students from different background with varied needs. It follows the release of a report by OECD’s Strength in Diversity project that highlights six key steps to reforming education systems to help all students achieve their potential.
If you are a policy maker, teacher or are interested in learning more about how to respond to the challenges, please check out the webinar recording at https://oecdedutoday.com/oecd-education-webinars/
You can find the report at https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/equity-and-inclusion-in-education_e9072e21-en
You can also check out our blog space https://oecdedutoday.com/equity-and-inclusion-in-education/ which contains the six key steps plus more context for the report Equity and Inclusion in Education: Finding Strength through Diversity
SlideShare ONS Economic Forum Slidepack - 17 July 2023.pptxMattBaker737276
This document summarizes findings from the Office for National Statistics' Opinions and Lifestyle Survey regarding the impact of increased cost of living on adults in Great Britain from February to May 2023. Key findings include:
- 9 in 10 adults reported that the cost of living is an important issue facing UK society.
- Over this period, more adults reported making cuts to essential spending like food and utilities or falling behind on bills and payments compared to previous periods.
- Those already in vulnerable financial circumstances before the increased costs, including disabled people, families with children, and low-income households, continued to report the greatest impacts.
India ranked 43rd in the 2021 World Competitiveness Index published by the International Institute for Management Development, maintaining its position from the past three years. The index ranks 64 nations based on four key factors: economic performance, government efficiency, business efficiency, and infrastructure. Switzerland, Sweden, Denmark, and the Netherlands topped the rankings due to their innovation, digitalization, welfare benefits, and social cohesion contributing to strong economic performance.
This document discusses how economic growth is measured and the factors that influence it. It explains that a country's gross domestic product (GDP) measures economic growth and is the total value of goods and services produced in one year. The four main factors that determine a country's GDP are natural resources, human capital, capital goods, and entrepreneurship. Investing in education, health, and skills training improves human capital and standard of living.
Starting Strong - Empowering Young Children in the Digital Age - EDU Webinar ...EduSkills OECD
OECD’s Director for Education and Skills Andreas Schleicher presents findings from the report 'Empowering Young Children in the Digital Age' at the OECD Education Webinar on 23 May 2023.
Digitalisation and AI are transforming social and economic life at lightning speeds, creating new demands for education systems.
The use of new technologies can help develop the digital skills of young children and enrich their learning environment. But what are the challenges? And how can we support parents and early educators and carers in creating positive technology experiences for young children whilst also understanding and managing the risks that exist?
The webinar recording is available on https://oecdedutoday.com/oecd-education-webinars/
The document discusses sustainable development goals (SDGs) and is a presentation by Samrat Gurung, a SDG activist and co-founder of SDG Network Nepal. It provides background on SDGs, including their origins from the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and goals to promote social, economic, and environmental sustainability globally by 2030. It also outlines Nepal's involvement in SDGs through activities like students and the SDG community as well as government participation.
Discussion on economic aspects of education has acquired great significance in education research during the new millennium earmarked as Knowledge Economy. Education for the Knowledge Economy (EKE) refers to efforts at production of the highly skilled and flexible human capital needed to compete effectively in today’s dynamic global markets. Experiences of last one decade in the IT enabled BPO sector has proved India’s ability to produce and use knowledge as a major factor in economic development and has proved to be critical to India’s comparative advantage. Economists have recognized importance of EKE to develop a workforce that is well-trained and capable of generating knowledge-driven economic growth.
Economics of Education analyzes both what determines or creates education and what impact education has on individuals and the societies and economies in which they live. Historically a great deal of emphasis has been placed on determining outcomes to educational investment and the creation of human capital. The primary mission of the economics of education group is to identify opportunities for improved efficiency, equity, and quality of education and promote effective education reform processes, to enhance knowledge of what drives education outcomes and results; to better understanding how to strengthen the links of education systems with the labour market; and to build and support a network of education economists for education policy planning and evolve structures and mechanisms for implementation.
While continuing the World Bank’s commitment to help countries reach the education Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the new Education Strategy 2020 focuses on the goal of Learning for All. Learning for All means giving all people equitable opportunities to acquire the knowledge and skills they need to have healthy and satisfying lives, to be good citizens, and to be productive
contributors to their countries’ economic development.
The document discusses trends driving changes in education systems towards a "Smarter Nation". Five key trends are identified: 1) technology immersion, 2) personalized learning, 3) knowledge/skills focus, 4) global integration, and 5) economic alignment. These trends form an "Educational Continuum" and have implications for integrating education providers and economic development initiatives to benefit the nation.
Higher education plays an important role in socio-economic development by creating skilled workforces, supporting businesses through research and developing technologies, and driving innovation. In Pakistan, higher education has expanded rapidly but still faces challenges in providing widespread access, implementing effective teaching methods, reducing brain drain, and adapting to changing research needs. While universities in Pakistan aim to develop human capital and communities, they must address issues like lack of access, unemployment, and changing job market demands through reforms such as partnerships with communities, financial assistance programs, entrepreneurship training, and leadership development.
Presentation by Dirk Van Damme, Head of the Innovation and Measuring Progress Division, OECD Directorate for Education and Skills, during the meeting of the OECD Global Parliamentary Network in Mexico City (23-24 June 2014).
Implementing structural reforms with the OECD: the role of education and skil...dvndamme
1) Unemployment remains high in OECD countries and income inequality has increased, reinforcing the need to promote inclusive growth.
2) Education and skills play an important role in fostering both economic growth and social inclusion, but average attainment rates only tell part of the story. Equitable access to education and balanced skills distributions are more important.
3) National education systems and policies can impact skills inequality and social mobility by influencing opportunities, outcomes and skills distributions. The OECD can provide policy advice and support to education reforms aimed at promoting inclusive growth.
1) The document is the January 2015 issue of the CEMCA Newsletter. It includes sections on guest columns, news, case studies, and upcoming events.
2) In his column, the Director discusses the focus and priorities of CEMCA over the next few years, which will include improving ICT integration in teacher education, skill development, community media, and open educational resources.
3) The Director notes that CEMCA will support developing open educational resource-based courses for skills training, strengthen communities of practice for teacher educators, and integrate new ways of providing quality learning in the informal sector through community media.
IJ SDR 2021 Shaping the Education to Meet the Global Demands Industrial Incl...CINEC Campus
This document discusses shaping university curriculum to meet global demands through industrial inclusiveness. It analyzes how education can transform students' knowledge, skills, and competence to meet changing industry needs in areas like health, IT, engineering and business. As customer preferences and technology evolve rapidly, industries require a skilled workforce with relevant training. The university curriculum can play a key role in vertically integrating education and industry requirements to develop qualified graduates for high-demand jobs. This transformation is needed for countries and firms to maintain competitiveness in today's knowledge-based global economy.
An analysis of financing of elementary education in India [www.writekraft.com]WriteKraft Dissertations
Writekraft Research and Publications LLP was initially formed, informally, in 2006 by a group of scholars to help fellow students. Gradually, with several dissertations, thesis and assignments receiving acclaim and a good grade, Writekraft was officially founded in 2011 Since its establishment, Writekraft Research & Publications LLP is Guiding and Mentoring PhD Scholars.
