Non-Isothermal Kinetic Analysis of Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch Pellets by Ther...Bemgba Nyakuma
Paper presented at the 18th Conference of Process Integration, Modelling and Optimisation for Energy Saving and Pollution Reduction (PRES Conference)
PRES’15 conference, 22-27 Aug 2015, Kuching, Malaysia.
The oil palm industry in Malaysia provides a high economic return to the country. Currently empty fruit bunch (EFB) is one of the solid wastes which is produced daily but have limited use whereby it is usually left as plantation site to act as an organic fertilizer for the plants to ensure the sustainability of fresh fruit bunch (FFB). However, this waste material have the potential to be transformed into high value-added products such as bioethanol, acids and compost using advanced biotechnology technique. The major drawback in biomass technology is the difficulty of degrading the material in a short period of time. Therefore, a pretreatment step such as hot-compressed water treatment is required to break the lignocellulosic compound to easily accessible carbon sources for further use to produce bioethanol. This research proposes an environmental friendly technology which could convert waste biomass to valuable bio-based chemicals and fuels which could be transferred easily to rural areas and small medium industries for wealth creation and for their own use in their agricultural fields.
Strategy to Reduce GHG Emission and Energy Consumption at Process Production of Biodiesel Using Catalyst From Crude Palm Oil (CPO) and Crude Jatropha Curcas Oil (CJCO) in Indonesia
Optimization of key factors affecting biogas production from milk waste using...Lasbet Mohamed
The study was undertaken at Bechar University and focuses on production of biogas as an alternative energy by using milk waste of Igli milk factory. The optimization of the factors affected the anaerobic digestion using experimental design gave the following results: pH = 7.5, temperature (T= 38°C) and moisture content 90%. The application of these parameters conducted to an excellent production of the biogas. The experiments were carried out in two digesters and daily gas yield from milk waste was monitored for 70 days and the total volume of gas production was found to be 25.472 L. The measurement of
the percentages of the essentials nutriments needed for the
biomethanization gave the values of 48.28%, 2.857% (75.65 mg /kg P) and 5.56% for the total organic carbon, phosphorus and
nitrogen, respectively. The biogas formed is flammable, so very
rich in methane (62%).
Non-Isothermal Kinetic Analysis of Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch Pellets by Ther...Bemgba Nyakuma
Paper presented at the 18th Conference of Process Integration, Modelling and Optimisation for Energy Saving and Pollution Reduction (PRES Conference)
PRES’15 conference, 22-27 Aug 2015, Kuching, Malaysia.
The oil palm industry in Malaysia provides a high economic return to the country. Currently empty fruit bunch (EFB) is one of the solid wastes which is produced daily but have limited use whereby it is usually left as plantation site to act as an organic fertilizer for the plants to ensure the sustainability of fresh fruit bunch (FFB). However, this waste material have the potential to be transformed into high value-added products such as bioethanol, acids and compost using advanced biotechnology technique. The major drawback in biomass technology is the difficulty of degrading the material in a short period of time. Therefore, a pretreatment step such as hot-compressed water treatment is required to break the lignocellulosic compound to easily accessible carbon sources for further use to produce bioethanol. This research proposes an environmental friendly technology which could convert waste biomass to valuable bio-based chemicals and fuels which could be transferred easily to rural areas and small medium industries for wealth creation and for their own use in their agricultural fields.
Strategy to Reduce GHG Emission and Energy Consumption at Process Production of Biodiesel Using Catalyst From Crude Palm Oil (CPO) and Crude Jatropha Curcas Oil (CJCO) in Indonesia
Optimization of key factors affecting biogas production from milk waste using...Lasbet Mohamed
The study was undertaken at Bechar University and focuses on production of biogas as an alternative energy by using milk waste of Igli milk factory. The optimization of the factors affected the anaerobic digestion using experimental design gave the following results: pH = 7.5, temperature (T= 38°C) and moisture content 90%. The application of these parameters conducted to an excellent production of the biogas. The experiments were carried out in two digesters and daily gas yield from milk waste was monitored for 70 days and the total volume of gas production was found to be 25.472 L. The measurement of
the percentages of the essentials nutriments needed for the
biomethanization gave the values of 48.28%, 2.857% (75.65 mg /kg P) and 5.56% for the total organic carbon, phosphorus and
nitrogen, respectively. The biogas formed is flammable, so very
rich in methane (62%).
A Feasibility Study on Production of Solid Fuel from Glycerol and Agricultura...drboon
A main goal of the study is to produce solid fuel from glycerol and agricultural wastes in order to find an alternative energy suitable for household usage. In the study, durian shell and bagasse, which are leftover raw materials, were selected to be mixed with by-product glycerol waste from biodiesel process. Durian shell and bagasse were dried and grinded before mixing process. Heating values of each raw material were measured using an adiabatic bomb calorimeter. In order to evaluate feasibility of the production, the various mixing proportions of the mixture were tested by several means, i.e. strength test, heating value measurement, and exhaust gas analysis.
"Carbon footprint assessment and mitigation options of dairy under Chinese conditions," presented by DONG Hongmin (CAAS) at the CCAFS project meeting with CAAS, CAU & WUR in Beijing, January 15th 2019.
Part of the Carbon Footprint Assessment and Mitigation Options of Dairy under Chinese Conditions Project. Implemented by the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciecnces (CAAS), China Agricultural University (CAU) & Wageningen University and Research (WUR). In collaboration with the CGIAR Research Program for Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) and the Sino-Dutch Dairy Development Centre (SDDDC).
Effect of Co-Digestion of Cow Dung And Poultry Manure on Biogas Yield, Proxim...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science (IOSR-JAVS) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal edited by the International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR). The journal provides a common forum where all aspects of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences are presented. The journal invites original papers, review articles, technical reports and short communications containing new insight into any aspect Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences that are not published or not being considered for publication elsewhere.
nternational Journal of Engineering Research and Development is an international premier peer reviewed open access engineering and technology journal promoting the discovery, innovation, advancement and dissemination of basic and transitional knowledge in engineering, technology and related disciplines.
