An assembly language is a type of low-level programming language that is intended to communicate directly with a computer's hardware. Unlike machine language, which consists of binary and hexadecimal characters, assembly languages are designed to be readable by humans.
Assembler directives and basic steps ALP of 8086Urvashi Singh
The document discusses various assembler directives used in assembly language programming. It describes directives like DB, DW, DD, DQ, DT for data declaration; ASSUME to define logical segments; END, ENDP, ENDS to mark ends; EQU to define constants; PROC and ENDP to define procedures; ORG to set the location counter; SEGMENT to define logical segments; GROUP, INCLUDE, EVEN, and ALIGN for segment organization; EXTRN and PUBLIC for external references; and TYPE and PTR for defining variable types. The directives provide necessary information to the assembler to understand assembly language programs and generate machine code.
This document provides an introduction to fundamentals of programming with C#, including definitions of key concepts like algorithms, variables, data types, operators, and conditional statements. It explains that programming involves describing what you want the computer to do as a sequence of steps or algorithms. The stages of software development are outlined as gathering requirements, planning/design, implementation, testing, deployment, support, and documentation. An overview of C# programming language fundamentals is also provided, such as basic syntax structure, defining classes and methods, and using the console for input/output.
This document provides an introduction to embedded C programming. It defines embedded C as an extension of the C programming language used to develop microcontroller-based applications. The key differences between embedded C and standard C are that embedded C is hardware dependent, compiler dependent, and used for limited resource microcontrollers. The document outlines the basic structure of embedded C programs and lists some common data types and keywords. It also discusses variables, arrays, control structures, functions and macros that are often used in embedded C.
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The document provides an introduction to assembly language programming including:
- The basic elements of assembly language such as instructions, directives, constants, identifiers, and comments.
- A flat memory program template that includes TITLE, MODEL, STACK, DATA, CODE, and other directives.
- An example program that adds and subtracts integers and calls a procedure to display registers.
- An overview of the assemble-link-debug cycle used to develop assembly language programs.
This document provides an overview of programming in C. It discusses the importance of C as the base language for other programming languages and its efficiency. The basic structure of a C program is outlined as having documentation, include, define, global declaration, and main sections. Interpreters and compilers are explained as the two methods for running C programs, with compilers producing faster executable programs. Key aspects of C as a language are covered such as variables, data types, and constants.
C was developed in the 1970s and is a popular and widely used programming language today. It is well-suited for systems programming and embedded systems due to its portability, efficiency, and ability to access hardware. A C program consists of functions written in a logical sequence to perform tasks. The main function is the starting point and every program must contain one. C programs are compiled in two steps - preprocessing and compilation - to create an executable binary file.
C was developed in the 1970s and is a popular programming language used widely for systems programming and other applications. The document discusses the history and characteristics of C, the structure of C programs including functions and files used, basic syntax elements like variables, data types, constants and comments. It also covers compiling and executing C programs.
Assembler directives and basic steps ALP of 8086Urvashi Singh
The document discusses various assembler directives used in assembly language programming. It describes directives like DB, DW, DD, DQ, DT for data declaration; ASSUME to define logical segments; END, ENDP, ENDS to mark ends; EQU to define constants; PROC and ENDP to define procedures; ORG to set the location counter; SEGMENT to define logical segments; GROUP, INCLUDE, EVEN, and ALIGN for segment organization; EXTRN and PUBLIC for external references; and TYPE and PTR for defining variable types. The directives provide necessary information to the assembler to understand assembly language programs and generate machine code.
This document provides an introduction to fundamentals of programming with C#, including definitions of key concepts like algorithms, variables, data types, operators, and conditional statements. It explains that programming involves describing what you want the computer to do as a sequence of steps or algorithms. The stages of software development are outlined as gathering requirements, planning/design, implementation, testing, deployment, support, and documentation. An overview of C# programming language fundamentals is also provided, such as basic syntax structure, defining classes and methods, and using the console for input/output.
This document provides an introduction to embedded C programming. It defines embedded C as an extension of the C programming language used to develop microcontroller-based applications. The key differences between embedded C and standard C are that embedded C is hardware dependent, compiler dependent, and used for limited resource microcontrollers. The document outlines the basic structure of embedded C programs and lists some common data types and keywords. It also discusses variables, arrays, control structures, functions and macros that are often used in embedded C.
Do you want to learn basic information about the c Language?
Yes!
That’s great.
This pdf is the right choice for you.
Here, I will provide you all the basic information about C language.
You can visit our blog to enjoy our original post.
The document provides an introduction to assembly language programming including:
- The basic elements of assembly language such as instructions, directives, constants, identifiers, and comments.
- A flat memory program template that includes TITLE, MODEL, STACK, DATA, CODE, and other directives.
- An example program that adds and subtracts integers and calls a procedure to display registers.
- An overview of the assemble-link-debug cycle used to develop assembly language programs.
This document provides an overview of programming in C. It discusses the importance of C as the base language for other programming languages and its efficiency. The basic structure of a C program is outlined as having documentation, include, define, global declaration, and main sections. Interpreters and compilers are explained as the two methods for running C programs, with compilers producing faster executable programs. Key aspects of C as a language are covered such as variables, data types, and constants.
C was developed in the 1970s and is a popular and widely used programming language today. It is well-suited for systems programming and embedded systems due to its portability, efficiency, and ability to access hardware. A C program consists of functions written in a logical sequence to perform tasks. The main function is the starting point and every program must contain one. C programs are compiled in two steps - preprocessing and compilation - to create an executable binary file.