Our Mission:
To provide breakthrough research works to our clients through Perseverant efforts towards creativity and innovation”.
Vision:
Writekraft endeavours to be the leading global research and publications company that will fulfil all research needs of our clients. We will achieve this vision through:
Analyzing every customer's aims, objectives and purpose of research
Using advanced and latest tools and technique of research and analysis
Coordinating and including their own ideas and knowledge
Providing the desired inferences and results of the research
In the past decade, we have successfully assisted students from various universities in India and globally. We at Writekraft Research & Publications LLP head office in Kanpur, India are most trusted and professional Research, Writing, Guidance and Publication Service Provider for PhD. Our services meet all your PhD Admissions, Thesis Preparation and Research Paper Publication needs with highest regards for the quality you prefer.
Our Achievements:
NATIONAL AWARD FOR BEST RESEARCH PROJECT (By Hon. President APJ Abdul Kalam)
GOLD MEDAL FOR RESEARCH ON DISABILITY (By Disabled’s Club of India)
NOMINATED FOR BEST MSME AWARDS 2017
5 STAR RATING ON GOOGLE
We have PhD experts from reputed institutions/ organizations like Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Indian Institute of Management (IIM) and many more apex education institutions in India. Our works are tailored and drafted as per your requirements and are totally unique.
From past years our core advisory members, research team assisted research scholars from various universities from all corners of world.
Subjects/Areas We Cover:
Management, Commerce, Finance, Marketing, Psychology, Education, Sociology, Mass communications, English Literature, English Language, Law, History, Computer Science & Engineering, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Pharmacy & Healthcare.
An analysis of financing of elementary education in India [www.writekraft.com]WriteKraft Dissertations
Writekraft Research and Publications LLP was initially formed, informally, in 2006 by a group of scholars to help fellow students. Gradually, with several dissertations, thesis and assignments receiving acclaim and a good grade, Writekraft was officially founded in 2011 Since its establishment, Writekraft Research & Publications LLP is Guiding and Mentoring PhD Scholars.
Our Mission:
To provide breakthrough research works to our clients through Perseverant efforts towards creativity and innovation”.
Vision:
Writekraft endeavours to be the leading global research and publications company that will fulfil all research needs of our clients. We will achieve this vision through:
Analyzing every customer's aims, objectives and purpose of research
Using advanced and latest tools and technique of research and analysis
Coordinating and including their own ideas and knowledge
Providing the desired inferences and results of the research
In the past decade, we have successfully assisted students from various universities in India and globally. We at Writekraft Research & Publications LLP head office in Kanpur, India are most trusted and professional Research, Writing, Guidance and Publication Service Provider for PhD. Our services meet all your PhD Admissions, Thesis Preparation and Research Paper Publication needs with highest regards for the quality you prefer.
Our Achievements:
NATIONAL AWARD FOR BEST RESEARCH PROJECT (By Hon. President APJ Abdul Kalam)
GOLD MEDAL FOR RESEARCH ON DISABILITY (By Disabled’s Club of India)
NOMINATED FOR BEST MSME AWARDS 2017
5 STAR RATING ON GOOGLE
We have PhD experts from reputed institutions/ organizations like Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Indian Institute of Management (IIM) and many more apex education institutions in India. Our works are tailored and drafted as per your requirements and are totally unique.
From past years our core advisory members, research team assisted research scholars from various universities from all corners of world.
Subjects/Areas We Cover:
Management, Commerce, Finance, Marketing, Psychology, Education, Sociology, Mass communications, English Literature, English Language, Law, History, Computer Science & Engineering, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Pharmacy & Healthcare.
Financing the Education 2030 agenda - Key issues and challenges for national ...IIEP-UNESCO
Aaron Benavot's presentation for the IIEP-UNESCO Strategic Debate " Financing the Education 2030 Agenda - Key issues and challenges for national planners" on 22 January 2016. Benavot is the Director of the UNESCO Global Education Monitoring Report.
An analysis of financing of elementary education in India [www.writekraft.com]WriteKraft Dissertations
Writekraft Research and Publications LLP was initially formed, informally, in 2006 by a group of scholars to help fellow students. Gradually, with several dissertations, thesis and assignments receiving acclaim and a good grade, Writekraft was officially founded in 2011 Since its establishment, Writekraft Research & Publications LLP is Guiding and Mentoring PhD Scholars.
Our Mission:
To provide breakthrough research works to our clients through Perseverant efforts towards creativity and innovation”.
Vision:
Writekraft endeavours to be the leading global research and publications company that will fulfil all research needs of our clients. We will achieve this vision through:
Analyzing every customer's aims, objectives and purpose of research
Using advanced and latest tools and technique of research and analysis
Coordinating and including their own ideas and knowledge
Providing the desired inferences and results of the research
In the past decade, we have successfully assisted students from various universities in India and globally. We at Writekraft Research & Publications LLP head office in Kanpur, India are most trusted and professional Research, Writing, Guidance and Publication Service Provider for PhD. Our services meet all your PhD Admissions, Thesis Preparation and Research Paper Publication needs with highest regards for the quality you prefer.
Our Achievements:
NATIONAL AWARD FOR BEST RESEARCH PROJECT (By Hon. President APJ Abdul Kalam)
GOLD MEDAL FOR RESEARCH ON DISABILITY (By Disabled’s Club of India)
NOMINATED FOR BEST MSME AWARDS 2017
5 STAR RATING ON GOOGLE
We have PhD experts from reputed institutions/ organizations like Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Indian Institute of Management (IIM) and many more apex education institutions in India. Our works are tailored and drafted as per your requirements and are totally unique.
From past years our core advisory members, research team assisted research scholars from various universities from all corners of world.
Subjects/Areas We Cover:
Management, Commerce, Finance, Marketing, Psychology, Education, Sociology, Mass communications, English Literature, English Language, Law, History, Computer Science & Engineering, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Pharmacy & Healthcare.
Human capital investment through education has both private and social returns. The private return is the increase in individual earnings from additional education, while the social return is the increase in national income. There may be external benefits from education like reduced crime that are not captured by private returns. Higher education levels are associated with higher productivity, income, and economic growth. However, inequality can persist if access to education resources is unequal. Strategies to promote equal access and equal standards across schools can help reduce inequality.
The PESTEL Analysis of Secondary Education Market.pptxNaman596209
According to a recent market report, the global secondary education market size was valued at $1.2 trillion in 2022 and is projected to reach $1.7 trillion by 2028, exhibiting a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 6.2% during the forecast period. This impressive growth can be attributed to several factors, including increasing population, rising disposable incomes, and a heightened awareness of the importance of quality education.
Contribution of Skill Development Program on Self-Employment in Nyamagana Dis...AI Publications
This study aimed to investigate the contribution of skill development to self-employment. The study specifically aimed to identify skills development programs required for self-employment among youth. To identify the roles of stakeholders in contributing to skills development programs on self-employment among youth and to examine factors hindering the contribution of skills development programs towards self-employment among youth. Based on the findings through questionnaires and interviews it can be concluded that skills development programs are very important for youth selfemployment in society. That skills development contributes highly to the youth in the determination of entrepreneurship opportunities; it then gives youth time to learn about the management of their enterprises as well as creating a link between one economic sector to another. However, it was established that there are challenges facing skills development programs among youth, which need to be mitigated properly to obtain positive, results about the improvement of youth selfemployment.