ASSESSMENT OF SAPLINGS OF MANGOSTEEN (GARCINIA MANGOSTANA L) IN ABSORBING CAR...IAEME Publication
Carbon dioxide is a gas needed by plants in its growth. Plants use CO2 for
photosynthesis in producing food ingredients. Research topics related to carbon
dioxide uptake are still open to study because there are still many potential types of
plants, especially in Central Kalimantan. Plants that have not been studied are mainly
plant saplings that are easily found and widely known by the people of Central
Kalimantan. The plant species is Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.). The study
aims to (a) measure the ability of the mangosteen seedlings' CO2 uptake (b) measure
the fluctuations in seedlings of mangosteen plant CO2 uptake during the measurement
period of 06.00-06.30, 12.00-12.30 and 15.00-15.30 WIB, (c) analyze biomass / dry
weight reserves and organic carbon stored in mangosteen seedlings. The mangosteen
seedlings used in this study were 3-5 months old. Measurements of CO2 absorption
using a containment method measuring 50 cm x 50 cm x 30 cm and CO2 gas analysis
using Gas Cromatography. The time period for measuring CO2 uptake is carried out
at 06.00-06.30, 12.00-12.30 and 15.00-15.30 WIB with a time interval of 5, 10, 15,
20, 25 and 30 for 4 (four) weeks. Analysis of biomass / dry weight reserves, percent
and organic carbon content of saplings of mangosteen plants using the gravimetric
method. The results showed that the average CO2 absorption rate of the mangosteen
seedlings was 0.119 mg / m2 / minute. The CO2 absorption rate of saplings of
mangosteen plants fluctuated, where the highest CO2 uptake occurred at 12.00-12.30
WIB, followed by 15.00-15.30 WIB and the lowest CO2 uptake occurred at 06.00-
06.30 WIB. The average biomass / dry weight of saplings of Mangosteen plants is
9.24 grams, the average percent of organic carbon ranges from 55.65% and the
organic carbon content is 5.14 grams
The Use of in vitro Gas Production Technique as an Index of the Nutritive Val...IOSRJAVS
: The in vitro gas production technique was used to predict rumen fermentable organic matter, gas production kinetics, organic matter digestibility as well as metabolizable energy were evaluated in green shoot, leaves, fruits flesh and seed cakes of Ziziphus spina-christi tree. A gas production was measured by incubating samples in buffered rumen fluid from cannulated steer for 72 h. Total gas production was recorded at 0,3, 6, 9, 12, 24, 48, and 72 h of incubation periods and kinetics of gas production was described. The chemical analysis of these Ziziphus spina-christi parts, showed that, Leaves contained high protein (14.77±0.23g/kg) and green shoot less protein (8.03±0.15g/kg),however, high ash content was observed in green shoot (10.03±0.07g/kg) compare to other parts. seed cakes has the highest crude fibre content in comparison to other parts (32.46±0.01),while fruits flesh contained the highest ether extract(72.39±0.03).The maximum gas volume was highest for fruits flesh followed by seed cakes, green shoot and leaves after 24hr of incubation. In this study flesh had a significantly higher (P<0.05) gas production from rapid soluble fraction (a) than the other parts, while Ziziphus spina-christi leaves showed the highest gas production from slowly degradable fraction (b) .Organic matter digestibility range was (51.90– 43.79%) and Metabolisable energy was found to be (9.16– 6.74MJ/kgDM) in the flesh and green shoot, respectively. It was concluded that, green shoots, leaves, fruit flesh and seed cake of Ziziphus spina-christi have the potential to be used as protein, energy and mineral supplements for ruminants especially during the dry season
Effect of Moisture on the Thermal Capacity of some Agricultural WastesIJERDJOURNAL
Abstract: The effect of moisture content on the high heating value (calorific value) of groundnut shells, corn cobs, coconut shells and palm kernel shells were investigated using a bomb calorimeter. Results show that, generally, high heating values of all test samples decreased with increase in moisture level. Heating values of 18.795MJ/Kg at 9.34% moisture, 21.775MJ/Kg at 8.93% moisture, 39.972MJ/Kg at 8.26% moisture and 42.826MJ/Kg at 7.58% moisture were recorded for groundnut shells, corn cobs, coconut shells and palm kernel shells respectively. These heating values decreased to 9.65MJ/Kg, 12.25MJ/Kg, 15.421MJ/Kg and 16.553MJ/Kg at 24.0% moisture level for groundnut shells, corn cobs, coconut shells and palm kernel shells respectively. However, at all moisture levels, palm kernel shells had the highest heating values and were followed by coconut shells. Thus, with appropriate technology, these agricultural wastes could be converted to useful energy and also ensure a cleaner environment.
A Feasibility Study on Production of Solid Fuel from Glycerol and Agricultura...drboon
A main goal of the study is to produce solid fuel from glycerol and agricultural wastes in order to find an alternative energy suitable for household usage. In the study, durian shell and bagasse, which are leftover raw materials, were selected to be mixed with by-product glycerol waste from biodiesel process. Durian shell and bagasse were dried and grinded before mixing process. Heating values of each raw material were measured using an adiabatic bomb calorimeter. In order to evaluate feasibility of the production, the various mixing proportions of the mixture were tested by several means, i.e. strength test, heating value measurement, and exhaust gas analysis.
"Carbon footprint assessment and mitigation options of dairy under Chinese conditions," presented by DONG Hongmin (CAAS) at the CCAFS project meeting with CAAS, CAU & WUR in Beijing, January 15th 2019.
Part of the Carbon Footprint Assessment and Mitigation Options of Dairy under Chinese Conditions Project. Implemented by the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciecnces (CAAS), China Agricultural University (CAU) & Wageningen University and Research (WUR). In collaboration with the CGIAR Research Program for Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) and the Sino-Dutch Dairy Development Centre (SDDDC).
Effect of Co-Digestion of Cow Dung And Poultry Manure on Biogas Yield, Proxim...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science (IOSR-JAVS) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal edited by the International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR). The journal provides a common forum where all aspects of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences are presented. The journal invites original papers, review articles, technical reports and short communications containing new insight into any aspect Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences that are not published or not being considered for publication elsewhere.
nternational Journal of Engineering Research and Development is an international premier peer reviewed open access engineering and technology journal promoting the discovery, innovation, advancement and dissemination of basic and transitional knowledge in engineering, technology and related disciplines.
