828 Notes..pdf

1 | P a g e B y : M u h a m m a d I D r e e S K h a n
Q.1) - How Socio-economic development of a country depends upon higher education?
The roles of higher education in sustainable economic and social development increase year by year, and
this will continue over the next decades. Higher education can be seen as a focal point of knowledge and
its application, an institution which makes a great contribution to the economic growth and development
through fostering innovation and increasing higher skills. It is looked as a way to improve the quality of
life and address major social and global challenges. Higher education is broadly defined as one of key
drivers of growth performance, prosperity and competitiveness. UNESCO says its social role provides the
link between the intellectual and educational role of universities on one hand and the development of
society on the other. Raising skills holds the key to higher living standards and well-being. Investing in
knowledge creation and enabling its diffusion is the key to creating high-wage employment and
enhancing productivity growth.
Creating a quality workforce
Higher education gives a person an opportunity to succeed in today’s global economy. Modern
universities provide their students with various programmes aimed at preparing them for different
economic sectors, helping them to stay and progress in the labour market for long, programmes that
make a difference for labour market outcomes and keep pace with changes in the global economy and
changes in the innovation process. Universities promote lifelong learning; they offer opportunities to
engage and attract professionals into training and professional development.
Supporting business and industry
Business has changed over the last decade; the dynamic processes take place in a range of contexts and
landscapes. There are a lot of jobs today that failed to exist several decades ago. Technology is changing
the nature of work. The 2017 McKinsey report estimated that 49 percent of time spent on work activities
worldwide could be automated using existing technologies. The requirements on employee’s skills have
also changed. Higher education institutions assure the relevance of their knowledge, identify skills gaps,
create special programmes and build the right skills that can help countries improve economic prosperity
and social cohesion, adapt workforce development to the economy and changing demand for the new
skills, develop relevant skills and activate skill supply, and thus support improvement in productivity and
growth.
Caring out research and promoting technologies
Higher education is a technology and innovation driver. One of the missions of the modern universities is
finding solutions to big challenges and conducting research within global priority areas, contributing to
social outcomes such as health and social engagement. Often it is aimed at designing technologies that
result in new products and supplying advanced technology for use.
Knowledge is the true basis of higher education: its production via research, its transmission via teaching,
its acquisition and use by students. Hence, excellence must remain the prime objective of any institution
of higher education, including universities in any country. Russia retains universities’ traditional role as
critics and servants of society and is setting its sights high. Russia’s leading universities Project 5-100
participants guarantee excellence in the knowledge and training that they impart. These institutions are
focusing resources on quality education, encouraging students and taking account of students’ profiles
and specific needs, strengthening teacher training and exposure to best working practices and creating
incentives to attract the most experienced teachers.
Countries are putting knowledge at the service of their societies to create a better world. This can be
achieved through the training of first-class minds, through major advances in science and technology and
by encouraging an interest in learning. Now, to realize its full potential, higher education is to maintain a
pro-active stance, strengthen its position as bedrock upon which countries are and build a new road to
growth. It cannot be passive.
Education speaks not only for the productivity of labour market but equally provides that scarcity of
sufficient and required skills proved sometimes as one of the vital constraints for the economic growth of
nations. This is very true for the poor countries where workers have no basic literacy as well as
numeracy skills consequently such nations also face the deficiency of having experts in various fields.
Besides, the economic development education has social benefits. The social benefits encompass all the
non-monetary effects of education such as saving lives, lower fertility rate, improved conditions
sanitation, educated woman that can be enrich the workforce and contribute to the labour market once
they were not part of it. In addition, the positive effects of education also include the interaction of
educated people resulting greater social cohesions and alike. Furthermore, education is one of the most
important means of combating dangerous diseases such as HIV/AIDS across the globe. This ensures the
health society of people in the world by creating awareness through educating people. In addition, the
other positive social impacts of education though not directly related to poverty but equally important,
including improvement in functioning and continuity of democracy and reeducation in crime.
Presently, mostly the developing countries of the world are suffering from a number of economic and
socio-political problems such as rapid population growth, exploitation, inflation, unemployment,
corruption, low earnings and especially political instability due to poor literacy rate. In this backdrop,
education is considered to be the only effective solution that a country can utilize for the development of
its economy and social wellbeing. Among the SAARC member states, the impact of education has not been
tested by the masses as well as the policymakers as a channel of nation-building. Well documented
national education policies suffer failure primarily due to deficiency of devotion and dedication on the
part of implementing machinery.
Since long the returns to investment in education were higher at primary level of schooling. The shortage
of human capital in poor countries provided a considerable benefit to invest in education. This justifies
making education a priority in poor and developing countries across the globe whereas the returns to
education at almost all levels are comparatively lower.
Across the globe, it is a general phenomenon that likelihood of having job associated with having higher
levels of education. Similarly, the earnings also affected by the levels of education a person has. It means
that earnings and education have a direct relationship. In other words, a well-educated family is rarely to
be poor.
The higher salaries in the labour market for the well-educated individuals are mainly due to their higher
productivity, which signifies to the employer at the time recruitment. Countries with average income
have greater opportunity and highly developed markets for the skilled and educated workforce in terms
of better jobs and consequently higher wages.
Good quality education advance economic growth. The effect of high and continuous degrees of economic
growth and development on a society as well as on general development would be very high. The
increased economic growth and development can alleviate poverty in the developing countries
considerably for instance China and India are the best examples to cite here in the context.
Sun (2012) provides that higher education is meant for equipping individuals to acquire employment
capacity and other sources of livelihood as well develop them for future life. Meeting this objective,
universities are required to offer complete and comprehensive education programmes and provide
guidance to their students regarding their employment. By doing these universities will strengthen the
professional career planning among students helps them to find a suitable position, correcting their
employment concepts and thus facilitate their comprehensive development.
Besides the economic benefits or direct returns of education has been wide acknowledge and discussed
by both the economists and education. Whereas, the social benefits or the indirect returns to education
are mostly ignored especially by the policy makers. However, many observers have drawn attention
towards the substantial benefits of schools and urge the governments to invest in education not for the
sake of economic benefits for the sake of wellbeing of the individuals and community (Riddell, 2004).
In addition, education provides other noneconomic benefits, such as nation building and socialization
(World Bank, 2012).