C was developed in the 1970s and is a popular programming language used widely for systems programming and other applications. The document discusses the history and characteristics of C, the structure of C programs including functions and files used, basic syntax elements like variables, data types, constants and comments. It also covers compiling and executing C programs.
Chapter-2 edited on Programming in Can refer this pptANISHYAPIT
C was developed in the 1970s and is a popular and widely used programming language today. It is well suited for systems programming due to its portability, efficiency, and ability to access hardware. A C program consists of functions written in a logical sequence to perform tasks. Key aspects of C include its small size, support for pointers and structures, and suitability for both low-level and structured programming.
Flutter is an open source framework that allows developers to build high-quality, high-performance mobile apps for Android and iOS using a single codebase written in Dart. It provides reusable widgets and supports features like hot reload for fast development. Flutter's advantages include single codebase for multiple platforms, high performance, and beautiful UI widgets. Its disadvantages are needing to learn a new language (Dart) and mixing of logic and UI. Dart is an object-oriented language used in Flutter that supports concepts like classes, objects, inheritance and polymorphism.
This document discusses programming concepts such as variables, constants, data types, and program structure. It defines key terms like:
- Variables which store changing data in memory and are assigned a data type. Constants store fixed values.
- Data types include integers, reals, Booleans, strings, characters which determine how data is stored and processed.
- Programs use statements, selection (if/else), and repetition (loops). Procedures and functions are subroutines that can optionally return values.
- Parameters pass values to subroutines to influence their behavior. Variables can be global or local in scope, influencing where they are accessible.
This document discusses assembly language directives and mixed-mode programming. It provides examples of assembly directives like .byte, .word, .section that reserve data locations and section code. It also discusses using inline assembly in C/C++ programs and the rules for calling assembly routines from high-level languages.
COBOL programming language.
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Programming involves using assembly language as the common language between the programmer and microcontroller. Assembly language is translated into machine language (binary) by an assembler. Basic elements of assembly language include labels, instructions, operands, directives, and comments. Assembly language programs define parameters like the oscillator type and use directives like _CONFIG to set configuration bits before writing the code. Control directives like IF, WHILE, and FOR are used for conditional programming.
The document provides information about C programming language and its features. It discusses the basic structure of a C program which includes documentation, link, definition, global declaration, main function, and sub-program sections. It also describes the four steps to execute a C program: create, compile, link, and execute. Different forms of the main statement in C are discussed including main(), main(void), int main(), void main(), void main(void), and int main(void).
The document discusses the Objective-C preprocessor and underlying C language features. It covers preprocessor directives like #define, #import, #include, and #undef. It also discusses arrays, structures, pointers, functions, and how Objective-C works with C at a low level. Blocks in Objective-C are described as being similar to functions but having some differences like needing to be declared in .m files instead of .h headers.
C is a general purpose programming language that is like a sea - its depths cannot fully be explored even after years of practice. The document discusses the history of C and other programming languages it evolved from like B, highlights C's importance and flexibility. It also covers basic C programming concepts like data types, operators, statements and functions. The last few sections describe structures, unions, pointers and how to write and execute a simple C program.
Introduction to Programming Fundamentals 3.pdfAbrehamKassa
The document discusses various programming constructs in C++ including IDEs, writing source code, saving and compiling source files, and dealing with errors. It also covers C++ statements, expressions, variables, data types, literals, symbolic constants, and identifiers. Key points include how to write, save, compile and run a C++ program, declare variables, and use constants. Symbolic constants are preferable to literal values as they allow easy program modification.
Data Services Functions provides examples of using the Data Services scripting language to perform numeric conversions between binary, octal, decimal, and hexadecimal. Functions are demonstrated to convert hexadecimal to binary and binary to octal. Techniques like commenting code, setting variables, using loops and conditions, padding values, and calling nested functions are illustrated to accomplish the conversions in a reusable way. The document concludes that Data Services scripting allows maintaining code in one location rather than relying on external tools.
The document provides an overview of the C programming language and some key concepts related to it. It discusses C as a programming language developed in 1972, its features such as being case sensitive and supporting libraries and functions. It also defines some common C terms like header files, IDEs, keywords, variables and data types. Loops such as for, while and do-while loops are explained along with input/output functions like printf, scanf and control structures in programming.
The document provides information about preparing for a technical interview, including:
- Check the company profile, areas of interest, and domain to understand what may be asked.
- Be prepared to discuss your fundamental computer engineering knowledge as well as one or two subjects you are interested in and knowledgeable about.
- Also prepare to discuss your past project work and the latest technologies.
- Key topics that may be covered include C, C++, data structures, algorithms, databases, operating systems, networks, and various programming languages.
- Understanding pointers, memory allocation functions, structures, unions, classes, inheritance and polymorphism in C/C++ is also important for technical interviews.
This document outlines the basics of assembly language, including basic elements, statements, program data, variables, constants, instructions, translation to assembly language, and program structure. It discusses statement syntax, valid names, operation and operand fields. It also covers common instructions like MOV, ADD, SUB, INC, DEC, and NEG. Finally, it discusses program segments, memory models, and how to define the data, stack, and code segments.
The document provides an introduction to algorithms and key concepts related to algorithms such as definition, features, examples, flowcharts, pseudocode. It also discusses different types of programming languages from first to fifth generation. Key points of structured programming approach and introduction to C programming language are explained including data types, variables, constants, input/output functions, operators, type conversion etc.