ASSESSMENT OF SAPLINGS OF MANGOSTEEN (GARCINIA MANGOSTANA L) IN ABSORBING CAR...IAEME Publication
Carbon dioxide is a gas needed by plants in its growth. Plants use CO2 for
photosynthesis in producing food ingredients. Research topics related to carbon
dioxide uptake are still open to study because there are still many potential types of
plants, especially in Central Kalimantan. Plants that have not been studied are mainly
plant saplings that are easily found and widely known by the people of Central
Kalimantan. The plant species is Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.). The study
aims to (a) measure the ability of the mangosteen seedlings' CO2 uptake (b) measure
the fluctuations in seedlings of mangosteen plant CO2 uptake during the measurement
period of 06.00-06.30, 12.00-12.30 and 15.00-15.30 WIB, (c) analyze biomass / dry
weight reserves and organic carbon stored in mangosteen seedlings. The mangosteen
seedlings used in this study were 3-5 months old. Measurements of CO2 absorption
using a containment method measuring 50 cm x 50 cm x 30 cm and CO2 gas analysis
using Gas Cromatography. The time period for measuring CO2 uptake is carried out
at 06.00-06.30, 12.00-12.30 and 15.00-15.30 WIB with a time interval of 5, 10, 15,
20, 25 and 30 for 4 (four) weeks. Analysis of biomass / dry weight reserves, percent
and organic carbon content of saplings of mangosteen plants using the gravimetric
method. The results showed that the average CO2 absorption rate of the mangosteen
seedlings was 0.119 mg / m2 / minute. The CO2 absorption rate of saplings of
mangosteen plants fluctuated, where the highest CO2 uptake occurred at 12.00-12.30
WIB, followed by 15.00-15.30 WIB and the lowest CO2 uptake occurred at 06.00-
06.30 WIB. The average biomass / dry weight of saplings of Mangosteen plants is
9.24 grams, the average percent of organic carbon ranges from 55.65% and the
organic carbon content is 5.14 grams
The Use of in vitro Gas Production Technique as an Index of the Nutritive Val...IOSRJAVS
: The in vitro gas production technique was used to predict rumen fermentable organic matter, gas production kinetics, organic matter digestibility as well as metabolizable energy were evaluated in green shoot, leaves, fruits flesh and seed cakes of Ziziphus spina-christi tree. A gas production was measured by incubating samples in buffered rumen fluid from cannulated steer for 72 h. Total gas production was recorded at 0,3, 6, 9, 12, 24, 48, and 72 h of incubation periods and kinetics of gas production was described. The chemical analysis of these Ziziphus spina-christi parts, showed that, Leaves contained high protein (14.77±0.23g/kg) and green shoot less protein (8.03±0.15g/kg),however, high ash content was observed in green shoot (10.03±0.07g/kg) compare to other parts. seed cakes has the highest crude fibre content in comparison to other parts (32.46±0.01),while fruits flesh contained the highest ether extract(72.39±0.03).The maximum gas volume was highest for fruits flesh followed by seed cakes, green shoot and leaves after 24hr of incubation. In this study flesh had a significantly higher (P<0.05) gas production from rapid soluble fraction (a) than the other parts, while Ziziphus spina-christi leaves showed the highest gas production from slowly degradable fraction (b) .Organic matter digestibility range was (51.90– 43.79%) and Metabolisable energy was found to be (9.16– 6.74MJ/kgDM) in the flesh and green shoot, respectively. It was concluded that, green shoots, leaves, fruit flesh and seed cake of Ziziphus spina-christi have the potential to be used as protein, energy and mineral supplements for ruminants especially during the dry season
Effect of Moisture on the Thermal Capacity of some Agricultural WastesIJERDJOURNAL
Abstract: The effect of moisture content on the high heating value (calorific value) of groundnut shells, corn cobs, coconut shells and palm kernel shells were investigated using a bomb calorimeter. Results show that, generally, high heating values of all test samples decreased with increase in moisture level. Heating values of 18.795MJ/Kg at 9.34% moisture, 21.775MJ/Kg at 8.93% moisture, 39.972MJ/Kg at 8.26% moisture and 42.826MJ/Kg at 7.58% moisture were recorded for groundnut shells, corn cobs, coconut shells and palm kernel shells respectively. These heating values decreased to 9.65MJ/Kg, 12.25MJ/Kg, 15.421MJ/Kg and 16.553MJ/Kg at 24.0% moisture level for groundnut shells, corn cobs, coconut shells and palm kernel shells respectively. However, at all moisture levels, palm kernel shells had the highest heating values and were followed by coconut shells. Thus, with appropriate technology, these agricultural wastes could be converted to useful energy and also ensure a cleaner environment.
The world is confronted with twin crisis of fossil fuel depletion and environment degradation. The indiscriminate extraction and consumption of fossil fuels has led to reduction in petroleum reserves. Petroleum based fuels are obtained from limited resources. These finite reserves are highly concentrated in certain region of the word. Therefore, those countries that do not have are facing a foreign exchange crisis, mainly due to the import of crude petroleum oil. Hence it is necessary to look for alternative fuels. Which can be produced from materials available within the country. In the present scenario, agricultural and food waste is increasingly being considered a valuable resource. This way of using that waste reduces the cost of production of bio-ethanol and the problem related to the disposal of waste. Bio-ethanol can be produced using fruit waste by finding it reducing sugar value and by undergoing fermentation process and using some ca talyst respectively in each of the process. Each process must be maintained in pre-determined temperature for the to be the success. The fuel properties namely flash and fire point, kinematic viscosity etc, were studied. It was found that the properties were quite comparable to the properties of the petroleum fuel. By using agricultural waste to produce bio-ethanol, it reduces the cost of production and environmental impact related to the disposal of wastes.
TITLE PAGETABLE OF CONTENTSContentsTITLE PAGE1TABLE OTakishaPeck109
TITLE PAGE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents
TITLE PAGE 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS 3
LIST OF FIGURES 5
LIST OF TABLES 6
LIST OF EQUATIONS 7
Abstract 8
1.0. Introduction 9
2.0. Microalgae harvesting method 10
2.1. Common harvesting technology 10
2.1.1. Centrifugation 10
2.1.2. Sedimentation 11
2.1.3. Flocculation 11
2.1.4. Flotation 13
2.1.5. Filtration 14
2.2. New Emerging Microalgae Biomass Harvesting Techniques 15
2.2.1. Flocculation using magnetic microparticles 16
2.2.2. Flocculation by natural biopolymer 17
2.2.3. Electrical approach 18
3.0. Extraction and Analysis of Lipid from Microalgae Biomass 20
3.1. Lipid extraction 21
3.1.1. Mechanical extraction 21
3.1.2. Chemical/solvent extraction 23
3.1.3. New emerging green solvents systems and process intensification techniques for lipids extraction from microalgae 25
4.0. Heterogeneous transesterification catalysts 29
4.1. Solid Bases Transesterification 33
4.2. Solid Acids Transesterification 35
4.3. Heterogeneous transesterification of algae oil 36
5.0. Reactors 44
5.1. Influence of reactor design and operating conditions 44
6.0. Conclusions 51
References 54
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Flowsheet for biodiesel production from microalgae. Some intensified process techniques highlighted may reduce some downstream steps as it would render the dewatering step unneeded. i.e. MAE – Microwave assisted extraction (MAE), Enzyme assisted extraction (EAE), Ultrasound assisted extraction (UAE), Surfactant assisted extraction 27
Figure 2:Flow sheet of an oscillatory baffled reactor and it mixing features. Also illustrating the solid acid catalyst PrSO3H-SBA-15 undergoing no oscillation but sedimentation and or with about 4.5Hz oscillation traped in the baffles. Figures exuracted from (Eze et al., 2013) 47
Figure 3: Diagram of membrane reactors for producing biodiesel in transesterification reaction through (a) Solid acid catalyst and (b) base catalysts.49
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Performance comparison of flotation techniques14
Table 2: Performance comparison of filtration methods15
Table 3: Performance of flocculation using biopolymer17
Table 4: performance comparisons for microalgae biomass harvesting by various electrical methods operated in just 1 hour19
Table 5: Reported catalyst used for heterogenous transesterification reaction on various feedstocks30
Table 6: The effect of calcination temperature on the performance of WO3/ZrO2 catalyst (Jothiramalingam & Wang, 2009).39
Table 7: Literature review on biodiesel production via heterogenous catalyst41
LIST OF EQUATIONS
Equation 1: Chemical equation showing production of biodiesel from any bio oil 32
Equation 2: Reaction mechanism of transesterification via base catalyst (denoted Y) in the equation. 33
Abstract
The dwindling rate of our fossil fuel reserves and general believe of major contribution of CO2 emissions which is linked to the climate change due to the burning of such carbon sources in engines eithe ...