Both the general and vocational education has social benefits as well as economic benefits. These can be
studied at three different levels such as macro-level, meso-level and micro-level. The macro-level benefits
speak for society as a whole, whereas the meso-level benefits provide for the benefits at group or
organization level while the micro-level benefits explain the individual level benefits of education.
Q.2) What is the role and importance of University Education?
The need of University education can be best assessed through its importance. University education is
important for any society as it affects the individual in various ways as under:
1. Effects on Economic Field
An educated population is vital in today’s world, with the convergent impacts of globalization, the
increasing importance of knowledge as a main driver of growth, and the information and communication
revolution. Knowledge accumulation and application have become major factors in economic
development and are increasingly at the core of a country’s competitive advantage in the global economy.
The combination of increased computing power, diminishing prices of hardware and software,
improvement of wireless and satellite technologies, and reduced telecommunication costs has all but
removed the space and time barriers to information access and exchange.
The recent World Bank study “Globalization, Growth, and Poverty: Building an Inclusive World
Economy”, by David Dollar and Paul Collier, describes how developing countries that integrated
themselves more closely into the global economy experienced higher economic growth, a reduced
incidence of poverty, a rise in the average wage, an increased share of trade in gross domestic product,
and improved health outcomes. These countries simultaneously raised their rates of participation in
higher education. Indeed, the countries that benefited most from integration with the world economy
achieved the most marked increases in educational levels. In addition, there is growing evidence that
university education, through its role in empowering domestic constituencies, building institutions, and
nurturing favorable regulatory frameworks and governance structures, is vital to a country’s efforts to
increase social capital and to promote social cohesion, which is proving to be an important determinant
of economic growth and development.
2. Effects on Quality of Life
As we know that higher education improves an individual's quality of life. Studies show that, compared to
high school graduates, college graduates have longer life spans, better access to health care, better
dietary and health practices, greater economic stability and security, more prestigious employment and
greater job satisfaction, less dependency on government assistance, greater knowledge of government,
greater community service and leadership, more volunteer work, more self-confidence, and less criminal
activity and incarceration. In addition, college graduates supposedly have greater use of seatbelts, more
continuing education, greater Internet access, greater attendance at live performances, greater
participation in leisure and artistic activities, more book purchases, and higher voting rates. Higher
education, theoretically, also enable individuals to expand their knowledge and skills, express their
thoughts clearly in speech and in writing, grasp abstract concepts and theories, and increase their
understanding of the world and their community.
Q.3) Is higher education in Pakistan playing its role effectively? How or why not?
Role of Universities in Socio-Economic Development in Pakistan
You all must be aware of the fact that is generally observed that education is the most powerful weapon
in lessening poverty, uplifting economic growth, producing skilled human resource, creating a healthy
and enlightened social environment and creating self-sufficient nations. Education and poverty are
paradoxically related to each other: if the former is increased, the later decreases.
In a socially, economically, religiously and culturally diverse state like Pakistan, higher education
institutions and universities, imparting education and conducting cutting-edge research are the central
mechanisms that can raise the declining social and economic infrastructure of the country. Since the
2000s, there has been rapid growth in these institutions and universities across Pakistan, as is evident
from the sharp rise in their numbers from just 32 in 2001 to 174 in 2021.
Pakistan, despite this rapid growth in the education sector during the past decade, suffers from severe
challenges in its educational development. These challenges include lack of access to higher education for
the majority of the country’s youth, results-oriented standards of pedagogical techniques, brain drain of
qualified human resource, and lack of adaptability to changing paradigms of academic research. Out of a
population of 230 million, only 5% have access to university level education. It is worth mentioning that,
by the end of 2022, Pakistan needs 36 million new jobs if the economy is to grow by 6% annually.
Therefore, it is the premier duty of all national universities to produce graduates who fulfill the criteria of
the national, social and economic needs of the country. In this regard, the role of career counseling and
placement offices at the university level becomes very important.
In the 21st century, the paradigm of universities has shifted from traditional aspects of teaching and
learning towards building communities, economies and patterns of leadership. Education, either basic or
higher, plays a key role in the development of human capital that consequently brings about the
establishment of sound economies and harmonious communities. There is an immediate need to initiate
radical educational reforms so that these challenges can be addressed proactively. The following is an
exercise in this regard.
1. To begin with, the ministry of education, ministry of finance, planning commission, standing
committees on basic and technical education, and the higher education commission of Pakistan should
assist universities, both public and private, in establishing on-campus university-community partnership
centers.
These centers should work on the pattern of think tanks and should devise mechanisms to address
dominant social problems, prepare modules and schemes for the outreach of educational facilities, and
bridge linkages with communities for the sharing of knowledge.
2. Secondly, Pakistan is a traditional society with different demographical characteristics. More than 30%
of the population lives below the poverty line, and more than 600,000 young graduates are met with
unemployment every year. Higher learning institutions and universities should therefore develop terms
of reference (ToRs) to provide financial assistance to talented individuals who otherwise could not afford
higher education.
3. Thirdly, to streamline and ensure effective utilization of public funds allocated for the development of
higher education in Pakistan by the concerned commissions and universities, the relevant ministries and
planning commissions should primarily focus on building grass-root level education in primary schools.
4. Fourthly, universities should focus on creating an entrepreneurial culture among their graduates.
Their aim should be to produce job creators, rather than job seekers. This can be attained through the
establishment of effective business incubation centers, encouraging partnerships between industry and
academia and placing career counseling offices that should work on intellectual and professional
development of the graduates during the course of their studies in order to prepare them today for the
challenges of tomorrow.
5. Fifthly, education needs to be seen as an investment for the future. The government should prioritize
spending on education and research that later on will address the social, political, environmental and
economic problems of Pakistan. Universities can play a vital role in this regard through fostering
reciprocal partnerships with other educational organizations and community development centers to
identify real life challenges. Ideally, community development participation should be made mandatory for
teachers and students at the university level. Moreover, since Pakistan has always been a victim of

natural calamities such as floods and earthquakes, incorporating various emergency training programs
and courses related to disaster management in the curriculum would be highly beneficial.
6. Last but not least, the role of university managers and leaders is crucial in steering our universities in
the right direction. The Higher Education Commission of Pakistan (HECP) can, for example, initiates
university leadership and administration programs for capacity building of university administrators in
collaboration with top ranking educational schools around the world.
The development of societies and economies is interlinked with the growth of education. It is the order of
the day that the quality of education at every stage should be improved to help lay a solid foundation for
the advancement of studies in basic sciences, engineering disciplines, agriculture extension, medical and
other important areas that are needed for the economic growth and reconstruction of Pakistan. Without
quality education that critically prepares a young mind to face and provide solutions to varied types of
problems, Pakistan or any other developing state will only suffer socioeconomically, politically and
strategically.
Q.4) Compare different modes applicable to the universities.
Modes of the University
As universities have been pressured and encouraged to explore new avenues for additional income and
to view students as more consumer-like in their choice of a course and university. A heightened
competition for prospective students has required institutions to adopt more flexible modes of delivering
education to meet student demands.
The modes of university education are as listed below:
1. Face-to face
2. Distance
3. Online
Open access and distance learning have become a critical long term strategy of many universities to
encourage higher education participation. Online learning also increases the accessibility of education
due to its capacity to overcome the spatial and temporal limitations of traditional teaching settings.
Pedagogically, blended models of learning combining face-to face and online experiences (e.g., lectures
and tutorials supported by podcasts, online discussion, materials, and activities) can lead to teaching
methods and resources that support both on campus and distance delivery.
Managing the integration of online and face-to-face delivery and understanding student’s motivations
and experiences of learning online will be increasingly important as online delivery continues to evolve
and expand into open access, on-campus and distance modes of study. It is in the interests of institutions
offering different educational pathways through two or more modes of study to understand the reasons
why students choose particular study modes at the outset and at different points throughout their
degree.
Factors Influencing the Selection of Mode
It is observed that the decision-making processes of students at the entry point to higher education have
been the focus of several research projects. Studies conducted since the early 1990s have examined
intrinsic motivations such as interest in an area of knowledge and related career opportunities as well as
the more general reasons for attending a particular university: for example, reputation, campus
environment, academic programs and services. The study mode remains the most important attribute
informing school-leavers' initial choice of enrolment (with a slight preference for face-to-face teaching),
followed by tuition fees and to a slightly lesser degree university reputation.
The personal and social factors influence student preferences. The rural and remote locations as well as
low socio-economic background impact on students’ choice when considering a higher education
pathway. These pathways have expanded and become increasingly flexible, with the availability of web-
based systems in the tertiary sector allowing for the delivery of education material that supports multiple
modes of enrolment meeting the needs of an increasingly diverse student population. They provide
students with the flexibility to choose between studying on-campus and/or at distance to suit their family
and lifestyle priorities and learning preferences.
Blended learning environments, a combination of face-to-face and online experiences, have blurred the
distinction between delivery modes as both on and off campus students can access the same unit
information and have similar learning experiences.
There are a range of characteristics that have traditionally been associated with students studying in
different modes. The majority of students enrolled in distance education programs is usually adult
learners who are enrolled in arts and social science courses, and many are in full-time employment.
Typically gender enrolment trends reflect a significantly higher proportion of women than men choosing
online courses as an educational pathway to obtain a degree. The impact of full-time employment and
family commitments on full-time students’ success during their first year at university is also an
important factor in selection of mode. There is need to develop a validated measure for differences in the
motivation to enroll in a specific enrolment mode. Further to this, where universities provide the
flexibility for students to move between enrolment modes as they progress through their degree this
raises the question of whether students maintain the same mode throughout their degree and if there is
movement between modes, what are the factors influencing their decision.
So the factors that influence the selection of mode can be:
 Employment
 Gender differences
 Flexibility of choice
 Time constraints
 Personal context
Q5.) Which mode of university do you think is appropriate mode for Pakistan and why?
Though all modes have their own importance and limitations, but being an ODL mode student i would
suggest that ODL is most appropriate mode for Pakistan.
It is because of the increasing congestion on the highways and platforms of education as well as
employment that the need and drive for distance learning is getting increased. This need and intense
drive for distance education is getting more intensifying. Now students are doing jobs and they are
continuing their job and professional sides as well. It is in the last couple number of years that the trend
and drive of distance education has gone so much higher. This kind of education is based on these IT-
enabled long distance courses and also on visual classroom discussion modes. You can attend the lectures
at any time and at any time you want to!
This distance learning mode is giving you an opportunity to diversify your learning profile on a higher
note. But any student should not take this distance learning for granted. You have to maintain regularity
and also discipline the momentum of your studies at the same time!
If one will say the name of Allama Iqbal Open University then all of us should have clearly understood the
scope of distance education in Pakistan. In Pakistan, this one well established university is working on
giving and delivering distance learning to the students of Pakistan. In this learning mode, you obtain and
get knowledge without attending any kind of classroom lectures. This mode does not require any
attendance from your side.