C programming language tutorial for beginers.pdfComedyTechnology
This document provides an introduction and overview of the basics of C programming language. It discusses the following key topics in 3 or less sentences each:
- Introduction to programming and computer languages.
- Introduction to C programming, its history, uses, and why it is widely used.
- Program structure in C, including main functions, printf statements, comments, and return values.
- Basic syntax rules in C including semicolons, comments, identifiers, and whitespace.
- Common data types in C like char, int, float, and double and their purposes.
- How variables are named, defined through data type declaration, and initialized in C code.
- Common operators in
This document provides an overview of assembly language programming. It discusses what assembly language is, the advantages of using assembly language, how assemblers work to translate assembly code into machine code, the role of linkers in combining object files, and how debuggers can be used to debug assembly code. It also covers various assembly language directives like PROC, ENDP, CALL, RET, DB, DW, DD, and DS which are used to define procedures, call procedures, and reserve and initialize memory. The document concludes with a brief description of macros in assembly language.
This document provides an overview of basic programming concepts for students to understand, including:
1) Comments, preprocessor directives, header files, the main function, identifiers, special symbols, and punctuation that are elements of programming languages.
2) Explanations and examples of each concept like how comments annotate source code, preprocessor directives process special instructions, and header files contain function declarations.
3) The goal for students to be able to identify and understand these fundamental programming concepts after completing this chapter.
Chapter-2 edited on Programming in Can refer this pptANISHYAPIT
C was developed in the 1970s and is a popular and widely used programming language today. It is well suited for systems programming due to its portability, efficiency, and ability to access hardware. A C program consists of functions written in a logical sequence to perform tasks. Key aspects of C include its small size, support for pointers and structures, and suitability for both low-level and structured programming.
Flutter is an open source framework that allows developers to build high-quality, high-performance mobile apps for Android and iOS using a single codebase written in Dart. It provides reusable widgets and supports features like hot reload for fast development. Flutter's advantages include single codebase for multiple platforms, high performance, and beautiful UI widgets. Its disadvantages are needing to learn a new language (Dart) and mixing of logic and UI. Dart is an object-oriented language used in Flutter that supports concepts like classes, objects, inheritance and polymorphism.
This document discusses programming concepts such as variables, constants, data types, and program structure. It defines key terms like:
- Variables which store changing data in memory and are assigned a data type. Constants store fixed values.
- Data types include integers, reals, Booleans, strings, characters which determine how data is stored and processed.
- Programs use statements, selection (if/else), and repetition (loops). Procedures and functions are subroutines that can optionally return values.
- Parameters pass values to subroutines to influence their behavior. Variables can be global or local in scope, influencing where they are accessible.
This document discusses assembly language directives and mixed-mode programming. It provides examples of assembly directives like .byte, .word, .section that reserve data locations and section code. It also discusses using inline assembly in C/C++ programs and the rules for calling assembly routines from high-level languages.
COBOL programming language.
Watch my videos on snack here: --> --> http://sck.io/x-B1f0Iy
@ Kindly Follow my Instagram Page to discuss about your mental health problems-
-----> https://instagram.com/mentality_streak?utm_medium=copy_link
@ Appreciate my work:
-----> behance.net/burhanahmed1
Thank-you !
Programming involves using assembly language as the common language between the programmer and microcontroller. Assembly language is translated into machine language (binary) by an assembler. Basic elements of assembly language include labels, instructions, operands, directives, and comments. Assembly language programs define parameters like the oscillator type and use directives like _CONFIG to set configuration bits before writing the code. Control directives like IF, WHILE, and FOR are used for conditional programming.
The document provides information about C programming language and its features. It discusses the basic structure of a C program which includes documentation, link, definition, global declaration, main function, and sub-program sections. It also describes the four steps to execute a C program: create, compile, link, and execute. Different forms of the main statement in C are discussed including main(), main(void), int main(), void main(), void main(void), and int main(void).
The document discusses the Objective-C preprocessor and underlying C language features. It covers preprocessor directives like #define, #import, #include, and #undef. It also discusses arrays, structures, pointers, functions, and how Objective-C works with C at a low level. Blocks in Objective-C are described as being similar to functions but having some differences like needing to be declared in .m files instead of .h headers.
C is a general purpose programming language that is like a sea - its depths cannot fully be explored even after years of practice. The document discusses the history of C and other programming languages it evolved from like B, highlights C's importance and flexibility. It also covers basic C programming concepts like data types, operators, statements and functions. The last few sections describe structures, unions, pointers and how to write and execute a simple C program.
Introduction to Programming Fundamentals 3.pdfAbrehamKassa
The document discusses various programming constructs in C++ including IDEs, writing source code, saving and compiling source files, and dealing with errors. It also covers C++ statements, expressions, variables, data types, literals, symbolic constants, and identifiers. Key points include how to write, save, compile and run a C++ program, declare variables, and use constants. Symbolic constants are preferable to literal values as they allow easy program modification.
Data Services Functions provides examples of using the Data Services scripting language to perform numeric conversions between binary, octal, decimal, and hexadecimal. Functions are demonstrated to convert hexadecimal to binary and binary to octal. Techniques like commenting code, setting variables, using loops and conditions, padding values, and calling nested functions are illustrated to accomplish the conversions in a reusable way. The document concludes that Data Services scripting allows maintaining code in one location rather than relying on external tools.