Activation of Spent Bleaching Earth for Dehumidification Application World-Academic Journal
To circumvent the current pollution-prone disposal of the spent bleaching earth (SBE), an experimental program was conducted to recover the waste SBE and to use it for air dehumidification application. Waste SBE was obtained from the damping site of the oil industry, and the entrained oil was recovered via hexane extraction while the remaining hydrocarbons were oxidized with 30% H2O2 and heat at 550 oC. This reactivation procedure affords oil useful in other ole-chemical applications and active SBE for air dehumidification. For the purpose of adsorbent development, SBE regeneration was found to follow two routes, solvent extraction followed by oxidation using 30% H2O2 which retains the elasticity of the clay crucial in molding the adsorbents and thermal processing at 550 oC after molding. Experiments were carried out in batch system, and the effects of parameters including, activation temperature, contact time, The sorption characteristic of the adsorbent established two peaks when activated at 550 oC and 650 0C with a capacity of 27.07 and 26.63% respectively. The regenerated SBE proved to be a promising adsorbent for moisture since its sorption capacity was higher than that of clay (15%) which is commonly used as commercial desiccant.
The Production of Biodiesel from Human Faeces – A Constituent of Sewage Sludg...ijtsrd
The Lipid oil was extracted from reduced dried primary sewage sludge particle using soxh let extraction method with the mixture of chloroform and n hexane in ratio 2 1 as the extracting solvent. The extracted oil was transesterified to produce biodiesel. The lipid gave 7.969 percentage yield with density of 0.855g ml, specific gravity value of 0.855. The chemical analyses revealed acid value of 0.84mg NaOH g, free fatty acid value of 0.40 and saponification value was 1.30mg. The lipid oil was brownish black in colour with a pungent smell. The physicochemical analyses of the biodiesel produced gave a percentage yield of 32 biodiesel, density of 0.834Kg ml, pH value of 8.97, specific gravity of 0.834, acid value of 0.29mg KOH g,saponification value of 1.30 mg, free fatty acid value of 0.145 It is thus apparent that the feedstock primary sewage sludge may be a good source for the production of biodiesel. Ivwurie, W | Ekekhor, I. M "The Production of Biodiesel from Human Faeces – A Constituent of Sewage Sludge using Chloroform and N-Hexane" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-4 | Issue-6 , October 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd33359.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/chemistry/other/33359/the-production-of-biodiesel-from-human-faeces-–-a-constituent-of-sewage-sludge-using-chloroform-and-nhexane/ivwurie-w
performance and emission radiation using of indianIJAEMSJORNAL
The study in made to replace the existing diesel fuel with the bio – fuels, for this fruit like Indian Pomegranate seed oil as bio – diesel is utilized. The main objective of this work is to discuss the impact of biodiesel from Pomegranate fruit seed oil bio-diesel on performance, combustion and emission characteristics diesel. In this study, the effect of bio-diesel from fruit seed oil [Indian Pomegranate seed oil] and its blends on a single cylinder Kirloskar TV-1 diesel engine were investigated. In this work, the performance, combustion and emission analysis were conducted. The tests were performed at steady state conditions with the blend ratio of B25, B50, B75 and B100. These represent the ratio of biodiesel in the blend and the rest diesel. The aim of this investigation was to reformulate the fuel to utilize the biodiesel and its blend to enhance the fuels performance, combustion characteristic and to reduce the pollution from the engine. In this work only Indian Jujube seed oil bio-diesel is utilized for the experimental work. The experimental results reveal a marginal decrease in brake thermal efficiency when compared to that of sole fuel. In this investigation, the emission test were done with the help of AVL DI gas analyzer, in which CO, HC and NOx are appreciably reduced on the other hand smoke, CO2 have marginal increased when compared to that of sole fuel. In this work combustion analysis also made with the help of AVL combustion analyzer in which bio diesel blend shows the better result when compared with diesel.
Production of Biodiesel from Non Edible Cottonseed Oil by Mechanical Stirrer ...IOSR Journals
In present day there is hefty demand of new and reliable alternative fuel which gives better exhaust
emissions and performance on internal combustion engine. There are mainly two types of fuel that are used
prominently in I.C. engines, first is gasoline like fuel which support to spark ignition engine and second that is
used for compression ignition engines. The biodiesel is a renewable alternative fuel which supports to the diesel
engines. The biodiesel can be produced by several numbers of feed stocks like vegetable oil, animal fats and
yellow greases etc. In present researcher work the cottonseed oil (CSO) which belong to Malvaceae, the marsh
mallow family, is converted to biodiesel from mechanical stirring technique. This biodiesel has been tested on a
constant speed agricultural engine and found to be lower in smoke generation and almost equivalent to petro
diesel on performance parameters.
Comparative Ethanol Productivities of Two Different Recombinant Fermenting St...IJERA Editor
Production of biofuel such as ethanol from lignocellulosic biomass is a beneficial way to meet sustainability and energy security in the future. The main challenge in bioethanol conversion is the high cost of processing, in which enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation are the major steps. Among the strategies to lower processing costs are utilizing both glucose and xylose sugars present in biomass for conversion. An approach featuring enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation steps, identified as separate hydrolysis and fermentation (SHF) was used in this work. Proposed solution is to use “pre-processing” technologies, including the thermal screw press (TSP) and cellulose-organic-solvent based lignocellulose fractionation (COSLIF) pretreatments. Such treatments were conducted on a widely available feedstock such as source separated organic waste (SSO) to liberate all sugars to be used in the fermentation process. Enzymatic hydrolysis was featured with addition of commercial available enzyme, Accellerase 1500, to mediate enzymatic hydrolysis process. On average, the sugar yield from the TSP and COSLIF pretreatments followed by enzymatic hydrolysis was remarkable at 90%. In this work, evaluation of the SSO hydrolysate obtained from COSLIF and enzymatic hydrolysis pretreaments on ethanol yields was compared by fermentation results with two different recombinant strains: Zymomonas mobilis 8b and Saccharomyces cerevisiae DA2416. At 48 hours of fermentation, ethanol yield was equivalent to 0.48g of ethanol produced per gram of SSO biomass by Z.mobilis 8b and 0.50g of ethanol produced per gram of SSO biomass by S. cerevisiae DA2416. This study provides important insights for investigation of the source-separated organic (SSO) waste on ethanol production by different strains and becomes a useful tool to facilitate future process optimization for pilot scale facilities.