Moreover, in this distance learning mode, there is no need to study at some fixed location. Even if you are
traveling or if you are at your home, if you are outside or doing a job, then this distance learning mode is
specifically for such students and target market. It is an education opportunity which is made for the
target market who wants to do their job as well. You can avail this education opportunity at any place, at
any time. No matter you are of what age and gender, no matter you are residing in any geographical zone
of Pakistan, you can get enrolled in this AIOU university and you can be the part of distance learning
mode.
From bachelor program studies to PHD level studies, you can enroll in AIOU. No doubt that this AIOU has
transformed many people lives because these individuals are now able to continue to their studies and
work side by side. In Pakistan, such platforms should be expanded and diversified more and more so that
each single individual can grab this distance learning opportunity.
Importance of Open Learning Mode
Being a student of open Learning mode, we must also be aware of its importance. Open learning is a term
that includes a number of alternative educational systems. It is variously known as:
 Distance Learning (This is often replaced by open learning)
 Correspondence Study (used specially in Australia)
 Home or Independent Study (An American Term)
 Non-Traditional Studies (Outreach Programs, Off-Campus)
All these titles refer to the particular method of teaching. Each system, however, operates according to
the context within which it exists; there are features common to all of them.
There has been considerable debate among distance educators regarding a precise definition of open
learning. Some key elements identified in the all above listed terms are the same and listed as ahead:
1. Separation of Teacher and Student
This is fundamental to all forms of open learning, regardless of the medium of instruction used- print,
telephone, broadcast, computer or internet. This distinguishes it from traditional education which is
based on face to face lecturing and interaction in a central location. Distance learning overcomes
geographical distances to reach students who could otherwise be deprived of education. This, however, is
not enough to distinguish open learning from basically individual study which can be taken by the learner
outside formal structures.
2. Selection and Preparation of Learning Material
This is the key factor that further specifies an element in open learning, which more structured than
merely watching the occasional educational broadcast or reading interesting books as in individual or
private study. The institution-student relationship differentiated distance learning from traditional
learning where the student’s main educational relationship is with tutors. In open learning, the student
uses materials and works within the framework designed by the institution.
Moreover, the personal tutor who has the responsibility for the student’s progress may not even have
been involved in the design of the course materials.
3. Participation in an Industrialized Form of Education
This refers to the use of the division of labour throughout the process of course design. As stated above,
the tutor may not have contributed to the design of that material for the course.
Distance education is based on the division of labour: in the mass production of educational materials; in
the centralization of resources; in the organizational principles upon which systems of distance learning
are based; in the increasing use of technology in course design; in automation of the feedback process;
and in the specialist teams employed to design particular parts of the course.
There are educators and academics who write the material; instructional designers who develop effective
packages through which the materials can be disseminated: tutors who are responsible for students’
progress; technicians in all areas to develop the system of transmission; and an array of organizers,
administrators and support staff who keep the institution operational.
Whereas this is vastly different from the one to one relationship of teacher student in traditional learning,
it should not be taken to imply that the distance learner is lost in a mass of industrialized education.
4. Two-Way Communication
The use of communication technology which provides a two-way link between learner and teacher is
another key element in distance education. Whatever medium is employed – telephone, correspondence,
satellite – there is always a possibility of communication. This is vital for the student not to feel isolated
and experience a resulting lack of motivation. Isolation is major problem for the distance learner, and the
quality of interaction is important. An effective two way channel of communication is also important in
terms of the time taken to receive, assess and return the student’s work.
5. Use of Technical Media
Another area which is significant in open learning and which has received a great deal of attention in the
recent years is the variety of media utilized in teaching courses. The use of educational technology marks
a shift away from traditional education, where technology may only be an additional part of the face to
face learning process. In open learning, the nature of the whole course may be defined by the media used;
it is not additional to, but the basis of many courses. Computers, Internet, satellite communications,
telephone contact and online broadcasting have an effect on the nature of educational process itself. In a
traditional university, ICT is used to teach computer courses only. In open learning system, they can be
effectively used to teach the whole range of courses form sciences to humanities. They can even be used
to improve the marking system and provide a two way contact between student and teacher.
6. Teaching Students as Individuals
The main characteristic of open learning is the separation of teacher and a learner. This means that the
students are taught as individuals but at a distance, not in face to face situation. However, the coming
together of students and teachers is by no means an unknown phenomenon. The Open University of UK
has a series of summer schools. Many open learning institutions bring students together for particular
didactic and socialization purposes. The purpose of video conferencing is to link students using satellite
networks means the possibility of group work at a distance is slowly becoming a reality.
Thus the open learning system, despite individual differences does have common theme throughout the
relationship of the student to the institution, the nature of the institution itself, the process of the course
production and the use of technical media in teaching are the particular features of distance learning.
As the main focus of open learning is student, it is appropriate to look at the nature of the student group.
The concept of ‘openness’ in distance learning is concept related to the student’s flexibility within the
course and opportunities for enrolment. It is seen that adults seeking higher education do so for three
main reasons:
1. Personal development
2. Professional and vocational training and specialization
3. Acquisition of specific academic qualification
All the students will not choose to study by distance methods, but those who do so because of variety of
different factors related to:
 Openness,
 Access, and
 Availability

Many distance learners come to higher education with serious apprehensions about their ability to cope
with the degree level course, or indeed, with any academic work at all. On the whole, they will be mature
in age and gainfully employed as opposed to students at conventional universities which tend to be 18-21
years old and study full time. Although there are differences within individual countries, the majority of
students are working, and there are more tasks for this purpose, continuous assessment by the
institution, and final oral examination s in most disciplines. A thesis is also required for research degrees.
To sum up, we can say that open learning teaching is a network of coordinated educational bodies where
teaching materials are industrialized and regular or face to face teaching methods are included
occasionally.
Q.6) - Critically examine the role of Higher Education Commission in the development and growth
of higher education in Pakistan.
Higher Education plays a key role in a developing country’s journey of development by producing skilled
human resources. Due to this importance, the Higher Education Commission (HEC) of Pakistan was
established in 2002 because it was felt that the University Grants Commission (UGC) was not able to
transform Higher Education to meet the challenges of the 21st century. The main role of HEC was to
reform the Higher Education of Pakistan so that it can meet the economic demands of the country. Since
then many reforms have been introduced by the HEC.
Achievements of Higher Education Commission
The establishment of HEC yielded a substantial effect on the higher education in Pakistan. For instance:
a. Each and every student of the public sector universities has been given access to e-textbooks and
research articles from international research journals.
b. Enrolment to the universities has been quadrupled over a span of five.
c. Promotion of research culture has resulted into the enhanced number of research publication
giving birth to new knowledge and courage to others to write and contribute to the world of
knowledge.
d. Even a long span could not get any Pakistani university some place among the high ranked
universities of the world. Five Pakistani universities including National University of Science and
Technology could get a standing position among the top 300 universities of the world.
e. To bring in quality into teacher education programs, UNESCO has supported a project in the pre-
step for the initiation of B.Ed. elementary honors which would have international recognition. f)
As an innovative step, HEC has financed around 5000 PhD scholars for their study in advanced
countries. In this context, it is noteworthy that the Fulbright Scholarship, a prestigious
scholarship of the world, is being exploited for the Pakistani scholars through the joint funding of
HEC/USAID.
f. HEC has given affiliation to around fifty universities for offering new novel market oriented
programs.
Following are some of the prominent problems of Pakistani higher education that the HEC has to look
into as a federal regulatory commission, in coordination and collaboration with the respective
universities:
LESS QUALIFIED TEACHERS AND LACK OF PROFESSIONAL TRAINING
The teacher being a role model and a source of inspiration has to be a properly qualified, well-versed
mentor in the learning-teaching process. Unfortunately, in Pakistan, at the primary, secondary and higher
secondary levels, the profession of teaching is adopted by people who do not qualify for any other
occupation. That is why the onerous responsibility is hardly shouldered competently by them.
Consequently, their teaching, training and nurturing good Pakistanis, virtually becomes difficult. In order
to improve the standard of Pakistani education, free and fair, judgmental, and merit-based transparent
criteria have to be evolved, so that only professionally competent graduates can join the teaching
profession.
Secondly, qualified teachers should be given competitive salaries and incentives on the basis of their
performance and results. Thirdly, in-service training, refresher courses and professionalism should also
become integral to the teaching and research career. Teachers’ training is necessary not just for school
teachers, but also for college and university teachers. These essential steps for appointment, induction
and training, can help to maximize the quality of teachers and their competence at different levels in the
Pakistani system of education. Above all, an Education Service is essential at the provincial and federal
levels, at part with counterpart Civil Services.
INSUFFICIENT FUNDS AND MISUSE OF BUDGETARY ALLOCATION
The Government of Pakistan has been allocating less than 04% of the Gross Domestic Product to
education, which is even below the ratio recommended by the UNESCO for education and literacy. Even
the said low budgetary allocation is not released to and spent on education, properly. As a result, the
objectives of the induction of qualified teachers, establishment of new educational institutions, providing
them the necessary infrastructure, teachers training and producing quality graduates, are defeated. In
Pakistan, social sector development in education, health and basic needs has been neglected in the annual
financial budget, because of which it could not progress over the years. In contrast, the place of the state
system of education has been taken by private educational institutions, which are commercial to the core.
Many are overcrowded, in spite of charging heavy fees. Quality is compromised over quantity, leading to
the mushrooming of educational foundations and institutions.
A regulatory authority comprising experts from the establishment, finance, law and education should
monitor the budget allocated for education, and its transparent utilization. The private system of
education at all levels, primary, secondary and tertiary, must be monitored and regulated, for
indigenization and Pakistanisation.
NEGATIVE POLITICAL INFLUENCES AND VIOLATION OF MERIT
Pakistan is a developing South Asian country where the democratic culture could not develop properly,
because of the Triple P Syndrome: personalism, partisanism and parochialism. Its antidote is the 4th P:
Pakistani Patriotism and Nationalism. Educational institutions were politicized, partisanly, particularly
in graduate and post-graduate institutions. This led to the perversion of the education system, to its very
roots. The intake of students, appointment of teachers and administrative staff has been politicized.
Educational institutions have been converted into political hubs and breeding grounds for narrow,
subnational vested interest politicization. Boycott from classes and examinations, rabble rousing
rhetoric, snide slogans against educational authorities, and student banal brawls over petty issues have
become the way of students' federations. Dr. Ikram Azam opines that Mediocrity Marginalizes Merit, as a
consequence.
CURRICULUM DESIGNING
Curriculum designing is a sensitive and most important task in educational planning, policy and practice.
Curricula vary for different streams of education in Pakistan. The traditional mainstream is mainly based
on rote learning and cramming. Students with a tenacious memory can easily clear the examinations, but
those with a reflective learning capacity and creative capability can find the situation very difficult.
Curricula are a diverse and divisive mix and rarely cater to the national educational and economic needs.
They simply serve the several subversive streams and systems already discussed, mainly elitist, and
“awami” or for the poor people. At times, the courses are borrowed and imported, and are not
contextualized in the Pakistani environment. Neither do they focus the Eastern Values System nor Islam
as a religion of humanity and human nature. The elite are socio-culturally, nationally and religiously
alienated and secularly, materialistically alienating, being Western and Westernizing. Educational
institutions do not offer holistic integrative education: intellectual, secular- spiritual, physical, emotional
and moral-material. A student's comprehension is not examined judgmentally, synthetically and
analytically. Rather, it is evaluated on the basis of memory. Also, the curricula keep on changing