The document provides an overview of the C programming language and some key concepts related to it. It discusses C as a programming language developed in 1972, its features such as being case sensitive and supporting libraries and functions. It also defines some common C terms like header files, IDEs, keywords, variables and data types. Loops such as for, while and do-while loops are explained along with input/output functions like printf, scanf and control structures in programming.
The document provides information about preparing for a technical interview, including:
- Check the company profile, areas of interest, and domain to understand what may be asked.
- Be prepared to discuss your fundamental computer engineering knowledge as well as one or two subjects you are interested in and knowledgeable about.
- Also prepare to discuss your past project work and the latest technologies.
- Key topics that may be covered include C, C++, data structures, algorithms, databases, operating systems, networks, and various programming languages.
- Understanding pointers, memory allocation functions, structures, unions, classes, inheritance and polymorphism in C/C++ is also important for technical interviews.
This document outlines the basics of assembly language, including basic elements, statements, program data, variables, constants, instructions, translation to assembly language, and program structure. It discusses statement syntax, valid names, operation and operand fields. It also covers common instructions like MOV, ADD, SUB, INC, DEC, and NEG. Finally, it discusses program segments, memory models, and how to define the data, stack, and code segments.
The document provides an introduction to algorithms and key concepts related to algorithms such as definition, features, examples, flowcharts, pseudocode. It also discusses different types of programming languages from first to fifth generation. Key points of structured programming approach and introduction to C programming language are explained including data types, variables, constants, input/output functions, operators, type conversion etc.
C programming language tutorial for beginers.pdfComedyTechnology
This document provides an introduction and overview of the basics of C programming language. It discusses the following key topics in 3 or less sentences each:
- Introduction to programming and computer languages.
- Introduction to C programming, its history, uses, and why it is widely used.
- Program structure in C, including main functions, printf statements, comments, and return values.
- Basic syntax rules in C including semicolons, comments, identifiers, and whitespace.
- Common data types in C like char, int, float, and double and their purposes.
- How variables are named, defined through data type declaration, and initialized in C code.
- Common operators in
This document provides an overview of assembly language programming. It discusses what assembly language is, the advantages of using assembly language, how assemblers work to translate assembly code into machine code, the role of linkers in combining object files, and how debuggers can be used to debug assembly code. It also covers various assembly language directives like PROC, ENDP, CALL, RET, DB, DW, DD, and DS which are used to define procedures, call procedures, and reserve and initialize memory. The document concludes with a brief description of macros in assembly language.
This document provides an overview of basic programming concepts for students to understand, including:
1) Comments, preprocessor directives, header files, the main function, identifiers, special symbols, and punctuation that are elements of programming languages.
2) Explanations and examples of each concept like how comments annotate source code, preprocessor directives process special instructions, and header files contain function declarations.
3) The goal for students to be able to identify and understand these fundamental programming concepts after completing this chapter.
Understanding Inductive Bias in Machine LearningSUTEJAS
This presentation explores the concept of inductive bias in machine learning. It explains how algorithms come with built-in assumptions and preferences that guide the learning process. You'll learn about the different types of inductive bias and how they can impact the performance and generalizability of machine learning models.
The presentation also covers the positive and negative aspects of inductive bias, along with strategies for mitigating potential drawbacks. We'll explore examples of how bias manifests in algorithms like neural networks and decision trees.
By understanding inductive bias, you can gain valuable insights into how machine learning models work and make informed decisions when building and deploying them.
Literature Review Basics and Understanding Reference Management.pptxDr Ramhari Poudyal
Three-day training on academic research focuses on analytical tools at United Technical College, supported by the University Grant Commission, Nepal. 24-26 May 2024
Batteries -Introduction – Types of Batteries – discharging and charging of battery - characteristics of battery –battery rating- various tests on battery- – Primary battery: silver button cell- Secondary battery :Ni-Cd battery-modern battery: lithium ion battery-maintenance of batteries-choices of batteries for electric vehicle applications.
Fuel Cells: Introduction- importance and classification of fuel cells - description, principle, components, applications of fuel cells: H2-O2 fuel cell, alkaline fuel cell, molten carbonate fuel cell and direct methanol fuel cells.
A review on techniques and modelling methodologies used for checking electrom...nooriasukmaningtyas
The proper function of the integrated circuit (IC) in an inhibiting electromagnetic environment has always been a serious concern throughout the decades of revolution in the world of electronics, from disjunct devices to today’s integrated circuit technology, where billions of transistors are combined on a single chip. The automotive industry and smart vehicles in particular, are confronting design issues such as being prone to electromagnetic interference (EMI). Electronic control devices calculate incorrect outputs because of EMI and sensors give misleading values which can prove fatal in case of automotives. In this paper, the authors have non exhaustively tried to review research work concerned with the investigation of EMI in ICs and prediction of this EMI using various modelling methodologies and measurement setups.
Presentation of IEEE Slovenia CIS (Computational Intelligence Society) Chapte...University of Maribor
Slides from talk presenting:
Aleš Zamuda: Presentation of IEEE Slovenia CIS (Computational Intelligence Society) Chapter and Networking.
Presentation at IcETRAN 2024 session:
"Inter-Society Networking Panel GRSS/MTT-S/CIS
Panel Session: Promoting Connection and Cooperation"
IEEE Slovenia GRSS
IEEE Serbia and Montenegro MTT-S
IEEE Slovenia CIS
11TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ELECTRICAL, ELECTRONIC AND COMPUTING ENGINEERING
3-6 June 2024, Niš, Serbia
Using recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) for pavements is crucial to achieving sustainability. Implementing RCA for new pavement can minimize carbon footprint, conserve natural resources, reduce harmful emissions, and lower life cycle costs. Compared to natural aggregate (NA), RCA pavement has fewer comprehensive studies and sustainability assessments.