Biogas Production Enhancement from Mixed Animal Wastes at Mesophilic Anaerobi...IJERA Editor
In this work, the effect of mixing ratio of cattle dung (CD) and poultry droppings (PD) on biogas generation was
determined. Mixtures of various CD: PD ratios (100% : 0%; 50% : 50%; 60% : 40%; 80% : 20% and 0% :
100%) were prepared, analyzed and then aerobically digested for a period of 40 days. For each mixture,
fermentation was carried out in a 20 L capacity digester. Results showed that biogas was obtained from the
digestion of CD and PD alone, showing the biogas from CD was several times larger than that from PD.
Furthermore, the resulted biogas yields from mixtures were found a function of the CD : PD ratio, the yield from
the ratio 80 : 20 was the maximum. Biogas yields from the prepared mixtures were found and arranged from
larger to lower in the form of (CD : PD) ratios as follow: 80% : 20%; 100% : 0.0%; 60% : 40%; 0.0% :
100%;50% : 50%. Addition of CD to PD enhances the PD production of biogas, while addition of a small
portion of PD to CD gave the maximum yield, a result not determined in literature. In other hand, larger
additions of PD to CD reduced the biogas yield. The effect of pH was also determined and found better around
7.0. These results are in agreement with research work in literature.
Heterogeneous Transesterification of Luffa aegyptiaca Oil to BiodieselPremier Publishers
In the continuous desire to find suitable alternative, renewable and biodegradable source of oil for commercial diesel Luffa aegyptiaca oil was converted into biodiesel through transesterification reaction using heterogeneous hydrotalcite particles from MgO/Al2O3/Kaolin clay as catalyst and methanol as solvent at controlled reaction conditions. The characterization results of pure Luffa aegyptiaca oil and biodiesel samples was obtained and compared: moisture content 0.0045 %-0.0034 %, ash content 0.00 %-0.02 %, saponification value 194.5 - 61.43, acid value 9.65-0.144, freezing point 5.00 - 30.00 min, pour point 5.00-3.00 min, density 0.969 g/mL-0.889 g/mL, while the flash point gave 349 k-345 k, specific gravity 0.865 g/mL-0.851 g/mL, and viscosity 34.95 Nsm-2- 5.82 Nsm-2 accordingly. The catalyst sample (MgO/Al2O3/Kaolin clay) after characterized using X-Ray Diffractometer, showed promising surface activity and selectivity on both the calcined and uncalcined catalyst. The optimum transesterification reaction conditions was obtained at 333 k, 6 hours reaction time and 6% catalyst concentration. The reaction conditions had direct effect on percentage yield of the biodiesel product with maximum yield of 79.61 % obtained for untreated oil but 81.27 % for treated oil at 333 k, 3 hours reaction time and 2 % catalyst concentration. FT-IR spectra analysis of biodiesel oil revealed decrease in frequency band of the hydroxyl group (O-H) between 1780 cm-1 and 1700 cm-1 and its subsequent absence at 1730 cm-1. The Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrophotometer composition for pure Luffa aegyptiaca oil and Biodiesel oil showed that free fatty acid was converted to fatty acid methyl esters. Thus, transesterification of Luffa aegyptiaca oil sample using MgO/Al2O3/Kaolin clay heterogeneous catalyst was a success.
Similar to Utilizations of palm oil mills wastes as source of energy (20)
Utilizations of palm oil mills wastes as source of energy
1. Chemistry and Materials Research www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224- 3224 (Print) ISSN 2225- 0956 (Online)
Vol.6 No.8, 2014
Utilizations of Palm Oil Mills Wastes as Source of Energy and
Water in the Production Process of Crude Palm Oil
Ridzky Kramanandita1*, Tajuddin Bantacut2, Muhammad Romli3, Mustofa Makmoen4
1,4 School of Industrial Management, Ministry of Industry, Indonesia
2,3 Department of Agroindustrial Technology, Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia
* E-mail of the corresponding author: ridzky@kemenperin.go.id
Abstract
Palm oil mills in their production process require a large amount of energy and water. Scarcity and enormous
costs of energy and water become factors that may limit the future production of crude palm oil (CPO). On the
other hand, demands for palm oil and its derivatives are increasing. Therefore, a number of research on energy
and water by utilizing biomass produced by fresh fruit bunches (FFB) are necessary to develop. Analysis on the
energy and mass balance of palm oil mills was carried out to obtain accurate information on the needs and the
potential of energy and water from the wastes generated. Analysis on the energy and mass balance of palm oil
mills was carried out to obtain accurate information on the needs and the potential of energy and water from the
wastes generated. The results of the analysis of the energy and mass balance show that the potential of the total
solid wastes generated by the palm oil mills with a capacity of 30 tons/hr are equal to 16,090.09 kg/hr or
equivalent to 53.63% of the fresh fruit bunches with the composition of empty fruit bunches (26.97%), fibers
(17.67%) and shells (6.46%), while the liquid wastes generated are equal to 18,113.15 Kg/hr (%) with the
composition of mud (18.38%) and water (42.05%). The palm oil mills required To supply energy for palm oil
mills, the solid wastes can be converted into biohydrogen, biogas and bioethanol, while the liquid wastes can be
converted into biogas and biohydrogen as well as water sources.
Keywords: oil palm, energy, water, equilibrium
1. Introduction
The conversion processes of fresh fruit bunch (FFB) into crude palm oil (CPO) require sufficiently enormous
energy and water supply. To produce CPO, Palm oil mills with the capacity of 30-60 ton/hr require 14-25 kWh of
energy (Yusoff, 2006; Chalvaparit et al., 2006; Mahlia, 2001; Yoshizaki et al., 2013) and 300,000-350,000
tons/year of water (Ahmad et al., 2003). In addition, the use of energy and water in a large quantity also
generates a sufficiently sizeable waste. Ohimain et al. (2013) states that the conversion process of FFB will
produce 10-30% CPO with by-product of 30-70% solid waste and 60-70% palm oil mill effluents (POME).
According to Nasution et al. (2014), the composition of solid wastes generated by the palm oil mills in Indonesia
consists of fibers (12-15%), shells (5-7%) and empty fruit bunches (20-23%), depending on the technology
process applied.
The potential of wastes from palm oil mills as an energy source for those palm oil mills has also been widely
studied. However, these studies remains incomplete, because the wastes converted into energy for palm oil mill
is still confined either only to solid wastes (Husain et al., 2003; Nasution et al., 2014; Ohimain, 2014) or liquid
waste (Gobi et al., 2013). This issue leads to the analysis of waste potential use which cannot predict the exact
amount of energy necessary for those palm oil mills. Therefore, this study will examine the details of mass
balance and energy balance in order to determine the potential of by-products in the form of either solid waste or
liquid waste and thus palm oil mills will have alternatives to meet its energy requirements.
2. Methodology
2.1 The Analysis of Mass and Energy Balance
The mass and energy balance calculation was made based on the law of conservation of mass and energy which
states that mass and energy cannot be created or destroyed, but they can be transformed into another form. The
completion stage of mass and energy balance did not involve a chemical reaction because the crude palm oil was
generated through the processes of pressing and physical purification.