This document discusses financing skills development across the life course. It notes that financing arrangements are important for skills development as the amount spent can influence quality, who pays affects incentives, and how funding is allocated shapes the types of skills developed. While skills funding has grown across OECD countries, levels differ significantly. The document outlines key financing considerations like how much is spent, who pays, and how funding is allocated. It provides examples of skills funding growth and levels among OECD countries. The workshop will discuss country examples related to these financing topics and explore successes, challenges and lessons.
The document discusses the importance of integrating technology into education. It notes that education systems must keep up with the fast pace of technological growth. ICTs should be included in pre-service and in-service teacher training to improve teaching and learning. The document also outlines strategic goals and interventions to improve education quality, such as teacher development, learner support materials, and infrastructure improvements.
Similar to Value for Money in School Education (20)
Beyond Degrees - Empowering the Workforce in the Context of Skills-First.pptxEduSkills OECD
Iván Bornacelly, Policy Analyst at the OECD Centre for Skills, OECD, presents at the webinar 'Tackling job market gaps with a skills-first approach' on 12 June 2024
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Andreas Schleicher presents at the launch of What does child empowerment mean...EduSkills OECD
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This document summarizes key findings from the TALIS Starting Strong 2018 survey on diversity and quality in early childhood education. It finds that socioeconomic gaps in child development emerge early. While early childhood education can help disadvantaged children, quality varies between more and less diverse centers. More diverse centers often face greater shortages and lower parental involvement, though staff may have more diversity training and use adaptive practices. Ensuring resources for diverse centers, reducing diversity concentrations, and supporting family engagement could help reduce inequalities.
Managing Choice, Coherence and Specialisation in Upper Secondary Education - ...EduSkills OECD
Camilla Stronati, Junior Policy Analyst, Transitions in Upper Secondary Education project, Directorate for Education and Skills, OECD, presents at the webinar 'The art of balancing curricular choice in upper secondary education' on 29 February 2024
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- PISA 2022 assessed the math performance of nearly 690,000 15-year-old students across 81 countries. It found the average math performance dropped by almost 15 score points across OECD countries since 2018, a larger decline than ever seen before.
- Factors like insufficient education resources, a shortage of qualified teachers, and more time spent on digital devices for leisure rather than learning were linked to lower math scores. However, stronger teacher support during remote learning and feeling prepared for independent learning were associated with higher performance and confidence.
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core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
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ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
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Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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हिंदी वर्णमाला पीपीटी, hindi alphabet PPT presentation, hindi varnamala PPT, Hindi Varnamala pdf, हिंदी स्वर, हिंदी व्यंजन, sikhiye hindi varnmala, dr. mulla adam ali, hindi language and literature, hindi alphabet with drawing, hindi alphabet pdf, hindi varnamala for childrens, hindi language, hindi varnamala practice for kids, https://www.drmullaadamali.com
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
Special TechSoup offer for a free 180 days membership, and up to $150 in discounts on eligible orders.
Spark Good (walmart.com/sparkgood) is a charitable platform that enables nonprofits to receive donations directly from customers and associates.
Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
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1. Solving the Value for Money Equation
in Education
Launch of the Publication Value for Money in School
Education - Smart Investments, Quality Outcomes, Equal
Opportunities
Luiz de Mello, Director of the OECD Economics Department Policy Studies Branch
Andreas Schleicher, OECD Director for Education and Skills
Andreea Minea-Pic, Analyst, OECD Directorate for Education and Skills
Luka Boeskens, Analyst, OECD Directorate for Education and Skills
Moderated by Karine Tremblay, Senior Analyst, OECD Directorate for Education and Skills
29 November 2022
2. Chapter 1: The importance of human
capital for economic outcomes
Chapter 2: The broader social outcomes of
education: Educating for thriving individuals
and societies
Chapter 3: Governing and distributing
school funding: Effectively connecting
resources and learning
Chapter 4: Using school funding to achieve
both efficiency and equity in education
Chapter 5: Planning and monitoring the use
of school funding to improve equity and
performance
Value for Money in School Education - Smart Investments, Quality
Outcomes, Equal Opportunities
3. Luiz de Mello
Economic Context of Education Investments
and the Economic Returns to Education
4. 4
Rising indebtedness draws attention to the need for cost-effectiveness
of government spending
Source: OECD Economic Outlook, Interim Report September 2022: Paying the Price of War.
5. 5
High vacancy rates suggest mismatches in the demand and supply of
skills
Source: OECD Economic Outlook, Volume 2022 Issue 2: Preliminary version, No. 112.
6. -1.0%
-0.9%
-0.8%
-0.7%
-0.6%
-0.5%
-0.4%
-0.3%
-0.2%
-0.1%
0.0%
2020 2030 2040 2050 2060 2070 2080 2090 2100
Effect on the stock of human capital
12-week closure 1-year closure 2-year closure
-2.5%
-2.0%
-1.5%
-1.0%
-0.5%
0.0%
2020 2030 2040 2050 2060 2070 2080 2090 2100
Effect on aggregate productivity
12-week closure 1-year closure 2-year closure
6
School closures during the pandemic may have a large effect on human
capital and productivity
Source: de La Maisonneuve, Égert and Turner (2022), “Quantifying the macroeconomic impact of covid-19-related school closures through the human capital channel”,
Economics Department Working Paper No. 1729.
7. Panel A. Cross-section of 53 countries Panel B. OECD countries, 1987-2020
log(multifactor
productivity)
Human capital stock for workers aged 16-39 years
log(multifactor
productivity)
Human capital stock for workers aged 16-39 years
7
Investment in skills (human capital) is strongly linked to productivity, …
Source: Égert, de La Maisonneuve, and Turner (2022), “A new macroeconomic measure of human capital exploiting PISA and PIAAC: linking education policies to productivity”,
Economics Department Working Paper No. 1709.
8. 8
0.0%
0.5%
1.0%
1.5%
2.0%
2.5%
3.0%
3.5%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Change
in
multi-factor
productivity,
per
cent
Years
Improvement in product market regulation
Improvement in student skills
Note: The shocks are standardised by calibrating the magnitude of the shock as the difference between the
OECD median country and the top three performing countries in terms of the shocked indicator.
… with similar effects to product market regulation reform, but with
longer lags
Source: Égert, de La Maisonneuve, and Turner (2022), “A new macroeconomic measure of human capital exploiting PISA and PIAAC: linking education policies to productivity”,
Economics Department Working Paper No. 1709.
9. 9
Investment in skills is among the main structural policy priorities
Source: OECD (2019), Economic Policy Reforms 2019: Going for Growth.