Comparative analysis between traditional aquaponics and reconstructed aquapon...bijceesjournal
The aquaponic system of planting is a method that does not require soil usage. It is a method that only needs water, fish, lava rocks (a substitute for soil), and plants. Aquaponic systems are sustainable and environmentally friendly. Its use not only helps to plant in small spaces but also helps reduce artificial chemical use and minimizes excess water use, as aquaponics consumes 90% less water than soil-based gardening. The study applied a descriptive and experimental design to assess and compare conventional and reconstructed aquaponic methods for reproducing tomatoes. The researchers created an observation checklist to determine the significant factors of the study. The study aims to determine the significant difference between traditional aquaponics and reconstructed aquaponics systems propagating tomatoes in terms of height, weight, girth, and number of fruits. The reconstructed aquaponics system’s higher growth yield results in a much more nourished crop than the traditional aquaponics system. It is superior in its number of fruits, height, weight, and girth measurement. Moreover, the reconstructed aquaponics system is proven to eliminate all the hindrances present in the traditional aquaponics system, which are overcrowding of fish, algae growth, pest problems, contaminated water, and dead fish.
International Conference on NLP, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning an...gerogepatton
International Conference on NLP, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning and Applications (NLAIM 2024) offers a premier global platform for exchanging insights and findings in the theory, methodology, and applications of NLP, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, and their applications. The conference seeks substantial contributions across all key domains of NLP, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, and their practical applications, aiming to foster both theoretical advancements and real-world implementations. With a focus on facilitating collaboration between researchers and practitioners from academia and industry, the conference serves as a nexus for sharing the latest developments in the field.
Electric vehicle and photovoltaic advanced roles in enhancing the financial p...IJECEIAES
Climate change's impact on the planet forced the United Nations and governments to promote green energies and electric transportation. The deployments of photovoltaic (PV) and electric vehicle (EV) systems gained stronger momentum due to their numerous advantages over fossil fuel types. The advantages go beyond sustainability to reach financial support and stability. The work in this paper introduces the hybrid system between PV and EV to support industrial and commercial plants. This paper covers the theoretical framework of the proposed hybrid system including the required equation to complete the cost analysis when PV and EV are present. In addition, the proposed design diagram which sets the priorities and requirements of the system is presented. The proposed approach allows setup to advance their power stability, especially during power outages. The presented information supports researchers and plant owners to complete the necessary analysis while promoting the deployment of clean energy. The result of a case study that represents a dairy milk farmer supports the theoretical works and highlights its advanced benefits to existing plants. The short return on investment of the proposed approach supports the paper's novelty approach for the sustainable electrical system. In addition, the proposed system allows for an isolated power setup without the need for a transmission line which enhances the safety of the electrical network
Advanced control scheme of doubly fed induction generator for wind turbine us...IJECEIAES
This paper describes a speed control device for generating electrical energy on an electricity network based on the doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) used for wind power conversion systems. At first, a double-fed induction generator model was constructed. A control law is formulated to govern the flow of energy between the stator of a DFIG and the energy network using three types of controllers: proportional integral (PI), sliding mode controller (SMC) and second order sliding mode controller (SOSMC). Their different results in terms of power reference tracking, reaction to unexpected speed fluctuations, sensitivity to perturbations, and resilience against machine parameter alterations are compared. MATLAB/Simulink was used to conduct the simulations for the preceding study. Multiple simulations have shown very satisfying results, and the investigations demonstrate the efficacy and power-enhancing capabilities of the suggested control system.
TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING TECHNIQUE FOR COMMUNICATION SYSTEMHODECEDSIET
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a method of transmitting multiple signals over a single communication channel by dividing the signal into many segments, each having a very short duration of time. These time slots are then allocated to different data streams, allowing multiple signals to share the same transmission medium efficiently. TDM is widely used in telecommunications and data communication systems.
### How TDM Works
1. **Time Slots Allocation**: The core principle of TDM is to assign distinct time slots to each signal. During each time slot, the respective signal is transmitted, and then the process repeats cyclically. For example, if there are four signals to be transmitted, the TDM cycle will divide time into four slots, each assigned to one signal.
2. **Synchronization**: Synchronization is crucial in TDM systems to ensure that the signals are correctly aligned with their respective time slots. Both the transmitter and receiver must be synchronized to avoid any overlap or loss of data. This synchronization is typically maintained by a clock signal that ensures time slots are accurately aligned.
3. **Frame Structure**: TDM data is organized into frames, where each frame consists of a set of time slots. Each frame is repeated at regular intervals, ensuring continuous transmission of data streams. The frame structure helps in managing the data streams and maintaining the synchronization between the transmitter and receiver.
4. **Multiplexer and Demultiplexer**: At the transmitting end, a multiplexer combines multiple input signals into a single composite signal by assigning each signal to a specific time slot. At the receiving end, a demultiplexer separates the composite signal back into individual signals based on their respective time slots.
### Types of TDM
1. **Synchronous TDM**: In synchronous TDM, time slots are pre-assigned to each signal, regardless of whether the signal has data to transmit or not. This can lead to inefficiencies if some time slots remain empty due to the absence of data.