To make the calculation, the basic mass balance employed was 30 ton of FFB/hr, based on the results of the
proximate analysis of FFB processed in palm oil mills, FFB composition was dominated by empty fruit bunches
(23%), oil (21%) and silt (22%), while the rest was water (12%), endoscarp (6%), kernel (5%) and fibers (11%).
The mass balance was calculated based on the law of mass balance by Perry et al. (1997) with the formula as
follows:
46
Where:
minput = mass input (kg)
moutput = mass output (kg)
In some production processes, production costs can be estimated based on the amount of energy required for the
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Vol.6 No.8, 2014
production process. The basic concept of energy balance is defined as follows:
47
Where:
Ei = Energy input (kJ)
E0 = Energy output (kJ)
Q = Heat (kJ)
The assumptions used in the calculation of the energy balance are:
stationary and material flows are in a state of a thermodynamic equilibrium level at both the entrance
station and the exit station
one-dimensional flows at both the entrance station and the exit station
kinetic energy and potential energy are ignored
1.1.1 The determination of the steam requirement
The calculation of the steam requirement of palm oil mills with a capacity of 30 ton of FFB/hr was performed
using the following formula:
Where:
M = flow mass of FFB (kg)
Dt = temperature difference (oC)
Cp = the average specific heat of EFB (kcal/kg°C )
1.1.2 The determination of the average Cp of FFB
The approach taken to determine the Cp average of FFB is:
Where:
M = mass of FFB components (kg)
Cp of FFB components = water; shell; kernel; EFB; fiber (kg)
M = Mass of FFB (kg)
The mass and energy balance analysis was performed in all stations (sterilization, Stripper, Digester, Pressing,
Continous Settling Tank, Sludge Tanks, Sludge Separator, Oil Purifier, Vacuum Dryer, CPO Storage,
Depericarper, Silo Dryer, Nut Crackers, Hidrocyclone, Kernel Dryer and Kernel Storage).
2. Data
The primary data consisting of CPO production process were retrieved from a palm oil mill in Southern Borneo,
which had a production capacity of 30 ton of FFB/hr. The secondary data including the waste-to-energy
conversion process were based on the results of the literature study related to the research topic.
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FFB
Sterilizer
Stripping
Digester
Pressing
Figure 1. The stages of CPO production processes at palm oil mills
3. Result and Discussion
3.1 CPO Production Process
Fresh fruit bunch (FFB) processing into crude palm oil (CPO) has several stages including raw materials input,
boiling, digesting, fruit compression, waste and nut disseverance, palm oil clarification, sludge processing and
nut cracking (Pardamean, 2008). While according to Pahan (2006), palm oil mills basically can be divided into
two stations – the main station and the supporting station. The main station, which covers the entire series of the
primary process to convert palm oil into crude palm oil, comprises units of fruit acceptance, sterilizer, stripper,
digester, press, purification as well as nut and kernel separation (Figure 1).
3.1.1 Sterilizer Station
The sterilization process was performed by inserting fresh fruit bunches (FFB) at a temperature of 125oC–135oC
for 82-90 minutes. The amount of the steam required was 3,345 kg/hr (11%), whereas the steam loss that
occurred was 3.65% (1,095 kg/hr). This process generated 85% of cooked FFB (25.041 kg/hr) and a condensate
by 6,905 kg/ hr (22.5%). Based on the results of the calculation, it is suggested that the efficiency of the
sterilization process was 85%. The energy need in this process was 19,954.05 MJ/ hr.
3.1.2 Stripper Station
In this station, the cooked fresh fruit bunches produced in the sterilizer station were fed into a 33.95 rpm stripper
drum to dislodge fruits from their stems. The total number of cooked FFB generated in this station reached
25,041 kg/hr with a by-product in the form of empty fruit bunches (EFB) that reached 8,093.27 kg/hr. In this
process, the estimated heat loss reached 85,645.02 MJ /hr, with a total energy contained in this station by
308,921.4 MJ/hr.
3.1.3 Digester Station
Palm oil fruits generated in the stripping station by 17,079.9 kg/hr were fed into the digester. In this stage, the
digester separated flesh fruit and nut using agitator blades at a temperature of 90 – 95oC. Furthermore, the
estimated steam demand was 6.67% of the amount of the feed and therefore the amount of the heat required was
7,494.01 MJ/ hr.
3.1.4 Pressing Station
Palm oil fruits generated from the digester station were then circulated into the pressing machine with addition of
48
Hopper
Depericarper
CST
Oil purifier
Vacuum
dryer
Storage
Tank
Sludge tank
Sludge
separator
Silo Dryer
Nut
Crackers
Hidrocyclone
Kernel Dryer
Storage
Kernel
Waste Plan Boiler
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hot water as much as 3,710.76 kg/hr of the amount of the mass of the material to be pressed. This stage produced
crude oil by 12,245.50 kg/hr (consisting of oil by 5,632.93 kg/ hr; dirt by 857.19 kg/ hr, and free fatty acids by
514.31 kg/ hr) and silt by 41, 9%.
3.1.5 Continous Settling Tank (CST) Station
The crude oil generated by the pressing station was flowed into the continous settling tank (CST), where sewage
sludge was separated from the oil by gravity. This stage is divided into two, namely crude oil flowing to the
sludge tanks station and crude oil flowing to the oil purifier station. On the other hand, the sludge flowing to the
sludge tank amounted to 8,449.40 kg/ hr (4.90% of oil, 7.5% of water and 87.6% of impurities), whereas the
amount of crude oil leading to the oil purifier station was as much as 6,245.21 kg/ hr. In this process, the
estimated heat loss was at 857.24 MJ/ hr.
3.1.6 Sludge Tank Station
Sludge which still contains oil from CST was flowed into the sludge tank to separate the oil from the impurities.
The sedimentation process generated crude oil by 8,381.80 kg/ hr, which will be streamed to the sludge separator
station. This stage will generate sludge as a by-product by 67.59 kg/ hr. The heat required in the tank sludge
station was 11,587.21 MJ/ hr.
3.1.7 Sludge Separator Station
In sludge separator station, oil and impurities that the crude oil produced in the sludge tank station were
separated using a precleaner and a stainer. The amount of the crude oil separated, while the results obtained from
this process were 2,449.10 and a by-product in the form of sludge by 5,867.26 kg/ hr. The amount of the energy
required in this station was 258.83 MJ/ hr.
3.1.8 Oil Purifier Station
The total amount of crude oil generated in CST station amounted to 6,245.21 kg/hr. Crude palm oil was then
purified to be separated from its impurities. This process generated a total of 6,231.46 kg/hr of crude palm oil
which consisted of 96% of oil, 0.45% of water, 0.13% of impurities and 2.92% of free fatty acids. The by-product
generated from this process was 13.74 kg/hr of sludge. In this process the heat lost reached 658.67 MJ/ h
with a total energy involved in the system as much as 23,606.3 MJ/hr.