randomly-rapidly, as new ones are suddenly introduced without warning, while students are only
halfway through the current courses. The pros and cons of such changes and amendments are not
assessed qualitatively by a panel of experts in the relevant field. This causes difficulties for both the
teachers, and the parents of students, who cannot afford to buy new books with whimsical changes in the
curricula. This is worse from the viewpoint of examinations.
EXAMINATION AND EVALUATION SYSTEM
An examination system is the output and outcome of academic learning and teaching. In Pakistan,
examination is either subjective or objective, or a combination of both types, covering a major
portion of the taught syllabi. Only those students can pass with good grades who have memorized
whatever is taught. Others are likely to lag behind, even though they had reflected over the class room
activities of textual analysis and other learning sessions. In examination, emphasis is laid on summative
assessment, rather than on formative assessment. Cheating or copying is another pitfall of the
examination system that does not allow talent to grow. The supervisory staff at exams is either bribed,
harassed or approached by the cheaters for their dishonest interest. In addition, security should also be
provided to the supervisory staff for the smooth conduct of examinations. Hardworking students are
demotivated and discouraged by the situation. A selective open book examination system, where
applicable, needs to be considered. Likewise, papers set should evaluate the students' creativity,
originality, comprehension and proper understand of the subject and basic language skills as well as
creative thinking.
DISCIPLINARY CODE OF CONDUCT
The need of producing quality graduates is the hallmark of a sound education system. In Pakistani
educational institutions, the disciplinary code of conduct is not observed properly. Students and teachers,
alike, are engaged in lobbying for serving their own petty interests. The absence of reward and
punishment cause moral malaise and intellectual vacuum. An active disciplinary committee should be
fully functional, to ensure the rule of law in the educational system, promptly and positively. In fact,
Moral Values Education is essential to inculcate self-discipline, integrity, honesty and truthfulness. So is
Integrated Family Studies, focusing Moral and Family Values.
Above all, both self-discipline and moral motivation, need to be internalized by the student as well as
the teacher.
MEDIUM OF EDUCATIONAL INSTRUCTION
The issue of the medium of instruction in educational institutions has remained a heated controversy
since independence in 1947. Two main schools of thought have opposed each other: the advocates of
Urdu, and those of English. To rationalize the situation, educational planners need to consider both, while
making the policy for all educational levels. Urdu being a Pakistani link language and English, an
international instrumental language (of education, economics, policy formulation, science and
technology, trade, commerce, media and diplomacy) have to play their respective requisite roles in
Pakistani education. Language Code, Behaviour Code and Dress Code are the focal points of National
Identity (Azam, I. & Azam, Z., 2008). Hence it is advisable that both Urdu and English be made part of
the national curricula—ranging from primary to higher levels, with the inclusion of other related
Pakistani ('regional') languages at the primary and secondary levels for better results, locally and
nationally. For this purpose, skilled teachers in English and Urdu languages need to be employed.
Additional language classes focusing the Basic Language Skills are recommended. CALL (Computer
Assisted Language Learning) may also be considered. The application of this method would also
contribute to the unification of the media of instruction in Pakistani educational institutions, with the aim
to promote national integration and social cohesion. According to Education Psychology, Basic / Primary
Education is the most successful in the mother-father tongue.
COMPLACENT PARENTS
Unluckily, many, if not most, Pakistani parents leave their wards' education to teachers, alone, seldom
realizing that they are equally responsible for rearing their children. They should assist teachers in
proper training, nurturing and grooming their children, instead of approaching the teachers to seek good
grades and promotion in academics. Parents ought to liaise with teachers to discover the weaknesses of
their children, and must help them in improvement in the desired fields. Parent-Teacher Associations
tend to be decorative or cosmetic. They must be made actively functional.
LACK OF EDUCATIONAL MOTIVATION, COUNSELLING AND GUIDANCE
This is one of the key problems in the Pakistani education system. No matter how qualified the teachers
are professionally, their training in educational counseling and guidance is needed as an important input.
Apart from their aptitude in teaching and learning, the teachers ought to be well-trained in Educational
Psychology for expertise, experience and guidance.
CONCLUSION
Education is the secure base for a country's socio-economic development and peaceful progress. It is
universally considered to be an important tool of transformational change which has a strong correlation
with the overall social and economic development of a country. It can help to improve the academic
quality and research work of students, scholars and researchers. The Pakistan government initiated
various sound and sensible education policies since 1947, investing funds in them. But because of the lack
of proper implementation and funding action, no fruitful results have been achieved. Little attention has
been paid to the teachers' qualification and training, physical infrastructure of educational institutions,
and proper campus culture, administrative governance, disciplinary code of conduct, maintaining merit
and banning political activities and influences. Because of the current faulty education policy in action,
the creative talent of Pakistani students and scholars is wasted woefully. Consequently, brain drain for
better opportunities and greener pastures abroad, becomes tempting. Education policy has to be
prioritized by the national policy, planning and practice, keeping in view the National Ideology and
Interest. In a nutshell, educational challenges are enormous in Pakistan. The policy makers and
influencers are expected to provide pragmatic solutions to improve the quality of education, at par with
regional and international standards.
Q.7) - Critically discuss different functions of universities.
Universities worldwide are being called on to fulfill more and more roles, often with fewer resources. As
a result, academic missions may become dispersed and the quality of the work may decrease. In this era,
the function of universities as institutions devoted essentially to teaching and research may be weakened
by the struggle to be entrepreneurial and market-relevant. The academic drift of the 21st century raises
concerns about the core functions of universities and how contemporary changes have affected academic
missions.
THE CORE MISSIONS
Academic institutions have often been in conflict with their societies over missions and roles, and
sometimes over ideology and politics. This tension has contributed to the creativity of universities over
time, but has at times placed overwhelming burdens on them. In the contemporary period, the teaching
mission of the university is a central responsibility. The goal is to educate people to work effectively in an
increasingly technological world – that is, to provide the technical skills needed for a growing number of
jobs and professions that require sophisticated knowledge and an education that instills the ability to
think critically. In many countries, general education is also considered a key university goal. Teaching
has been the core role since the beginning. However, this function has become more complex and
variegated, ranging from general education for undergraduates to advanced doctoral instruction and
supervision in the most specialized fields. Research is the other core function of universities.