11. 11
Besides direct economic benefits, high-quality education pays off for
individuals, communities and societies in significant and diverse ways
EDUCATING FOR AN
EVER-CHANGING
WORLD
EDUCATING FOR
HEALTHIER AND
HAPPIER LIVES
EDUCATING FOR MORE CIVIC,
COHESIVE AND INCLUSIVE
SOCIETIES
COGNITIVE
SKILLS SOCIO-EMOTIONAL
SKILLS
DIGITAL
SKILLS
LIFELONG
LEARNING
ATTITUDES
12. 12 EDUCATING FOR HEALTHIER AND HAPPIER LIVES:
Better-educated individuals enjoy healthier, longer and happier lives
Effect of adults’ numeracy proficiency on high levels of self-reported health
Marginal effects (as percentage-point change) of one standard deviation increase in numeracy proficiency score on the probability to report good to excellent health
Source: Adapted from OECD (2019), Skills Matter: Additional Results from the Survey of Adult Skills, https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/1f029d8f-en, Figure 5.7.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Marginal effects (unadjusted) - significant Marginal effects (adjusted) - significant Marginal effects (adjusted) - not significant
• High-quality education enhances health outcomes, health-related behaviors and life expectancy (with
positive externalities on peers and children).
• Better-educated individuals also enjoy happier lives, and socio-emotional skills play a critical role in
shaping mental health outcomes.
13. 13
EDUCATING FOR MORE CIVIC, COHESIVE AND INCLUSIVE SOCIETIES:
Investing in equity in education can foster equity through education (and social mobility…)
Equity in initial and advanced education
Australia
Austria
Belgium
Canada
Chile
Czech Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Israel
Italy
Japan
Korea
Lithuania
Mexico
Netherlands
New Zealand
Norway
Poland
Slovak Republic
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Türkiye
United Kingdom
United States
R² = 0.1509
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
-45 -40 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Equity in advanced education
(difference between the
indicator of equity in advanced
education and the OECD
average, as a proportion of the
OECD average)
Equity in initial education (difference between the indicator of equity in initial education and the OECD average, as a proportion of
the OECD average)
Source:Adapted from OECD (2018), PISA Database 2018, https://www.oecd.org/pisa/data/2018database/ and OECD (2012, 2015, 2017), Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) Database
2012, 2015 and 2017.
14. Supports civic
engagement
Instils civic and democratic values in students; includes students in social networks and
provides opportunities to engage in collective practice; translates into higher voter
engagement and political information, etc.
Reduces antisocial
behaviour
Plays a key role in reducing criminal behavior; translates into sizeable social savings due
to reduced crime-related incarceration and victim costs.
Builds social
capital
Strong determinant of trust, which in turn matters for economic growth, government
performance, financial development or economic exchanges, health-related
behaviours, crime and well-being.
Helps build more
cohesive societies
Supports the formation of more tolerant and open-minded individuals.
Education supports the formation of well-informed and more engaged citizens, reduces antisocial behavior, fosters social capital and
supports more cohesive communities and societies
EDUCATING FOR MORE CIVIC, COHESIVE AND INCLUSIVE SOCIETIES
15. 15
EDUCATING FOR AN EVER-CHANGING WORLD:
Education builds the skills that enable all to thrive in the digital and green transitions
By integrating digital technologies in teaching and learning, education can help
develop the skills needed for a digital world
Performance differences stemming from the use of digital devices for learning and teaching in literacy lessons within the
previous month by type of user (only teacher, both teacher and student, only students) relative to no device use
Source: Adapted from OECD (2018), PISA Database 2018, https://www.oecd.org/pisa/data/2018database/ (accessed on 10 November 2022).
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
GBR NZL AUS FIN IRL FRA CHL SVN CHE USA LVA DEU LTU SVK CZE LUX AVG KOR BEL HUN EST POL ESP GRC ITA ISR TUR MEX JPN ISL CRI SWE DNK
Performance gaps (in score pts)
Yes, but only the teacher used it Yes, both the teacher and students used it Yes, but only students used it
Note: Values that are not statistically significant are highlighted in light grey.
17. Support high-quality Early Childhood Education and Care
Invest in Teacher Quality
Reduce Education Failure
Adapt School Networks to Changing Demands
Efficiency
Equity
ENHANCE EFFICIENCY AND EQUITY IN EDUCATION
Efficiency and equity can go hand in hand: 4 areas for smart investments
The current economic context and widening social gaps call for greater emphasis on:
Efficiency: ability to achieve the best possible results through an optimal use of resources
Equity: enabling all students to thrive is a growing priority for policy makers
There is scope for education reforms that serve both goals:
18. Gaps in pre-primary education participation by students’ socio-economic background (2015 and 2018)
Difference in the percentage of 15-year-old students who had attended pre-primary education for at least two years between the
top and bottom quarters of socio-economic background
SUPPORT HIGH QUALITY EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION & CARE (ECEC)
Investments in high-quality ECEC pay off, yet access of children remains unequal
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
%
2018 2015
Source: OECD (2021), Starting Strong VI: Supporting Meaningful Interactions in Early Childhood Education and Care, https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/f47a06ae-en, Figure 1.6.
19. Per-student spending in pre-primary
education is lower than in higher
levels of education, while the
proportion of private spending on
pre-primary education is higher.
More public spending is needed to
widen access and improve quality of
ECEC.
> Increase public spending whilst
carefully balancing ECEC
investments across different age
groups.
Increase public spending in ECEC Close participation gaps
Policies to enhance the access of
disadvantaged children are central
to ensure the participation of those
who stand to gain the most from
ECEC.
> Expand universal free access to
high-quality ECEC balanced
across age groups
> Provide free or subsidised access
to high-quality ECEC for children
whose parents experienced
income losses due to furlough or
unemployment
> Introduce mechanisms to tailor
ECEC to the needs of
disadvantaged families.
The quality of provision is central to
reap the full benefits of ECEC.
> Increase the qualification
requirements of ECEC staff to
raise ECEC status and attract
stronger candidates.
Australia, Canada, Ireland
> Invest in professional
development opportunities and
facilitate recognition of prior
learning for existing ECEC staff.
> Set long-term objectives for
improving salaries and career
development opportunities to
attract and retain high-quality
staff.
Invest in ECEC quality
SUPPORT HIGH QUALITY EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION & CARE (ECEC)
Ensure broad and equal access as well as high quality of ECEC
20. Lower-secondary teachers' actual salaries relative to earnings of tertiary-educated workers (2021)
Ratio of salaries to the earnings of full-time, full-year workers with tertiary education
INVEST IN TEACHER QUALITY
Teachers are the most important resource in schools, yet the profession is not sufficiently attractive
Source: Adapted from OECD (2022), Education at a Glance 2022: OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/3197152b-en, Figure D3.1.
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
Teachers' actual salaries relative to earnings of tertiary-educated workers
Teachers' actual salaries relative to earnings of similarly educated workers (weighted averages)
21. INVEST IN TEACHER QUALITY
PISA has shown that disadvantaged students perform better when taught by more
experienced teachers, but the latter tend to work in the more advantaged schools…
22. Adequate compensation
is needed to attract and
retain the most qualified
teachers.