2. **Asynchronous TDM (or Statistical TDM)**: Asynchronous TDM addresses the inefficiencies of synchronous TDM by allocating time slots dynamically based on the presence of data. Time slots are assigned only when there is data to transmit, which optimizes the use of the communication channel.
### Applications of TDM
- **Telecommunications**: TDM is extensively used in telecommunication systems, such as in T1 and E1 lines, where multiple telephone calls are transmitted over a single line by assigning each call to a specific time slot.
- **Digital Audio and Video Broadcasting**: TDM is used in broadcasting systems to transmit multiple audio or video streams over a single channel, ensuring efficient use of bandwidth.
- **Computer Networks**: TDM is used in network protocols and systems to manage the transmission of data from multiple sources over a single network medium.
### Advantages of TDM
- **Efficient Use of Bandwidth**: TDM all
2. Program Development Step
🞇 List the program development steps for
assembly language programming:-
1. Defining the problem
2. Algorithm
3. Flowchart
4. Initialization checklist
5. Choosing instructions
6.Converting algorithms to assembly language program
3. 1. Defining the problem
The first step in writing program is to think very
carefully about the problem that you want to solve.
At this point you need to write down program
but you must know what you would like to do.
4. 2. Algorithm
The formula or sequence of operation or tasks need
to perform by your program.
Can be specified as a step in general English and
is often called as algorithm.
5. 3. Flowchart
The flowchart is a graphically representation of
the program operation or task.
Connector
Process
Decision
Input
/Output
Subroutine
Termination
6. 4. Initialization checklist
In program there are many Variables, Constants and
various Segment Registers, Flags, Stack,
Programmable ports etc. which must be initialize
properly.
The best way to initialization of task is to make
the checklist of the entire Variables, Constants and
various Segment Registers, Flags, Stack,
Programmable ports etc.
7. 5. Choosing instructions
your
Choose proper instruction that performs
problems or task.
This is an important step, so you must know
entire instruction set of the Microprocessor.
8. 6. Converting algorithms to
assembly language program
Select the instruction for the operation to be
performed.
In assembly language program, a first step is to
set up and declare the data structure.
Then write down the instruction required for
initialization at the start of the code screen.
Next determine the instructions required to
implement the major action in the algorithm.
10. 1.Editor
An editor is a program which helps to construct
ALP in right format so that the assembler will
translate it correctly to machine language.
So type program using Editor.
This form of program is called as source
program.
11. 2.Assembler
Assembler is a program that translates assembly
language program to the correct binary code.
It also generates the file called as object file with
extension .obj.
It also displays syntax errors in the program, if any.
Example ofAssembler are MASM (Microsoft Macro
Assembler.
12. 3.Linker
It is a programming tool used to convert Object
code into executable program called .EXE module.
It combines, if requested, more than one separated
assembled modules into one executable module
such as two or more assembly programs or an
assembly language with C program.
13. 4.Debugger
Debugger is a program that allows the execution
of program in single step mode under the control
of the user.
The errors in program can be located and corrected
using a debugger.
Debugger generates .exe file.
14. Program Development Process
1. Source file creation
2. Object code generation
3. Executable file creation
4. Program Running
5. Program Testing
6. Program Debugging
15. 1 Source file creation:-
The source file is created and edited using
text editor and must have extension .ASM.
2 Object code generation:-
The assembler is used to translate assembly
language source code to re-locatable object
code.
16. 3 Executable file creation:-
Linker is used to create an executable file.
4 Program Running:-
The executable file can be run by entering the
name of executable file on the prompt and by
passing ENTER key on the keyboard.
17. 5 Program Testing:-
The result or output generated by the program has
to be tested for their validity.
If any error occurs in the result, then program
should be debug.
6 Program Debugging:-
The errors in the program can be located using
debugger.
The executable file of the program to be
debugged must be created with the program
debug option.
18. Assembler Directives and
Operator
Assembly language program supports a number of
reserve word i.e. key words that enable control of
program assembler and lists.
These words are called as aAssembler Directives,
acts only during the assembly of the program.
So, directives are the statement that gives direction
to the assembler.
Directives are divided into various categories.
19. Data Definition Directives
DB : Define Bytes
DW : Define Words
DD : Define Double Word
DQ : Define Quad Word
DT : Define Ten Byte
STRUCT : Structure Declaration
RECORD
EQU : Equate to
ORG : Originate
ALIGN : Alignment of memory addresses.
EVEN : Align as even memory location
LABEL
20. DB:Define Bytes
DB - Define byte (8 bits)
It is used to declare a byte type variable of 8 bit. It
also can be used to declare an array of bytes.
The range of values that can be stored in a byte is 0
to 255 for unsigned numbers and –128 to +128 for
signed numbers.
General form:-
🞇 Name_Of_Variable DB → Initialization _Value(,s)
21. DW:Define Words
The DW directive is used to define word type (16bit)
instead of bytes.
The range of values that can be stored in a word is 0
to 655535 for unsigned numbers and -32768 to
+32768 for signed numbers.
General form:-
🞇 Name _ Of_Variable DW→ Initialization _ Value(,s)
22. Define Double Word
The DD directive is used to define a double
word type i.e. 4byte (32 bits)type variable.
The range of the values that can be stored in a
double word is 0 to 232-1 for unsigned no. and
signed integer no is -232-1 to +232-1
General form:-
🞇 Name _ Of_Variable DD → Initialization _ Value(,s)
23. DQ( Define Quad Word)
This is used to define a quad word (64-bit)or 8
byte type variable.