CENTRAL ACADEMIC ROLES
It has come to be the central value of top-tier universities in all countries, and academic rewards and
institutional prestige for individual faculty members are bestowed largely on the basis of research
productivity. Research is defined in different ways by various disciplines and can take many forms. Pure
research – the discovery of new knowledge – is generally considered the gold standard in terms of
recognition and prestige. Nobel prizes are won for pure research. Applied research – increasingly
emphasized as universities seek to generate income from research output – applies scientific discoveries
to problems, commercial products or related practical goals. Research in the humanities may deal with
interpreting texts or gaining insights on literature. Historical research may work from original data or
may reanalyze existing research. Research in many scientific fields requires significant funding for
laboratories and equipment. In other disciplines, research may need only basic library or internet
resources. Research can thus take many forms and have different purposes. The focus on discovery,
interpretation and originality links the vast array of research themes, methodologies and orientations.
THE PRESERVATION AND DISSEMINATION OF KNOWLEDGE
Even in the age of the internet, universities are repositories and organizers of knowledge. Academic
libraries have traditionally been centers for preserving and organizing the cultural and intellectual
heritage of a society. Libraries not only collect books and journals (the essential elements of knowledge),
they also organize scholarly and scientific material of all kinds for effective use and preserve it for future
generations. Even in the age of digital storage, libraries remain essential parts of universities and of the
organization and preservation of knowledge. Universities help to organize knowledge, without cost to
either the academic community or the general public. Thus, universities constitute an alternative to the
growing commercialization of knowledge by for-profit service providers.
Universities preserve other cultural and scientific artifacts, ranging from works of art to collections of
insects. Universities often sponsor museums and provide access to a wide audience. These museums are
repositories that are often linked to the institution’s academic programmes. In many countries with
limited resources and little expertise in preserving cultural and historical treasures, universities are the
only institutions capable of collecting, cataloguing and preserving such items.
UNIVERSITIES AS INTELLECTUAL CENTRES
Universities almost everywhere have become key creative institutions. Many professors, in addition to
their teaching and research, involve themselves in the intellectual life of society as commentators, experts
or analysts. Some are public intellectuals. The work of many academics can be seen on the opinion pages
of major newspapers or on serious television talk shows. Academic life provides time, intellectual
stimulation, debate and, in most countries, the protection of academic freedom, which encourages
participation in societal debate and analysis.
Students also participate in intellectual, social and political life beyond the campus. Student activist
movements frequently stimulate political conflict and sometimes reform or even revolution – for
example, in the European nationalist movements of the 19th century, the independence struggles in
developing countries, and the activist movements of the 1960s and 1970s worldwide. Universities
provide an atmosphere of ideas, freedom and debate that stimulates student activism and social
involvement.
UNIVERSITIES AS INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
Academic institutions operate in a global environment and bring science and scholarship from around
the world to a local community. Universities are the central links with the international scientific
community. They have the necessary intellectual and scientific infrastructure, through information and
communication technologies (ICTs) and informal networks. Professors are involved with international
research in their disciplines and fields.
ACCESS AND EQUITY
Universities provide the education needed for most skilled occupations and professions in society. For
almost a century, universities have also been seen as instruments for social mobility – a way for
individuals to obtain the skills they need to improve their incomes and status. Massification has, of
course, brought access to a wider section of the population. Many countries and academic institutions
have also developed strategies to enhance access for underserved populations – racial, religious and
ethnic minorities, women and low-income groups. Scholarship, bursary and loan programmes, as well as
a variety of affirmative-action efforts, have been put into place. Access to higher education is recognized
as an important societal goal. Almost everywhere, even in countries where a large proportion of the
relevant age cohort has access to postsecondary education, problems of equity remain. Typically, higher
status socioeconomic groups have greater access than others. In developing countries, the goals of both
access and equity remain to be achieved.
ENGINES OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
From their origins, universities have stimulated local economies. Any university generates economic
benefits for its community through local purchases, property investment and expenditures by students
and faculty.
Universities serve many purposes in contemporary society and they deserve support, not only for their
direct economic role. Societies that ignore the manifold purposes and roles of universities will be much
weaker. Universities are engines of the knowledge economy, but they serve the humanistic and cultural
goals of society and of individuals.
Q.8)- Explain the concept of economics of higher education. What are different ways of financing
higher education in Pakistan?
Higher Education System requires considerable investment both at individual and societal level. As a
result economics of higher education is always a phenomenon attracting debates and deliberations.
Investment in the University/Higher Education
This is very common understanding that an investment in the university is the investment in the future.
Scope of any university degree is always considered because it actually tells the ratio of investment of any
university subject in future.
So, whenever a person is interested in university education, parents/financers think ahead that how
much profitable it will be and what will they get in return after completion of university degree. Another
thoughtful question is that: Should you invest in equities, bonds or property – or a college/university
education?
Comparing a university degree with an investment in stocks and bonds leaves out great unquantifiable
benefits of higher education, but the return on such an expensive outlay is a vital consideration for
parents, children and society at large, even if it is often felt instinctively rather than spelt out or
calculated.
A college degree may well pay off handsomely for the average student, but no one is average. An
engineering student at an Ivy League school is a different proposition to an art major from a lesser-
known college, and even taking one extra year to finish one’s degree can wreck the return on investment.

Human capital can be seen as a nation’s most critical capacity. An educated populace has the skills to
develop and sustain meaningful change. Yet the present reality for many students in developing countries
is that education, especially higher education, is out of reach due to financial barriers. In Africa, only 5
percent of young people attend university. While scholarships and financial aid support a handful of
students, they are not sufficient to meet the level of need. Furthermore, students are typically ineligible
for traditional bank loans, since banks evaluate students based on collateral and credit ratings.
Economic rationality demands expansion of the vocational and job-oriented system both at the school
level and at the post school level, instead of graduate level general education. The policy of reducing
public subsidy in higher education itself may not solve the problem of a lower rate of enrolment in higher
education, an increasing number of educated unemployed, stagnation and dropout as well as wastage in
higher education. It seems that instead of reduction of public expenditure in higher education, the
government policy requires reorganization of the educational structure in a way so as to create more
scope for technical education in place of expanding simple bachelor level general education. There
appears to have been a lack of consistency between the pattern of education that is available and the
pattern of education that is demanded by the process of economic development. While the system can be
made more efficient by cost reducing adjustment, remolding the pattern of education and redistributing
student enrolment away from higher cost fields where the number of educated is already more than
sufficient to meet any likely demand, can also do this. This would not restrict the scope of higher
education either for men or women if it is accompanied by creation of new streams of education, in those
fields where supply of educated personnel is less than demanded by society. For example, after men and
women acquire a certain level of school education, they can be provided with the scope for education in
primary medicine and primary healthcare, primary nursing, elementary training in handicrafts including
agricultural practices and different other fields. Such education can create greater scope for self-
employment and at the same time would create scope for supply of some services like primary health and
basic education, which are so scarce and in demand in our society.
Financing of Higher Education in Pakistan
The central universities of the country are mainly the responsibility of central government and under
various schemes and agencies; it provides the required amount of funding to those universities. But,
there has always been a complaint from the end of the government agencies that insufficient amount of
funding in higher educational sphere is restricting the qualitative and quantitative growth of this
particular stage of education. But, it is also evident that the rate of private investments in higher
education sector is increasing day by day.
The Sources of Finance in Higher Education
Governmental bodies:
In Pakistan, education is included in the concurrent list i.e. education is considered as the joint
responsibility of both center and the state. The government funds are created and distributed through its
various agencies like HEC etc.
The central government of India has been framing several policies and schemes and the state government
is required to implement those in every now and then.
Apart from that both the central and state government jointly frame enormous schemes to uplift the
financial provisions of the students in the form of scholarships, fellowships etc.
Local bodies:
In managing education, local bodies also furnish as an important means of financial help whenever
necessary. Different local bodies are working for the fulfillment of educational goals in the higher
educational institutions at the grass root level.
Private funds:
Private funds denotes the funds which are allocated through the donations, subscriptions, gifts, bequests,
fines, sale proceeds, interest on bank balances, rent from buildings etc. Private funds for the higher
educational institutions also include those institutions which are run by the private bodies and thus
funds are generated through their own income accumulated from various sources.
Grant-in-aid:
Grants are provided by the government or through its various agencies to the higher educational
institutions. The financial help or contribution in the form of money or material goods by a bigger
government to a smaller unit of it is called a grant. These grants may be provided with a periodical
payment or one time basis by focusing on a specific area under the heads like classified grant,
compensatory grant, multiple grants, the negotiable and hoc grant etc.
Fees:
The fees are collected from the students in return of the tuition or other services provided to them in the
educational institution. Fees generally includes admission fees, tuition fees, library fees, examination fees,
fees collected for co-curricular activities, laboratory fees, electricity fees etc.
Endowment and land grant:
Religious institutions and other organizations or NGO‟s keep aside some part of their collected money or
income for the purpose of spending in education and these organizations donate this amount of money
for the welfare of educational institutions and hence the endowed colleges or educational institutions get
benefitted from such endowments. Endowment funds, gifts, donations and other such type of voluntary
contributions from individuals or firms, factories, temples, churches etc. are included in the income from
endowments for the educational institutions.
Other Sources of income:
The higher educational institutions also generate income from donations, gifts, subscriptions, fines,
money from rents, loans, debts. etc. and all these are included in the other sources of income.
Income from Alumni Fundraising:
Income from the alumni can be of another possible alternative source of income for the universities.
Income obtained from alumni fundraising, earmarked for long-term general support or to be spent in the
here-and-now, is a first class source. Hence, the university can establish a good contact with the alumni
for raising some funds. Thus, from all the above mentioned sources the higher educational institutions
are generating income for the fulfillment of its different purposes.