> The Czech Republic,
Estonia and Sweden
have introduced
substantial salary
boosts for teachers
alongside with
policies to improve
working conditions
and career
opportunities.
Reduce the salary gap
with other tertiary-
educated graduates
Design salary structures
to answer country-specific
challenges
Salary structures must
strike a balance between
attracting young talent
and retaining
experienced
professionals. There is
no one-size-fits-all
solution to the design of
effective salary scales.
> Austria flattened
teachers’ salary
structures resulting
in a higher entry
salary for young
teachers.
Salaries can be linked to
career advancement as
an alternative to
performance-based pay.
However, this requires
integrating teaching
standards, appraisal
systems, career
structures and salary
scales.
> In Colombia and
Chile teacher pay
raises are liked to
promotion and
subject to a
competitive
evaluation.
Consider linking salaries
to career advancement
Guarantee efficient
distribution of teachers
across schools
Provide financial or non-
financial incentives to
channel teachers to
disadvantaged schools
(e.g. bonuses,
recognition of difficult
assignments for career
advancement, better
working conditions).
> Chile and France
have introduced
monetary incentives
to teach at
disadvantaged
schools.
INVEST IN TEACHER QUALITY
Attracting the best educators requires adequate extrinsic and intrinsic incentives
23. Grade repetition, socio-economic status and reading performance (2018)
Increased likelihood of having repeated a grade amongst disadvantaged students, relative to advantaged students, before and after accounting
for reading performance
REDUCE EDUCATIONAL FAILURE
Educational failure is costly for individuals and education systems, and disproportionately affects
disadvantaged students
OECD (2020), PISA 2018 Results (Volume V): Effective Policies, Successful Schools, PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/ca768d40-en, Figure V.2.6.
0
5
10
15
20
25
After accounting for reading performance Before accounting for reading performance
Odds
ratio
24. Reduce grade
repetition
Introduce legislative changes to abolish grade repetition as a common practice
France, French Community of Belgium
Provide additional individualised support to struggling students Austria, Finland, Uruguay
Smoothen
transitions within
education system
Consider integration of different years/levels of education Sweden, United States
or increase co-ordination between ed. levels through school clusters Colombia, Portugal
Stimulate student
engagement and
reduce dropout
Re-engage struggling learners & minimise dropout through second-chance France, Denmark
or early acceleration programmes United States
Delay early
tracking
Raise the age of first selection into different pathways to protect those most at risk of
educational failure from falling further behind Flemish Community of Belgium
REDUCE EDUCATION FAILURE
Address risk factors for educational failure
25. Encourage co-
operation between
schools
Create structures that allow greater co-operation between schools such as sharing of staff
and resources to allow small schools to benefit from economies of scale
Flemish Community of Belgium, Spain
Reorganise
education provision
Cluster schools under joint leadership Portugal, Colombia
or allow greater flexibility to combine different grade levels in the same institution Estonia
Pursue school
consolidation
where necessary
Consider financial incentives such as per-capita funding or regulations on minimum school or
class size to discourage maintaining of inefficiently small schools. Provide direct support in
the school closure process.
Treat quality, equity
and well-being as
guiding principles
Carefully assess the impact of school network reforms on students and weigh economic
benefits against social costs. Transparency, stakeholder engagement and equity impact
assessment are key to success.
ADAPT SCHOOL NETWORKS TO CHANGING DEMAND
Carefully manage trade-offs in cost and access to schools in rural areas
27. We expect funding allocation models to fulfil a number of criteria:
…reflect differences in the cost of provision through adjustments
…yield transparent, stable and predictable resource allocations
…provide flexibility to respond to unforeseen needs
…be efficient and strike a balance between regular and targeted funding
DISTRIBUTING SCHOOL FUNDING
Designing funding allocation models
28. Most central authorities use funding formulas to allocate resources for current expenditure to schools
Proportion of public funding allocated by central/state governments to public primary educational institutions (or the lowest level of
governance) using funding formulas, by category of funding (2019).
DISTRIBUTING SCHOOL FUNDING
Using funding formulas to allocate current expenditure
Source: OECD (2021), Education at a Glance 2021: OECD Indicators, Figure D6.3.
29. DISTRIBUTING SCHOOL FUNDING
Designing a successful funding formula
Principles to guide the design of funding formulas:
Including coefficients to promote equity and acknowledge cost differences
Striking a balance between simplicity and complexity in its design
Promoting budgetary discipline, while acknowledging that not all costs are linear
Reviewing the formula regularly to ensure it remains aligned with policy priorities
Flemish Community (Belgium) and England (UK)
Implementing new funding models can pose challenges:
Requires adequate stakeholder consultation…
…attention to the political economy of reform…
…and a realistic estimate of the costs involved
30. Efficient resource use requires careful planning and monitoring
In most OECD countries, education and finance authorities share responsibility for setting up
the education budget at the central level
Their close collaboration matters not only during the budget’s planning and formulation, but
throughout the budgeting cycle
PLANNING AND EVALUATING SCHOOL FUNDING
Linking budget planning to policy objectives
How to connect spending with policy
priorities?
Most countries draw on strategic
documents during the budgeting process
The analysis of impact evaluations during
the budget preparation is less common
Use of targets can enhance the
effectiveness of the budgeting process:
Denmark: Central steering through
national targets in the education
budget
OECD (2017), The Funding of School Education, Table 4.A1.1.
31. Evaluating the use of school funding is essential for the improvement of educational
quality, the efficiency of resource allocations as well as accountability
How does funding translate into educational outcomes?
How could future budgets allocate resources more effectively?
Flemish Community (Belgium): Linking evaluations to school funding mechanisms
Spending reviews can support efficient resource allocation
Should support the budgeting process by providing information on concrete saving
options
PLANNING AND EVALUATING SCHOOL FUNDING
Evaluating the use of funding to support its efficient allocation
Research evidence shows significant long-term effects of participation in high-quality ECEC. For instance, findings from the United Kingdom show that participation in high-quality ECEC is associated with stronger performance at the end of compulsory schooling, enough to generate a 4.3% increase in gross lifetime earnings per individual.
Disadvantaged children stand to gain the most from Early Childhood education, yet they face considerable barriers to attend despite growing overall participation. Data from the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2018 show that, on average across OECD countries, 86% of students from socio‑economically advantaged backgrounds attended ECEC for at least two years, whereas this was the case for only 74% of their less advantaged peers
Despite increased awareness on the importance of ECEC, public spending lags behind other levels education – both in per student and absolute terms. According to data from Education at a Glance, on average, OECD countries spent 0.9% of their gross domestic product (GDP) in 2018 on ECEC as compared to 1.5% and 1.9% of GDP on primary and secondary education, respectively. This leaves considerable need for private spending: On average across OECD countries, private funding represented 29% of total expenditure on early childhood educational development (ISCED 01) and 17% on pre-primary education (ISCED 02) in 2018. Increased public spending is needed to provide broad and equitable access.