The range of the values that can be stored in a
double word is 0 to 264-1 for unsigned no. and
signed integer no is -264-1 to +264-1
General form:-
🞇 Name _ Of_Variable DQ → Initialization _ Value(,s)
24. DT:Define Ten Byte
The DT Directive is used to define a ten byte
type variable.
It can be used to define single or multiple
10 byte variables.
The range of the values that can be stored is 0
to 280-1 for unsigned no. and signed integer no
is -280-1 to +280-1
General form:-
🞇 Name _ Of_Variable DT → Initialization _ Value(,s)
25. STRUCT: Structure Declaration
The directive STRUCT is used to declare the data
type which is a collection of primary data type
(DB,DW,DD).
The structure declaration allow the user to define a
variable which has more than one data type.
General form:-
26. STRUCT
Structure variable definition
The general form of a structure definition is as
follows:
🞇 Variable Structure _ Name<Initializations>
🞇 Example
🞇 EMPLOYEE STRUCT
🞇 EMP_N
🞇
DW ?
EMP_NAME DB 25DUP
🞇 EMP_AGE DB
🞇 EMP_DEPT DB ?
🞇 EMPLOYEE ENDS
27. RECORD
The directive RECORD is used to define a bit
pattern within a byte or a word.
It is similar to the bit-wise access in C
language.
The RECORD definition helps in encoding or
decoding of bit for which some meaning is
assigned.
29. EQU: Equate to
The EQU directive is used to declare the
symbols to which some constant value is
assigned.
Such symbols are called as macro symbols , so
macro assembler will replace every occurrences
of the symbol in a program by its value.
31. ORG: Originate
The directives ORG assigns the location
counter with the value specified in the directive.
General form
ORG [$+] Numeric_value
Examples
ORG 100H
ORG $
ORG $+100
32. ALIGN: Alignment of memory
addresses.
The directive ALIGN is used to force the
assembler to align the next data item or
instruction according to given value.
General form
Examples
ALIGN Numeric_Value
ALIGN 4 Align 4 means : align next data and
division by 4.
33. EVEN: Align as even memory
location
The directive EVEN is used to inform the assembler
to increment the location counter to the next even
memory address.
If it is location counter is already pointing to even
memory address, it should not be incremented.
The 8086 processor read a word from the memory
in one bus cycle while accessing an even memory
address word.
35. LABEL
The directive LABEL enables you to redefine
the attribute of a data variable or instruction
label.
General form
Variable_Name LABEL Type_Specifier
Examples
TEMP LABEL BYTE
NUMLABEL WORD
36. DUP:Duplicate memory
location
The DUP directive can be used to generate
multiple bytes or words with known as well as
un-initialized values.
Example General form : DUP?
Table dw
Stars db
ARRAY3
100DUP(0)
50 dup(’*’)
DB30 DUP(?)
37. Program Organization
Directive
ASSUME
SEGMENT
ENDS: END OF THE SEGMENT
END: END OF THE PROGRAM
CODE: Simplified CODE Segment directive
DATA: Simplified DA
TA Segment directive
STACK: Simplified Stack Segment directive
MODEL: Memory model declaration for
segments.
38. Program Organization
Directive :ASSUME
The directive ASSUME informs the
assembler the name of the logical segments
that should be used for a specified segment.
When program is loaded, the processor segment
register should point to the respective logical
segments.
39. ASSUME
General form:
ASSUME
Seg _ Reg: Seg _ Name
Where,ASSUME is a assembler directive.
Seg _ Reg is any of the segment register
i.e. CS,DS,SS,ES.
Seg _ Name is the name of an user defined segment.
Example
ASSUME CS:CODE,DS:DATA.
40. Program Organization
Directive : SEGMENT
The directive SEGMENT is used to indicate the
beginning of the logical segment.
The directive SEGMENT follows the name of
the segment.
41. SEGMENT
General form:
SEGMENT
SEGMENT _ Name SEGMENT
Example
DATASEGMENT ………
Program Data definition here
DATAENDS
CODE SEGMENT ………
Program Code definition here
CODE ENDS
42. Program Organization
Directive :ENDS
ENDS: END OFTHE SEGMENT
The directive ENDS informs the assembler the end
of the segment.
The directive ENDS and SEGMENT must
enclosed the segment data or code of the program.
43. ENDS
General form:
ENDS
SEGMENT _ Name ENDS
Example
DATASEGMENT ………
Program Data definition here
DATAENDS
CODE SEGMENT ………
Program Code definition here
CODE ENDS
44. Program Organization
Directive : END
END:END OFTHE PROGRAM
The directive END is used to inform assembler
the end of the program.
General form: END
END [Start_Address]
The optional start _ address specifies the
location in the code segment where execution is
to be start.
45. Program Organization
Directive : CODE
CODE: Simplified CODE Segment directive
This simplified segment directive defines the
code segment.
All executable code must be placed in this
segment.
General form: CODE
.CODE[NAME]
46. Program Organization
Directive : DATA
DATA: Simplified DATASegment directive
This simplified segment directive defines the data
segment for initialized near data.
All data define and declaration must be placed in
this segment.
General form: DATA
.DATA
47. Program Organization
Directive : STACK
STACK: Simplified Stack Segment directive
This simplified segment directive define the
stack segment
Default size of the stack is 1024 bytes.
General form: STACK
. STACK 100
48. Program Organization
Directive: MODEL
MODEL: Memory model declaration for segments.