Q.9) - Explain with specific example the relationship of higher education with employment
situation in the developing countries?
Higher education plays a vital role in the economic development of any country. It helps to develop
human capital, which leads to enhance the total productivity level of any economy. Higher education
provides critical thinkers, researchers, scholars, innovators, responsible citizens and entrepreneurs to
societies. These intellectuals provide new improved and efficient ways of production to obtain the
competitive advantage against other economies. They create new business in the country to formulate
more employment opportunities. Thus, the economy produces more effectively and efficiently to attain
the economic growth.
Higher education also offers the opportunity to maintain the high level of living standard and societal
mobility. These effects of human development push nations too to start investing in higher education
through which the worldwide student population and the number of institutions have risen dramatically.
Bornstein and Davis (2010) stated that the number of universities is doubled in the world and the
number of students is increased by more than 300 per cent worldwide from the period of 1970 to the
starting of twenty-first century. The number of enrollment and alumni in higher education is increased by
500 per cent from 2007 to 2009. The total number of global graduates is about 22 and 132 million,
respectively, in the year of 2007 and 2009.
But in order to attain optimum benefit from the created skilled human capital, they must be employed.
Unfortunately, it is very difficult for all alumni or graduates to acquire employment because due to the
worse situation of the labor market in many developing countries and that markets are incompetent to
accommodate the huge number of skillful labor force they are produced. Due to this, each graduate is
becoming a potential member of unemployment and also increasing the unemployment rates.
Government can use higher education as an instrument for resolving labour market complications. The
focal idea behind is that, if the unemployment rate is too much high in the labour market in an economy,
then it can be reduced by dragging idle skillful labour power return into the higher education system. But,
higher education does not always help to reduce unemployment, and sometimes it does not support to
higher accumulated total employment. It is also observed that additional qualified people have found
some complications in getting a job. Kettunen (1997) identified that the likelihood of again employment
can be enhanced via a lowest level of additions in education, whereas at the highest level the relationship
between education and reemployment turns negative. So, this sort of political implications which are
used for populist purpose may increase the unemployment rates. Accordingly, the necessity of higher
education is more important for developing or third world country (human development) like Pakistan
for their rapid progress.
Youth with post-secondary education living in middle and low-income countries have a much higher
chance of finding a decent job than those with only secondary or primary education, says a new ILO
publication "Is education the solution to decent work for youth in developing economies?“.
Building on the results of school-to-work transition surveys conducted in 28 countries worldwide in
2012-2013, the study highlights that having the highest level of education “serves as a fairly dependable
guarantee” towards securing a formal job.
On average, eight in ten (83 per cent) young people with post-secondary education were in non-
vulnerable employment in the 27 low-to-upper middle income countries examined. The “guarantee” was
slightly less prominent among low-income countries, but still 75 per cent of young workers with
university degrees managed to find a paid job.
Completing secondary education is not enough to ensure that youth in low-income countries achieve
better labour market outcomes. Only four in ten young secondary-school graduates were engaged in non-
vulnerable employment, compared to seven in ten in lower and middle-income countries.
More worrisome is that among the low-income countries in the study, one in four young people has no
education at all. In some countries, the share of uneducated young people is as high as one-half.
“Increasing the level of education of the emerging workforce in developing countries will not in itself
ensure the absorption of higher skilled workers into non-vulnerable jobs,”.
“Yet, it is clear that continuing to push forth undereducated, under-skilled youth into the labour market is
a no-win situation, both for the young person who remains destined for a ‘hand-to-mouth existence’
based on vulnerable employment, and for the economy which gains little in terms of boosting its labour
productivity potential,”.
A different kind of mismatch
The study also points out that the nature of “skills mismatch” varies a lot between advanced and low-
income economies.
In advanced economies, “mismatch” often refers to “over-education”, that is, the difficulty to absorb
higher skilled young people who then take up jobs for which they are overqualified.
On the contrary, in low-income economies, the main concern remains the “under-education” of young
workers who have no option but to take vulnerable jobs in the informal economy.
The lack of education is largely fuelled by poverty, since youth do not attend school because they cannot
afford the costs or because they need to work to help their families. The lack of education feeds the
perpetuation of poverty across generations, as unskilled workers earn lower wages and are unable to
fund the schooling of their children.
For thousands of individuals, higher education is necessary for success in the world of work. The main
objective of higher education is to transform the students through enhancing learning skills, behavior,
and lifelong empowerment as critical and logical reflective person. However controversially, higher
education does not seem to be the first objective of employability for students. Moreover, not every
individual focused that high education is a preparation of life for working world and catered to
employment circumstances. In general, with emerging trends, every institution nourishes students for
the world of work with primary goal of education. However, the environments of institutions and
working world are differing from each other and institutions do not provide any security for employment
of student.
In the last two decades, major focus was on higher education to increase national growth, regenerate
economical roots, and develop significant direction to meet new challenges of the world (Harvey, 2000).
The relationship between higher education and employment has been given attention for policy making
issues as well as research purposes.

Countries around the world, grasped long-term economic crises and face many complex challenges. It can
be solved to some extent if they pay great amount of attention to nourish the education for the world of
work. In addition, youth of the country requires preparation for the employment to thrive with
participation in nation building. Today employment is the rising up agenda, thousands of students with
high qualification continued to be jobless with one or other reasons. Higher education is reshaping its
objectives to support learners for careers, opportunities, progressive employment, training for working
world (Pages & Stampini, 2007) and better understandings with their capacities. Higher education helps
the students to build employability skills now (Nasir & Nazli, 2000), which means that of enabling
students to get and keep a job, allow them to bring changes of working world, and similar proficiency for
development.
Higher education by developing understandings with changing trends of world of the work enables the
learners to investigate the career opportunities. With this aim, every learner has some expectation with
their high qualification to raise their achievements of life (Pages & Stampini, 2007). They plan their long
or short-term goals for future work.
Higher education makes the postgraduates well informed and responsive according to opportunities but
there are also limitations for careers of these graduates. In general, overall downsizing of job
opportunities delay the results of nations’ expectations towards postgraduates. Demanding more
graduates by the smaller group of companies put more pressure on the higher education to empower
students with the new trends and needs of labor market. Higher education is the big platform to ensure
quality and quantity of developmental governess (Hussain, 2005). It was revealed from different studies
that every additional year of higher education could be increased production in wage employment with
10% even controlling simultaneous factors. As well as skill development is the key with higher education
for export efficiency ability.
In Pakistan, cities with higher education, rate show high level of development. Students must have to deal
with the employment opportunities, particularly in Pakistan where are uncertain economic conditions
and instability between production students following post-graduation and employment.
Harmony between higher education and working world is contextual approach of developing practical
interface of education for the world of work. Pivotal in this process is relationship between learner and
learning, learner and teacher, learner and working world, work and employers, leaner to other learner,
and education with employment. Today higher education is considered to be the most important
determinant tool for working world and strongly affects with higher status and interesting working
innovations. It is growing dynamic system for occupation with various modes of trainings.
There is paradoxical situation in Pakistan regarding education for working world and employment.
Unfortunately, there are some complexities with low status of education. It is encouraging that
percentage of unemployment is decreasing slightly from 6.3 % to 6 % in skilled person category (PBS,
2015). Former regional chairmen of FPCCI Sheikh Abdul Waheed Sandal claimed confidently that no
person with skills and higher education has found unemployed in big cities. He even said that most of the
other economic sectors like, textile, engineering, services etc. are facing lack of highly qualified persons.
The world is changing day by day and the role of education especially higher education is very important
now. Every noble institute has mission to explore how to enable learner to become educated citizen that
our society needs with fulfillment of learners needs.
Collaborative interaction of education with employment implements the nature of derived goals
(Warrick, Daniels, & Scott, 2010). But in Pakistan there are also some consequences for achieving goals,
educational approaches, employment with elimination of unemployment, unfolding careers,
organizational structure and many more others (Hussain, 2005). There is need of the time to interact the
students to make them up for world of work.
It is challenging with excitement and need more researches to develop this area internally and externally.
In this context, this study was conducted to explore the elements of higher education to predict the
employment base for students. To design the solutions of the problems, which students face, related to
their career and hopes, the results of this study would fill the gap of researches working on relationship
between higher education and employment with the deeper evidence of education as predicting object of
employment in Pakistan.
Q.10) - Discuss need of assessment in higher education in Pakistan. Up to what extent you are
satisfied with the present assessment system and how it can be improved?
The Assessment
Assessment is formally defined as a measure of performance (Gagne et. al., 2005). Educational
assessment is the process of documenting, usually in measurable terms, knowledge, skills, attitudes and
beliefs. Assessment is a mechanism for providing instructors with data for improving their teaching
methods and for guiding and motivating students to be actively involved in their own learning.
As such, assessment provides important feedback to both instructors and students. Assessment gives us
essential information about what our students are learning and about the extent to which we are meeting
our teaching goals. But the true power of assessment comes in using it to give feedback to students.
Improving the quality of learning in a course involves not just determining to what extent students have
mastered course content at the end of the course; also involves determining to what extent students are
mastering content throughout the course.
Thus, in addition to providing the instructors with valuable information about our students' learning,
assessment should assist the students in diagnosing their own learning.
That is, assessment should help students become more effective, self-assessing, self-directed learners.
Assessment is the process of gathering data. More specifically, assessment is the ways instructors gather
data about their teaching and their students’ learning (Hanna & Dettmer, 2004). The data provide a
picture of a range of activities using different forms of assessment such as: pre-tests, observations, and
examinations.
There is considerable evidence showing that assessment drives student learning. More than anything
else, our assessment tools tell students what we consider to be important.
They will learn what we guide them to learn through our assessments. Traditional testing methods have
been limited measures of student learning, and equally important, of limited value for guiding student
learning. These methods are often inconsistent with the increasing emphasis being placed on the ability
of students to think analytically, to understand and communicate at both detailed and "big picture" levels,
and to acquire lifelong skills that permit continuous adaptation to workplaces that are in constant flux.