Universal free access to at least one year of ECEC is now common across OECD countries and having accessible, high-quality ECEC can encourage broad participation from diverse families. However, countries need to carefully balance their investments across different age groups. Universal free access is typically targeted to pre-primary education, potentially limiting the available public resources to support participation of children under the age of three. The expansion of free or subsidised ECEC, targeted to families who face income losses due to furlough or unemployment, may also help ensure that children can continue to engage in ECEC should their parents become unemployed. Alongside universal free access, governments can use other tools to encourage equitable participation in ECEC. This includes regulatory frameworks to foster high-quality public and private ECEC provision, or mechanisms to adapt ECEC settings to the needs of disadvantaged families.
Research consistently underscores the importance of ensuring that ECEC is of high quality to unlock the full potential of investments in early education. The ECEC workforce is central to ensuring high-quality ECEC for all children. Increasing qualification requirements can, in countries where they are low, be one policy option for raising the status of ECEC professionals and help attract stronger candidates to the sector. Higher qualification requirements, however, need to be accompanied by opportunities for existing staff to meet these new requirements through training and the recognition of prior learning. This requires granting time and funding to increase access to and engagement in professional development. Further, to ensure that the demands on the workforce and wages are aligned in the long term, and to attract and retain high-quality staff, countries can set long-term objectives for improving salaries and career development opportunities.
In Australia, since 2012, higher workforce requirements have been progressively introduced. Centre-based services with children in pre-primary education are required to ensure a minimum level of access to qualified early childhood teachers, based on service operating hours and the number of children attending each day. From 2020, services must ensure access to two early childhood teachers if 80 or more children are in attendance. Furthermore, requirements cover both teachers and assistants: half of the staff must hold or be working towards at least a short-cycle (Diploma level) tertiary qualification (ISCED 5), and the other half must hold or be working towards at least a post-secondary (Certificate III level) qualification (ISCED 4). In line with the progressive implementation of the regulatory requirements introduced in 2012, the qualification levels of early childhood teachers in the ECEC workforce have increased in Australia over recent years.
In Canada, many provinces and territories have recently set new standards for initial education. For example, in the province of Nova Scotia, the curricula of post-secondary programmes have been updated to meet the newly adopted teaching standards. The province also introduced a process of recognition of prior learning to provide individuals who have been working in the ECEC field for ten years or more with the opportunity to demonstrate that they have acquired the necessary knowledge and skills to obtain an ECEC qualification.
In Ireland, new qualification requirements have been introduced in the past years, as well as incentives for ECEC centres to hire staff with higher qualifications. Teachers – so-called “lead educators” in the Early Childhood Care and Education programme (for 3 to 5-year-olds) – are now required to have an ISCED 5 diploma at the minimum. However, centres with teachers who hold a university degree (ISCED 6) in early childhood receive higher funding. The proportion of ECEC staff (working with children of all ages) who are graduate teachers has increased in the last decade, rising from 12% in 2012 to 34% in 2021. For all staff who work directly with children, the minimum requirement is a major awarded in ECEC at ISCED 4.
There is solid evidence showing that teachers can have long-term impacts on adult outcomes. Recent research has also documented teachers’ impact on other desirable outcomes, including students’ behaviours at school, such as attendance and drop‑out and socio-emotional skills, such as resilience, growth mindset and self‑efficacy. Insufficient investments in the teaching workforce, then, risk creating challenges to quality, equity and efficiency in school education in the long run.
Comparatively low salary levels can be one factor contributing to teacher shortages and high rates of turnover. As shown in the graph, there are several countries where teachers’ salaries were significantly lower than those of similarly educated workers have considered reducing this gap to make teaching more attractive.
Teacher salary increases to enhance the attractiveness of teaching careers in the Czech Republic, Estonia and Sweden
In the Czech Republic, poor salaries and working conditions have been identified as drivers of the low social status and attractiveness of the teaching profession. Following an initial increase in teachers’ salaries by 22% in real terms between 2009 and 2014, the government made it a priority to continue raising salaries to tackle staff shortages as part of its Strategy for Education 2020, adopted in 2014. As a result, teachers’ salaries have risen annually since 2015, with an 8% increase of teaching staff in 2016. In 2017, the government implemented a programme to increase salaries by 15%. Following pressure from and negotiations with regional teacher unions, the 2019 education budget earmarked CZK 95 billion for teacher salaries, an increase of CZK 16.1 billion from 2018 and constituting an average teacher salary increase of 10%. The country’s new sector strategy (Strategy 2030+) foresees further increases in teachers’ wages, both relative to the average wage in the national economy and the average salary of university-educated workers. Actions considered in the strategy also include the review of the salary system and increasing the share of funding for bonus-pay components so that school leaders can reward teaching quality (MSMT, 2020[49]; OECD, 2020[50])
In Estonia, ensuring teachers’ satisfaction and their image in society was at the core of the Lifelong Learning Strategy 2014-2020. The government’s actions included, among others, salary raises and reforms in work organisation to improve the reputation of the teaching profession. To attract the best candidates, average salaries of teachers were adjusted to make them consistent with the qualifications required and the set of skills developed. Novice teachers’ salaries were specifically targeted to promote the appeal of a career in teaching for young people. The salary system for teachers also incorporated incentives for participation in professional development, with the possibility of taking half a year away from teaching to fulfil definite developmental assignments (OECD, 2020[51]).
In Sweden, the government introduced the National Gathering for the Teaching Profession in 2014, which contained measures to avoid teacher shortages and boost the attractiveness of the profession. This initiative included salary increases and more rapid wage progression for teachers, linked to their competences and development. In 2016, this was followed by the Teacher Salary Boost initiative (Lärarlönelyftet), which rewarded teachers for participation in professional development programmes. Furthermore, the government sought to encourage entry to the profession by promoting alternative pathways to teaching and increasing government grants for new teachers.
Apart from the competitiveness of teachers’ lifetime earnings, policy makers must pay attention to the distribution of earnings over the course of the career and the factors that determine salary progression. Higher starting salaries, for example, may need to be weighed against the benefits of greater pay raises over the course of the career. Many countries face the dual challenge of providing competitive starting salaries to attract high-calibre entrants to the profession while also seeking to retain, motivate and recognise experienced, high‑quality teachers through salary increases
In 2015, Austria implemented a new teacher service code which has been mandatory for all teachers entering the profession since 2019/20. It implied a compression of the salary scale, thus offering more attractive starting salaries while reducing top-end salaries, keeping the expected lifetime earnings of teachers roughly constant. The changes have been accompanied by a raise in qualification requirements for new teachers in provincial schools and an increased teaching load in federal schools.
In theory, performance-based compensation is meant to motivate teachers to improve their practice and raise students’ achievement by rewarding effective teaching (OECD, 2019[34]). However, research from different contexts has underlined the difficulty of measuring performance at the level of individual teachers and the potential. It has also showed potential perverse effects associated with incentive schemes to improve teacher performance , such as teachers narrowing the curriculum or reducing their efforts on tasks not explicitly rewarded by the programme (Ballou and Springer, 2015[52]; OECD, 2013[53]; Papay, 2011[54]; Rothstein, 2010[55]). An excessive reliance on extrinsic incentives may also undermine teachers’ intrinsic motivation and have a negative impact on collegial relationships. As an alternative, linking salaries to career advancement creates a more indirect link between teachers’ growing expertise and their compensation and can address some of the challenges associated with conventional performance pay.