3.1.9 Vacuum Dryer Station
Crude oil generated in the oil purifier station was then dried to remove the water, to make the FFA value do not
increase. The crude oil produced in this process was equal to 6,170.40 kg/hr with a water content that reached
0.002% (0.123 kg/hr) and was then stored in the storage tank, while the by-product was in the form of 61.07
kg/hr of water. On the other hand, this process also produced heat steam as a by-product by 163,419.04 MJ/hr
and the heat needs reached 778.51 MJ /hr.
3.1.10 Depericarper Station
The by-product generated in the pressing station was nuts 4,408.38 kg/hr, fibers 5,460.38 kg/hr and water 150.29
kg/hr. This process was intended to separate the nut from the fiber. The solids produced in the depericarper
station was 4,608.76 kg/ hr, while the by-product that consisted of fibers reached 5,410.29 kg/hr. The heat energy
involved in this process was 38,606.16 MJ/hr while the estimated heat loss was 1,347.87 MJ/hr.
3.1.11 Silo Dryer Station
This station serves to remove water contained in the nuts, therefore the heat required in this process was 139.81
MJ/hr. This process produced nuts by 4,332.24 kg/hr and a byproduct in the form of water vapor as much as
276.53 kg/hr (6% of the input).
3.1.12 Nut Cracker Station
Palm nuts that had been dried in the silo dryer station were fed to this station to encounter a breakdown process.
Palm nuts that had encountered the breakdown process would generate 3,444.13 kg/hr of kernels and 888.11
kg/hr of shells. The heat missing in this process reached 14,198.3 MJ/hr.
3.1.13 Hidrocyclone Station
A mixture of fractions generated in the nut crackers station was put into a hidrocyclone. In the hidrocyclone,
separation of kernels from their shells occurred based on the specific gravity. The core of the kernels would
move upwards the hidrocyclone, while the shells would fall under the hidrocyclone. The by-product generated in
this stage consisted of 1,949.50 kg/hr of shells, while the heat loss was equal to 13,016.18 MJ /hr.
3.1.14 Kernel Dryer Station
Kernels from the hydrocyclone were fed into a kernel dryer. In this process, the water content as much as 357.41
kg/hr contained in the kernels was evaporated. Furthermore, the kernels (2,025.32 kg/hr) was stored in a kernel
shelter. The by-product generated was in the form of steam by 956.42 MJ/hr, while the heat required was equal
to 233.50 MJ/hr.
3.2 The Mass and Energy Balance of CPO Production Processes
Based on these data, the calculation of the mass balance is described in Figure 2, and the energy balance for each
station is described in Figure 3.
49
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FFB Water
Oil 5.632, 93 kg, Water 5.241,08 kg
Solids 857,19 kg, FFA 514,31 kg
Oil 5.964,17 kg
Water 28,1 kg, FFA 218,58 kg
Solids 34,35 kg
Oil 414,02 kg
Water 633,71 kg
Solids 7.401,67 kg
Oil 6013,37 kg, Solids 8,1 kg
Water 28,04 kg, FFA 181,96 kg
Oil 5.972,95 kg, FFA 189,31 kg
Water 0,12 kg, Solids 8,02 kg
50
Nuts 4.484,33 kg
Water 78,35 kg
Fiber 46,09 kg
Water
4.115,63 kg
Kernel
9,75 kg
Water
150,29 kg
Fiber
5.460,38 kg
Nuts
4.408,38 kg
Steam Out
1.095 kg
Oil
47,25 kg
2,45 kg
Oil 2.305 kg
Water 5909,17 kg
Solids 167,64 kg
Water
Oil
5.515,23 kg
Solids
299,23 kg
Oil
52,81 kg
I. Sterilizer
FFB
30.000 kg
Steam In
Water (condensate) 3.345 kg
6.646,25 kg
Coocked FFB 25.041 kg
Water 459 kg
Solids
256,5 kg
Condensate
II. Stripping
EFB
8.092,27 kg
Fruits
65,28 kg
Fruits 17.079,9 kg
Water 260,1 kg
III. Digister
Steam In
1.213,8 kg
Flesh Fruits 17.079,9 kg
Water 1.473,9 kg
IV. Pressing
Steam In
3.710,76 kg
V. Continous
Settling Tank
VI. Oil Purifier
Solids
0,41 kg
Water
13,33 kg
VII. Vacuum
Dryer
Water
61,07 kg VIII. Oil
Tank
Va. Sludge
Tank
Vb. Sludge
Separator
Water
50,7 kg
Solids
16,6 kg
Oil 2.069,49 kg
Water 324,51 kg
Solids 55,1 kg
IX.
Depericarper
X. Silo Dryer
Nuts 4.310,58 kg
Fiber 21,66 kg
XI. Nut
Cracker
XII.
Hidrocyclone
XIII. Kernel
Dryer
XIV.Kernel
Tank
Shell
888,11 kg
Kernel 2.102,52 kg
Water 280,21 kg
Kernel 2.023,3 kg
Water 2,03 kg
Fiber
5.302,08 kg
Nuts
108,21 kg
Water
276,53 kg
Kernel
3.444,13 kg
Water
4.115,63 kg Shell
1.939,76 kg
Water
357,41 kg
Figure 2. Detail Mass Balance of Palm Oil Mill
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FFB Water
Palm Fruits 210.338,19 MJ
Water 307,49 MJ 90oC
Oil 21.356,89 MJ, Water 5.977,08 MJ
Solids 206,39 MJ, FFA 280,16 MJ 90oC
Oil 22.612,77 MJ
Water 32,05 MJ, FFA 119,06 MJ
Solids 8,27 MJ 90oC
Oil 1569,73 MJ
Water 722,69 MJ 90oC
Oil 9.059,36 MJ Solids 1782,21 MJ
Oil 22.799,28 MJ, Solids 1,95 MJ
Water 31,97 MJ, FFA 99,11 MJ 80oC
Oil 23.475,56 MJ, FFA 110,67 MJ
Water 0,15 MJ, Solids 2,07 MJ 80oC
51
Nut 35.778,48 MJ
Water 89,35 MJ
Fiber 16,15 MJ
Kernel
50 MJ
30oC
Water
196,50 MJ
Fiber
1.914,33 MJ
Nut
35.172,56 MJ
50oC
Steam Out
1.329,86 MJ 110oC
Oil
218,51 MJ
9,62 MJ
Water 6.985,84 MJ 80oC
Solids 41,84 MJ
Water
Oil
6520,12 MJ
Solids
74,68 MJ
Oil
207,54 MJ
90oC
I. Sterilizer
19.954,05 MJ
FFB
362.921 MJ 30oC
Steam In
2132,71 MJ 130o Water (condensate) C
8.967,21 MJ
Cooked FFB 373.759 MJ
Water 657,67 MJ 100oC
Solids
75,33 MJ
Condensate 90oC
II. Stripping
(85.645,0 MJ)
EFB
11.817,15 MJ
Palm Fruits
803,92 MJ
III. Digister
7.494,01 MJ
Steam In
1.434,95 MJ
100oC
Flesh Fuits 217.770,63 MJ
Water 1.804,02 MJ 100oC
IV. Pressing
(151.828,62
MJ)
Water
4851,91 MJ
50oC
V. Continous
Settling Tank
(857,24 MJ)
VI. Oil Purifier
(658,67 MJ)
Solids
0,09 MJ
Water
15,19 MJ
80oC
VII. Vacuum
Dryer
778,51 MJ
Water
69,64 MJ
80oC
Evaporation Heat
163,41 MJ
VIII. Oil
Tank
Va. Sludge
Tank
11587,2 MJ
Vb. Sludge
Separator
258,83 MJ
Water
59,93 MJ
90oC
Solids
4,21 MJ
Oil 7846,3 MJ
Water 370,07 MJ
Solids 206,3 MJ
90oC
IX.