Moreover, because assessment is in many respects the glue that links the components of a course - its
content, instructional methods, and skills development - changes in the structure of a course require
coordinated changes in assessment.
Reasons for Assessing
Many different purposes underlie assessment, which in practice overlap. The purposes of assessment are:
 Selection
 Certification
 Describing
 Aiding learning
 Improving teaching
Selection
Assessment helps in selection, for example when choosing students for a further course or for
employment. Assessment in this context is used for prediction, for instance which students will be able to
benefit from further study or how the individuals might perform in employment. Selection can help the
learner make a choice about his career.
Certification
Certification indicates conforming that a student has reached a particular standard. This may be in the
form of simple “pass” or “fail” (as the driving test) or “competent” or ‘not yet competent”. Assessment in
these and similar circumstances certifies that a particular level of performance has been achieved.
Describing
Sometimes the outcome of assessment is a simple statement – a certificate, grade, mark. There is move, in
recent times, towards describing what a student has learned or can do in greater detail. This can be done
in the form of a profile.
Aiding Learning
Assessment can be used for learning, serving a very important purpose. Assessment can stimulate
learning in many different ways:
i. Prompting or otherwise motivating students
ii. Giving students practice so they can see how well they are achieving learning outcomes
iii. Following the practice with feedback to help students diagnose their strengths and areas that
need to improve
iv. Providing information that helps students plan what to do next
v. Helping students, and others concerned with their learning, to track progress
Improving teaching
Assessment information can help a teacher to review the effectiveness of all instructional arrangements.
If students regularly find the assignments difficult, it might suggest to the teacher that it is too demanding
and he needs to change the instructional methods, revise the competencies, or help the students gain
some relevant technical skills. Assessment results can also inform wider institutional decisions regarding
which units/modules should be continued to be offered and which staff to recruit.
Recommendations
 Teachers should be fair in their marking without any subjectivity.
 Proper feedback to students in continuous assessment system enhances student’s comprehension
and learning level.
 More focus should be on self-work or practical instead of theory.
 Comprehensive exam or university qualifying examination (UQE) should be redesigned or
finished.
 It is strongly recommended that studies on every assessment tool (assignment, test, project etc.)
should be conducted separately to investigate in more depth.
The assessment in higher education is very important to check the validity and completions of the course
and facilities in the institutes. In Self-Assessment Report every year or after every two years the institute
is assessed through the internal and external assessment teams.
In all higher education institution it is very important and after every term the assessment will be
conducted through the internal and external teams to check the facilities and teaching as well as
administrative facilities and knowledge transfer from the teachers to students.
As a conclusion, we would like to point out some of the underlying principles of our Assessment
procedures:
 The Quality Control is under the responsibility of the Higher Education Institutions;
 The Quality Assessment process results from a contract between political and academic
Institutions;
 This contract defines the rights and obligations of Governments and universities;
 Political Institutions legislate over the Quality Assessment process, regarding all Higher Education
Institutions and take care of their harmony and credibility promoting their development and the
Quality improvement of the university activities;
 The external evaluation is developed by experts, including foreign experts in the Visiting
Committee;
 The Quality Control depends on the existence of Quality Assessment Systems, which should
include these features: self-evaluation should be compulsory, the audition of teachers and
students should have representative levels, the analysis of the impact of the university activities
should be done, and the transparency of the process should be respected, as well as the public
announcement of the results.
The Assessment System follows the general recommendations for the higher education in order to
establish some basic principles that allow comparative analysis among different Higher Education
Institutions.
Q.11) - Critically discuss quality and access as the two problems in higher education. Suggest some
ways to address these problems.
Higher education provides opportunities to censoriously reveal the cultural, moral, socio-economic, and
spiritual issues faced by the human race. Pakistan's higher education system has many institutional
drawbacks includes a lack of quality management, institutional structure, and knowledge gaps between
cross-culture educations systems to improve the efficiency of the current higher education system in
Pakistan.