Colombia’s new teacher career structure, introduced in 2002 and applicable for teachers appointed following its introduction, illustrates how indirect links between appraisal and compensation can be established. In contrast to the seniority-based system in place for teachers appointed prior to 2002, teachers need to undergo a system of Diagnostic and Formative Evaluation (Evaluación de Carácter Diagnóstico Formativo, ECDF) to advance their career and reach the next step of the salary scale.
Similarly, Chile uses a certification process (Sistema de Reconocimiento) to regulate teachers’ progression across the five stages of their career structure (Carrera Docente) based on competencies specified in the national teaching standards (Marco para la Buena Enzeñanza). Progression through the career structure is linked to better remuneration through specific salary supplements (Asignación por tramo de desarrollo profesional docente) and a higher base salary (Bonificación de Reconocimiento Profesional).
Inequities in the distribution of staff across schools in different socio‑economic circumstances mark a problem in many countries as a rich research literature and data from the OECD have established (OECD, 2018[58]; OECD, 2019[34]). Data from PISA 2015, for example, show that teachers in the most disadvantaged schools are less qualified or experienced than those in the most advantaged schools in more than a third of the participating school systems. Further, the gaps in student performance related to socio‑economic status are wider when fewer qualified and experienced teachers work in socio-economically disadvantaged schools (OECD, 2018[58]). Some school systems have introduced financial incentives to channel teachers to the schools that need them the most. For instance, such measures include higher salaries in schools enrolling large proportions of students from disadvantaged backgrounds, differential pay for particular expertise, or scholarships and subsidies for working in disadvantaged schools. Of course, non-financial incentives also matter. For example, recognising experience in difficult or remote schools for teacher career development is a further option.
Chile’s government has designed different awards that provide a financial bonus for high-performing teachers choosing to work in disadvantaged schools. The Asignación de Excelencia Pedagógica (AEP) programme sought to reward the most effective teachers and to increase retention in the teaching profession. The programme was in place between 2002 and 2021 and incorporated a monetary bonus for teachers working in disadvantaged schools since 2012.
In 1981, France established the Zones d’Éducation Prioritaire (ZEP), a compensatory education policy directing additional resources to disadvantaged schools. Since 2019, for instance teachers working in schools in the most deprived areas (REP+) are awarded an annual gross salary bonus of EUR 4 646.
When students do not progress through the system as expected and leave school with insufficient knowledge, skills and competencies, this has a high cost for school systems and individuals, constituting an important source of inefficiency in many countries. In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, addressing the urgent needs of students who may have left school early or are at increased risk of doing so will be a critical educational and economic priority in some contexts, for example through high-quality second-chance or early acceleration programmes.
Disadvantaged students are at particular risk of educational failure. For instance, across OECD countries, one in five students in socio-economically disadvantaged schools has repeated a grade at least once since entering primary school, compared to only 5% of students in advantaged schools
Grade repetition, which adds an additional year of schooling, is a costly practice. The retention of students in the system increases the number of enrolled students and thus the level of funding required, besides delaying students’ entry to the labour market. In an OECD estimate, the total cost of year repetition was equivalent to 10% or more of the annual national expenditure on primary and secondary school education for some countries. As it mostly affects students from disadvantaged backgrounds, grade repetition also poses key concerns for equity.
Reducing grade repetition begins by identifying struggling students and providing intensive, individualised support.
In Austria, different measures seek to provide early support to students with learning difficulties. In primary school, the curriculum allows for one lesson of remedial teaching (Förderunterricht) per week for students at risk of falling behind, in particular in the core subjects. This additional instruction can be delivered as an additional class or be integrated in the regular schedule. Further, students in upper secondary education with learning difficulties can receive individual learning support (Individuelle Lernbegleitung). This type of support does not focus on individual subjects, but covers the entire learning process. As part of the scheme, students work together with a tutor (Lernbegleiter*in) with a focus on individual learning goals. An early warning system (Frühwarnsystem) should help identify students with learning difficulties at risk of falling behind and inform early support measures.
In the Finnish education system, almost all students automatically pass to the next year (none are retained prior to grade 10); every child has the right to individualised support provided by trained professionals as part of their regular schooling. A teacher who is specifically trained to work with struggling students is assigned to each school and works closely with teachers to identify students who need extra help.
In Uruguay, the Community Teachers Programme (Programa Maestros Comunitarios) allocates between one and two community teachers to disadvantaged schools, depending on school size. This programme aims to prevent students from falling behind and having to repeat a year by supporting children who perform poorly. This is coupled with the Teacher + Teacher (Maestro más Maestro) Programme providing either after-school or team-teaching support for students in underserved communities.
Regulations and legal adjustments can also discourage grade repetition
In 2008, the Ministry of Education in France set ambitious objectives to reduce repetition rates. School leaders were required to explain their school level results and encouraged to decrease the number of repeaters. Students struggling in the last two years of primary school were provided with two additional hours of academic support. The rate of primary school repetition was still 14% in 2009, so the ministry set a goal of halving this rate by 2013. In 2014, Parliament passed a decree addressing school. The decree indicates that the repeating of a year should be considered “exceptional.”
The French Community of Belgium introduced legislative changes in 2015/16 that children can only be retained in pre-primary school (maternelle) under exceptional circumstances. Upon parents’ request and subject to the approval of the school provider, a child can repeat the third year, but is excluded in the calculation of the operating grant in that case. As part of teachers’ continuing education, third grade teachers in pre-primary can also participate in training to better understand specific learning disabilities and to adjust their pedagogy accordingly. In general, schools – In collaboration with their psycho-medical-social support centre – must put in place individualised support and remedial measures where learning difficulties are identified and define strategies to combat school failure, early dropout and grade repetition as part of their six-year school development plans.
Where the organisation of the educational offer fails to support students’ smooth progression through the system and to guide them to programmes that correspond to their interests, this can lead to disengagement, educational failure and skill mismatches resulting in an inefficient and inequitable use of school resources. However, accomplishing smooth transitions for students requires careful co‑ordination between the different and oftentimes fragmented levels and sectors of school education as well as their responsible governing bodies.
Combining different levels of schooling into a single organisation in areas with high rates of early school leaving can help to ease vertical transitions for all students.
For example, several studies in the United States have found that entirely eliminating the transition between primary and lower secondary schooling by keeping students in the same school up to eighth grade is beneficial for student outcomes
In Sweden, a reform in 1994 aimed at integrating grades seven to nine in locally run basic schools, led students to keep attending smaller schools closer to their homes, while having no significant impacts on educational outcomes
Simply ensuring a greater degree of co-ordination between educational levels can also benefit students transition through the system
Colombia and Portugal, for example, have organised their educational provision in school clusters which group schools offering different levels of education. This enables students to complete their entire schooling within the same extended school community if they wish so and allows for a more efficient resource use
Complementary second chance and early acceleration programmes can also help to re‑engage struggling learners and minimise school dropout
Second-chance programmes are a common way of addressing students who have dropped out of school, but later express interest in gaining skills and credentials at the secondary level as adults.