Depericarper
(1347,87 MJ)
X. Silo Dryer
139,81 MJ
50oC
Nut 35.651,99 MJ
Fiber 7,87 MJ 60oC
XI. Nut
Cracker
(14.198,3 MJ)
XII.
Hidrocyclone
(13016,18 MJ)
XIII. Kernel
Dryer
233,5 MJ
XIV. Kernel
Tank
Shell
2.529,52 MJ
Kernel 10.786,67 MJ
Water 319,55 MJ
30oC
Kernel 10380,22 MJ
Water 2,3 MJ 60oC
Fiber
1.858,83 MJ
Nut
863,32 MJ
40oC
Water
338,46 MJ
70oC
Kernel
17669,6 MJ
60oC
Water
4693,58 MJ
30oC
Shell
2.529,52 MJ
Water
407,6 MJ
Evaporation
Heat
956,42 MJ
60oC
90oC
Water
5524,84 MJ
Figure 3. Detail Energy Balance of Palm Oil Mill
4. The Potency Of By Product Generated Palm Oil Industry
Based on the analysis of the mass balance and the energy balance that had been performed, it is revealed that the
by-product of the palm oil mills with a capacity of 30 ton/hr can be categorized into three: solid waste, liquid
wastes and gases. Table 2 shows that the most dominating solid waste is empty fruit bunch with a total number
of 8,092.27 kg/hr, followed by fiber wastes (5,348.17 kg/hr) and shell wastes (1,939.76 kg/hr). Compared to the
obtained fresh fruit bunches, the total solid wastes generated reached 51.27% with a composition that consisted
of empty fruit bunches (26.27%), fibers (17.83%) and shells (6.47%). This is in line with the study conducted by
Ohimain et al. (2013) suggesting that the solid wastes generated by palm oil mills reach 30 to 70%, depending on
the technology and the type of the plant used. The empty bunches were converted into biohydrogen (Abdul et al.,
2013; Kalinci et al., 2011; Chiew et al., 2013; Chong et al. 2013), biogas (O-Thong et al. 2012) and bioethanol
(Sudiyani et al. 2013).
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Table 2. The potential of solid wastes generated by palm oil mills with a capacity 30 ton/hr
Station Types of Solid Waste Composition Quantity (kg/hr)
Stripper Empty Fruit Bunches 99,17% EFB, 0,8% Fruits and 0,03% oil, at 90oC 8.092,27
Depericarper Fiber 98% Fiber and 2% kernel at 40oC 5.348,17
Hidrocyclone Shell 99,5% Shell dan 0,5% kernel at 28.5oC 1.939,76
The total amount of solid wastes 15.380,20
The liquid wastes produced by palm oil mills originate from several processing stations, among others are
sterilization, sludge tank, sludge separator, oil purifier and hidrocyclone stations. Each station has different
characteristics of wastes. The characteristics depend on the processes conducted, but in palm oil mills, liquid
wastes generally can be categorized into two: water (10,865.63 kg/hr) and sludge (5,948.60 kg/hr). The amount
of the liquid waste that reached 58% (16,814.23) is one of the potential to be developed into other forms of
energy sources such as (Choi et al., 2013; Poh et al., 2010; Gobi et al., 2013), biohidrogen (Singh et al., 2013a;
Singh et al., 2013b; Singh et al., 2013c; Badiei et al., 2011; Badiei et al., 2012; Ismail et al., 2010) and water
(Ahmad et al., 2003).
Table 3. Palm Oil Mill Effluents with a capacity of 30 ton/hr
Station Types of liquid waste Composition Quantity
52
(kg/hr)
Sterilisasi Water 0.70% oil, 3.8% Impurities and 95.5% water at 90oC 6.750
Sludge Tank Sludge 75% water and 25% water at 90oC 67,60
Sludge Separator Sludge 0.95 oil, 94% water and 5.10%impurities, at 90oC 5.867,26
Oil Purifier Sludge 97% water and 3% impurities 13,74
Hidrocyclone Water Pure water (100%) at 30oC 4.115,63
The total amount of liquid wastes 16.814,23
5. Conclusion
Based on the analysis of the mass balance and the energy balance, palm oil mills with a capacity of 30 ton of
FFB/hr require 12.38 ton of water sources (41% of TBS). The amount of water input by 12.38 ton eventually
generated 18.11 ton of water, where the water surplus originated from FFB containing 5.73 ton of water (19.1%
FFB).
The amount of the output produced by CPO was 6.07 ton, while the yield generated by palm oil mills was 5.97
ton (19.9% of FFB). In the processing of oil palm into CPO, there was unprocessed oil which amounted to 0.102
ton (1.68% of CPO output).
Furthermore, the potential of solid waste generated by palm oil mills with a capacity of 30 ton/hr is equal to
15,380.20 kg/hr or 51.27% of fresh fruit bunches (FFB) consisting of empthy fruit bunches (26.27%), fibers
(17.83%) and shells (6.47%). On the other hand, the amount of the liquid wastes generated are equal to
16,814.23 kg/hr or 58% with the composition of the wastes that consisted of sludge (64.62%) and water
(35.38%). To meet the energy requirements of the palm oil mills, the solid wastes can be converted into
biohydrogen, biogas and bioethanol, while the the liquid wastes can be converted into biogas and biohydrogen
and water sources.
The station with the highest value of energy input/ output is the Sterilizer Station by 385,008 MJ/hr. The total
energy produced by the by-product of palm oil mills was equal to 42,865 MJ/hr consisting of the three largest
components, namely condensate water (16,063 MJ/hr), fibers (2,722 MJ/hr) and shells (8,104 MJ/hr). The
potential of untapped energy produced by palm oil mills using the appropriate technology can be used as a
source of energy.
References
Abdul, M., Jahim, J.Md., Harun, S., Markom, M., Hassan, O., Mohammad, A.W., Asis, A.J. (2013). Biohydrogen
production from pentose-rich oil palm empty fruit bunch molasses: A first trial. International Journal Of
Hydrogen Energy 38 : 15693-15699
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