Challenges and Opportunities
Pakistan's higher education is not ranked anywhere among the world's best higher education systems in
terms of quality. Higher education quality depends on many factors, such as appropriate education and
learning environment, infrastructure, teachers, courses, information feedback, research skills, and
observation systems. Since independence, the Pakistan education system had faced many challenges. The
central governments of Pakistan's political parties were working hard to formulate new and effective
education policies.
These policies were not enough to meet the standards of education a country needs. However, people are
still facing many problems in Pakistan's higher education system. Pakistan's higher education
commission recognizes the new global situation, which poses unprecedented challenges to the higher
education system.
The most common issues faced by Pakistan higher education are lack of academic space and teachers,
deteriorating research standards, inadequate infrastructure and facilities, low rate of student enrolment,
out-dated teaching methods, lack of enthusiasm for students, poverty, and gender discrimination. In
addition to these problems related to deteriorating standards and lack of facilities, many private
education providers have reportedly exploited students in rural areas.
1. Deteriorating Research and Quality Standards
Teachers' ability level, study plan, and student admittance standards are the main factors leading to the
decline of higher education quality. Ensuring higher education quality is one of the significant challenges
faced by Pakistan's higher education system. However, while the government has always focused on
quality education, many universities and degree colleges are still failing to meet the minimum
requirements set by the HEC. These universities cannot stand out in front of the top universities' research
and quality standards globally.
2. Inadequate Facilities and Infrastructure
Poor infrastructure is the main reason behind the flawed higher education system of Sub-continental
(Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh), particularly the institutes run by the public sector's inadequate
physical facilities and infrastructure.
The same problems occurred in the Pakistan education system; most of the school infrastructure is there.
Still, there is no student or faculty staff in these colleges or schools are under the control of politicians;
they use it for their benefit. In Pakistan, many of the universities don't have proper facilities and adequate
infrastructure to teach students.
Even in the modern era of education technology, most of the degree colleges and universities in Pakistan
are running without computer labs, digital libraries, and internet or in-campus internet facilities to assist
their students. Poor infrastructure is one of the harsh truths in Pakistan's higher education system,
particularly in those institutes run by the government sector suffering more than private colleges and
universities. Many degree colleges are functioning in the same old-traditional teaching methods without
the immersion of technical facilities.
3. Low-Quality Teaching Methods
The main reasons for the poor academic integrity of Pakistani students are classroom behavior, teacher
evaluation, and the popularity of recitation among students.
The main reasons behind the low-quality teaching methods are the interference of political parties in job
quotas.
These political parties try to hire their political workers; thus, most people do not have any professional
experience. Most teachers lack basic instruction of training. According to global academic-industry
demands, they are still using old teaching methods when most Western teachers help modern
educational techniques.
Some private universities and colleges recruit young graduates as professors or lecturers on low salaries
who do not have any experience or teaching knowledge. Because of non-professionals hiring, many
institutions and universities have inferior quality teaching methods, which torture the quality of
standards education.
4. Uneven Growth of Opportunities
Pakistan has experienced increasing student mobility, which is a significant aspect of the higher
education scenario. Due to the uneven growth of opportunities in South Asian countries, especially those
in the subcontinent, international students' mobility has dramatically changed the environment of
general higher education.
The number of Pakistanis students going abroad for higher education or job opportunities is growing
incessantly with every passing year, especially in the field of medical and engineering studies. Also, most
of the young generation is engaged in taking an excellent job with high salary packages as they are not
interested in serving their country. Half of the young people do not want to stay in Pakistan after
graduating from universities; according to a survey of the local media network, 48% of young people of
Karachi (the largest populated city of Pakistan) don't want to stay in Pakistan because of reduced
opportunities and financial problems.
Suggestions for the Improvement of Higher Education
Pakistan cannot move forward until the quality of its higher education system is sufficiently high.
Because poor quality reduces job opportunities, reduces professional productivity, and lacks innovative
ideas. These are the critical elements of continued success and progress. In summary, Pakistan needs to
be more sensitive to the changing world and expand the adaptability and quality of higher education
systems to meet national and global economies' diverse needs.
1. Balanced Teaching Methods
The time has come to switch from teaching centered on the teacher's actions to a dynamic learning
method centered on pupils' actions. Higher education institutes need to approach teaching methods
according to learners' needs to learn, learn to do, and become.
With student-centered education and balanced teaching methods, instructors need to intend new skills
and attitudes. Through lectures, teaching methods should follow self-study, personal counseling between
teachers and students, and methods that highlight lively seminars and symposia. There is a shared
approach to learning in balanced teaching. Students and teachers are equally responsible for students'
performance, including behavior, attendance, and academic growth.
2. Quantity and Quality
Higher education quality depends on many factors, including appropriate learning environments,
infrastructure, teachers teaching standards, practical courses with annual feedback, research skills, and
unbiased institutions observation systems. In 2019, 1,200 higher education public colleges and 188
universities were accredited by the Higher Education Commission (HEC) of Pakistan.

Due to the high population rate, Pakistan needs to build more universities as the population number is
huge compared to current universities' quantity. Since the Government of Pakistan could not reach the
total enrolment rate of 15% in the higher education sector by 2020, the government should recommend
establishing new universities to achieve 20% in 2030.
The government also needs to establish an independent administrative authority on Higher Education
Commission and all public-private institutes to oversee Pakistan's higher education institutions' quality.
Ensure the quality of educational activities. All colleges and universities need to be reviewed
academically and administratively by external experts before applying the new five-year academic plan.
3. Development of Cross-Culture Awareness
Research shows that international and domestic students have many advantages in facilitating
interaction in an educational environment with teachers' support. With faculty and staff support,
students can frequently interact to enhance their intellectual, effective communication, and intercultural
effects. Higher education studies should arrange cross-culture social activities with social or non-
government organizations' cooperation to help students understand the culture, art, literature, religion,
and technological development.
4. Libraries Standards
The Government of Pakistan does not prioritize the development of standard libraries in its higher
education system and should pursue according to the requirement of international standards of
education.
The library must prove its value and record its contribution to the organization's effectiveness for higher
education development. Library standards in higher education should be designed to encourage and
support public and privates libraries. These libraries should play a collective role in student learning,
fulfill corporative missions, and position themselves as library leaders in higher education development
quality assessment.
The Pakistan government, administrators, and educational policymakers or decision-makers should build
more libraries in higher education institutions, universities, and colleges to benefit from quality research
data. The implementation of multiple libraries will help improve the students and researchers'
knowledge and research skills from the experience of library resources.
Conclusion
To improve quality higher education in Pakistan, parents and students expect the government to
implement transformational and innovative approaches to higher education according to the globally
relevant and competitive requirements. Universities and higher educational institutes of Pakistan need to
improve their quality standards and reputation, and infrastructure to attract students. The government
must reform higher education policy and promote internationalization by collaborating with the world's
renowned universities and building more institutional laboratories and research centers for quality and
concerted research.
Universities need to arrange such courses, in which students can gain quality knowledge and experience.
Invite more multinational companies for higher studies students to reduce recruitment problems to get
jobs in their own country instead of migrating to western countries. To improve enrolment and economic
growth, Pakistan needs to build more institutions with quality standards to meet future requirements.
There is an urgent need to rethink financial resources, education policies, access, equity, quality
standards, relevance, and responsiveness. Human resource development will continue, especially by
promoting appropriate academic development programs, including learning methods and education.
Internal self-assessment and external reviews must be conducted regularly and publicly by independent
professionals and international higher education professionals. The government should restrict political
involvement, favoritism of faculty recruitment, money-makers institutions, and explore awareness about
women's education or gender discrimination in universities and higher educational institutes.
Q.12) - What is meant by continuing education? Highlight its significance for a society and
individuals.
Continuing Education / Life Long Education
The terms 'lifelong education', ’recurrent education' and 'continuing education’ are used interchangeably
and are defined in a number of ways.
The uncertainty about what is meant by lifelong education is a reflection of the fact that the term is used
in various ways by different writers.
One way of looking at lifelong education is to regard it as a rationalization of a number of existing trends
in contemporary educational theory and practice. These trends emerged in a variety of settings without
necessarily any reference to lifelong education. They include expansion of educational services outside
the conventional schools, greater interest in education as an instrument for improving the quality of life,
concern for development of forms of education linked with the needs of everyday life, participation in
decisions about education by workers, parents and members of public, greater openness in goal setting,
planning and administration and many similar trends. Prominent among the theoretical issues that have
been stressed are democratization of education, elimination of inequality in education and achievement
of higher levels of self-realization.
In a similar sense, lifelong education can be seen as a reaction against certain features of existing
educational practice, It thus includes a rejection of authoritarianism, unwillingness to accept that school
is the dominant institution in all learning, and dissatisfaction with the view that all necessary
qualifications can be acquired during a brief period of learning prior to the commencement of working
life.
According to Dave (1976), lifelong education is a process of accomplishing personal, social and
professional development throughout the life-span of individuals in order to enhance the quality of life of
both individuals and their collectives. It is a comprehensive and unifying idea that includes formal and
informal learning for acquiring and enhancing enlightment so as to attain the fullest possible
development in different stages and domains of life. To Dave it is connected with both individual and
social progress.
In future if a person is not learning he/she may remain behind and could not cope the challenges of the
life. This situation demands and highlights the importance of the continuing education. The individuals
have to develop and improve the skills for adapting changing context of the world.

With the change rapid change in environment due to technological innovations, lifelong learning helps
individuals to enhance skills compulsory for survival. It means that people should learn to survive and
how to live. Peoples continuously learn, gain knowledge and new skills in schools, at home, on the job or
in the community. When members of the community are engaged in learning by all mean and all stages of
life, it is referred as continuing education. In United States and Canada it is named as further education
where as in other countries it is considered as lifelong learning. But the basic concept behind is that
learning takes place almost at all times in anywhere.
On the other hand it is necessary to understand that continuing education is beneficial for all persons and
society and contribute towards national economy. The following are the ways to impact the individuals’
life, society and country.
1. It helps the persons in gaining knowledge, skill and develop attitude towards national
development.
2. It also helps people to be more productive and innovative for the society. A constant change and
improvement in skills is the key feature of continuing education. Therefore those who want to
cope better with the demands of workplace changes, are those who constantly learn new skills
and train for new challenges.
3. It is helpful in development of the economy of the nation by providing opportunities to workers
for acquiring more skills, knowledge and abilities that leads to a higher capacity in the economy.
Lifelong learning is closely linked to prognosis of the educational phenomenon as well as to the long-term
innovations in education. Due to the continuous and accelerated changes taking place in the society, the
human being is also a subject to this transformative process, which requires an active and pro-active
attitude. The concept of “Lifelong learning” concept is related to the open educational systems and variety
of techniques to ensure the support and continuous development of capacities and competencies to deal
with the emerging issues and developing as an independent and creative person. In this recent era, work
force market pressures, unemployment and social trends and issues, lifelong learning presents a solution
to all these dilemmas. The traditional approach of studying for a finite period of time to complete
education before moving to the labor market is increasingly replaced by the continuous learning
throughout the entire lifecycle of the individual.

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