For example, in France, a network of second chance schools (Écoles de la 2e Chance, E2C) provides practical training for early school leavers. The training, which targets 16- to 25-year-olds without qualifications, focuses particularly on individualised learning pathways and practical work experience. As part of the government’s investment plan for 2018-2022 (Grand Plan d’Investissement), the Ministry of Labour provides financing for places in the programme between 2019 and 2022, for the development of the network’s information systems, and the development of a skills-based approach.
In Denmark, a new type of educational programmes (Preparatory Basic Education and Training, FGU) was launched in 2019 to rethink and strengthen second-chance education and lower the share of youth not in education or training by 50% until 2030. This type of programme is offered by dedicated institutions serving a number of schools and is embedded within the youth initiatives of the country’s 98 municipalities. It offers various educational tracks, a strong element of guidance and counselling and new pedagogical approaches to support youth under 25 in entering upper secondary education or the labour market.
An alternative to the traditional second-chance programme is to alter a student’s trajectory before they experience failure in the first place.
One such Early College High School in New York City (United States) is the Pathways in Technology Early College High. “The school provides students with an enriched curriculum that is aligned with actual employment opportunities with industry partner IBM and that enables them to earn both a high school diploma and a cost‑free Associate in Applied Science (AAS) degree in six years. Students have professional mentors, substantive workplace experiences … and internships.”
Lastly, delaying the age of first tracking has the potential to allow students to cognitively and socio-emotionally mature and enter the most challenging pathway they can successfully complete. OECD countries that select students into different programmes at an earlier age showed less equitable reading performance in PISA 2018, even after accounting for per-capita GDP.
The Flemish Community of Belgium used to track students relatively early, between the ages of 12 and 14. To delay tracking until age 14 and soften the negative effects of early tracking in the course of secondary education the Flemish Community of Belgium has introduced legislative reform for the modernisation of secondary education
Consolidation – i.e. the closing of schools and transferral of students to proximate institutions – has been the conventional response to school network inefficiency and falling student numbers. However, the repertoire of strategies to rationalise school networks has been greatly expanded beyond the merger or closure of schools and many have come to see consolidation as a last resort given its strong impact on the lives of students and communities
Co-operation and resource sharing between providers can, in many cases, allow smaller institutions to benefit from economies of scale and enhance efficiency while leaving the number, size and distribution of school facilities intact
In the Flemish Community of Belgium, the education ministry launched a policy to encourage school collaboration through the establishment of “school associations” (scholengemeenschappen) among secondary schools in 1999.In 2003, the programme was extended to primary schools. School associations are collaborative partnerships between schools in the same geographical area comprising between 6 and 12 schools on average. Particularly at the secondary level, a central goal was to improve the efficiency of schools’ resource use and their offer through increased co-operation and co-ordination. Membership in a school association is voluntary. To incentivise collaboration in a system that is otherwise based on school choice and competition, the ministry provides additional staff and other resources whose use the association can collectively decide upon. In the most successful cases, school associations have also brought about greater effectiveness and efficiency by using shared management systems for staff recruitment and evaluation, easing their principals’ managerial burden and allowing them to assume greater pedagogical leadership. Evaluations of secondary school associations also showed that many of them had developed common staffing policies that facilitate sharing staff across schools.
Spain provides another example for co-operation and resource sharing. Here, partnerships between rural schools (Colegios Rurales Agrupados, CRA), have served as a means to overcome the resource constraints faced by small schools since the late 1980s. Participating schools from multiple municipalities share itinerant teachers, instructional materials or extracurricular offers and organise regular co-ordination meetings among their teachers. In Catalonia, one of the country’s Autonomous Communities, schools collaborate within Rural Education Zones (Zona Escolar Rural, ZER) around a common educational project and curriculum. Each zone is co-ordinated by a leadership team including one of the participating schools’ principals, a chief of studies and a secretary, who dedicates 25 weekly hours to co-ordinating the ZER. Each ZER has a school council composed of representatives of the school management, teachers, administrative staff, parents and the municipality. The schools of each ZER share at least three itinerant teachers for instruction in a foreign language, music and sports. Larger ZERs of seven or more schools hire a fourth itinerant teacher for students with special education needs.
If properly administered, the creation of school clusters under joint administration can also generate significant improvements in efficiency and educational quality without diminishing the geographic coverage of the school network.
In Colombia, the education ministry has promoted the clustering of nearby schools in order to ensure all students have the opportunity to complete their education within a single school cluster. This measure should facilitate smoother transitions between levels and reduce student dropout. Since 2002, schools, and especially public schools, have been organised as school clusters with a number of sites. The main site offers all levels of compulsory education. The remaining sites offer only some levels of education. A school cluster includes one main site and a number of satellite sites. Qualitative studies suggest that the reorganisation of schools has granted small rural school sites access to school resources and infrastructure such as a library, computer lab and sports facilities, and helped ease rural students’ transition between levels, although its impact on grade repetition and student dropout have been mixed.
Portugal reformed its school network to address inefficiency and drastic regional inequalities beginning from 2005. Within a decade, education authorities closed 47% of the country’s public schools, most of them primary schools in rural areas, while investing in new school infrastructure, transportation and extracurricular programmes. As part of the consolidation process, nearly all public schools (98%) were re-organised into clusters under a single administration. The clusters usually include kindergartens, primary and secondary schools. While they typically group between 4 and 7 schools, clusters range in size from as few as 2 to as many as 28 schools. The organisational leadership of clusters is assigned to a principal, supported by several deputy principals, school co-ordinators and school governing councils. The governing councils include a General Board (comprised of elected representatives of teachers and parents, as well as representatives of the municipality and local partners), as well as a Pedagogical Council, which is comprised of department co-ordinators designated by the cluster Principle (e.g. the chairs of the Departments of pre-schooling, primary education, maths, languages, arts, sports, inclusive education). The introduction of clusters aimed to mitigate some of the negative consequences of school closures, allowed for a more rational use of resources and eased students’ transitions across levels of compulsory education
Allowing for some flexibility in the combination of different grade levels within the same institutions can make it easier to adapt the school network in response to changing demand, particularly where pressures differ across levels of education.
Estonia, for example, opted for a more decisive separation between general upper secondary education and basic education. The aim was to consolidate upper secondary provision while leaving the network of lower secondary schools largely intact. Combined with the construction of centralised upper secondary schools, the government thereby sought to initiate a reflection among municipalities on the levels of education that they can adequately provide locally.
Despite the great potential of resource sharing and school clustering, systems with a fragmented school network should complement these approaches with incentives for the consolidation of small schools. Incentives for consolidation, for example in the form of per-capita funding through a central formula, can constitute a powerful steering tool that discourages the maintenance of small schools due to their relatively high per-student fixed costs. Consolidation can also be encouraged through other policy levers, for example by increasing the size of catchment areas.
However, making students’ educational benefit central to network reforms thus requires countries to acknowledge the limits of consolidation and to ensure that access to schools at a reasonable distance remains a priority, particularly for younger children.