This simplified segment directive creates default
segments.
General form: MODEL
.MODEL memory _ small
WHERE,
Memory model can be…
TINY: MASM 6.0, used for .COM program.
SMALL: all data in one segment and all code in one
segment.
50. Value Returning Attribute
Directive :LENGTH
The directive LENGTH informs the assembler
about the number of the elements in a data
items such as array.
If the array is defined with DB, then it returns
number of bytes allocated to a variable.
52. Value Returning Attribute
Directive :SIZE
The directive SIZE is same as Length except
that it returns number of bytes allocated to a
variable or data item instead of the number of
elements in it.
General form:-
SIZE Variable _ Name
EXAMPLE:-
MOV CX, SIZE NAME
53. Value Returning Attribute
Directive :OFFSET
The directive OFFSET informs the assembler to
determine the displacement of the specified
variable w.r.to the base of the segment.
It usually used to load a offset of a variable
into the register.
Using OFFSET value, a variable can be
referred indexed addressing mode.
55. Value Returning Attribute
Directive :SEG
The directive SEG is used to determine the
segment in which the specified data items
is defined.
General form:-
SEG Variable _ Name
EXAMPLE:-
MOV DS, SEG MSG
56. Value Returning Attribute
Directive :TYPE
The directive TYPE is used to determine the
type of the data items.
General form:-
TYPE Variable _ Name
EXAMPLE:-
ADD BX, TYPE NUM
58. Procedure Definition Directive
: PROC
PROC - The PROC directive is used to identify
the start of a procedure.
The term near or far is used to specify the type of
the procedure if the term is not specified , then
assembler assumes NEAR as a type Specifies.
General Form:
🞇 Procedure _ name PROC [NEAR/FAR]
60. Procedure Definition Directive
: ENDP
ENDP: END OF PROCEDURE
ENDP The directive is used along with the
name of the procedure to indicate the end of a
procedure to the assembler.
General Form : Procedure _ name ENDP
EXAMPLE: FACTORIAL ENDP
62. MACRO Definition Directive:-
MACRO
MACRO:
The directive MACRO informs the assembler
the beginning of a MACRO.
It consists of name of a MACRO followed by
keyword MACRO and MACROARGUMENT.
General Form :
MACRO_ NAME MACRO [ARGUMENT 1
….,…..ARGUMENT N]
63. MACRO
Example :-
DISPMACRO MSG … whose name is display by MACRO
PUSHAX
PUSH DX
MOVAH, 09H
LEADX ,MSG
INT 21H
POPDX
POPAX
ENDM
…… open subroutine
…… open subroutine
…… Read the string, 09h is function
to display string
…… Load effective address
……Termination of program with
a return code
…… Avoiding overhead of writing the
repeat pattern of the code.
…… End of MACRO
64. MACRO Definition Directive
:ENDM
ENDM: END OF MACRO
The directive ENDM informs the assembler
the end of the MACRO.
The directive MACRO and ENDM must
enclose the definition, declaration.
General Form :
ENDM
65. ENDM
Example :-
DISPMACRO MSG …whose name is display by MACRO
PUSHAX
PUSH DX
MOVAH, 09H
LEADX ,MSG
INT 21H
POPDX
POPAX
ENDM
…… open subroutine
…… open subroutine
…… Read the string, 09h is function
to display string
…… Load effective address
……Termination of program with
a return code
……Avoiding overhead of writing the
repeat pattern of the code.
…… End of MACRO
67. Data Control Directive :
PUBLIC
PUBLIC: the directive PUBLIC informs the
assembler that specified variable or segment can be
accessed from other program module.
It helps in managing the multiple program module
by sharing global variables.
General Form :
PUBLIC VARIABLE 1,……. VARIABLE N
69. Data Control Directive
: EXTRN
EXTRN: EXTERNAL
The directive EXTRN informs the assembler that
the data items or label following the directive will be
used in a program module.
General Form :
EXTRN VARIABLE_NAME1,…….
VARIABLE _NAME N
71. Data Control Directive : PTR
PTR: POINTER
The directive PTR is used to indicate the type of
the memory access i.e. BYTE/WORD/DWORD.
General Form :
PTR
EXAMPLE
INC BYTE PTR[DI]…..Increment byte pointer
73. Branch Displacement Directive
: SHORT
SHORT
One byte displacement is required to code to
jump instruction.
General Form :
JKPSHORT NEXT
74. Branch Displacement Directive
: LABEL
LABEL:
Assign a name to the current value in the
location counter.
General Form :
LABLE
EXAMPLE
LABLE_NAME
75. File Inclusion Directive
INCLUDE
This INCLUDE directive is used to insert a block
of source code from the named file into the current
source module.
The directive INCLUDE informs the assembler to
include the statement defined in the include file.
General Form :
INCLUDE<FILE PATH>
EXAMPLE
INCLUDEC:MASMMACRO.LI
B
76. Describe model of assembly
language programming
Note :Any one model can be considered.
Model 1 :
1) Using SEGMENT,ASSUME and ENDS directives
2) In this Data _ Seg is the name of the data segment where
data are declared.
3) Code _ Seg is the name of the code segment where code
is written.
4) Start is the label name used to initialize the CSregister.
5) ENDS to indicate the ends of code and data segment
6) END marks the end of the program.
77.
78. Model 2 :
a. Using .Data and .code directive
b. In this, .model small is used to indicate small
memory model is used in the program
c. Stack 100 to indicate 100 word memory locations
reserved for stack
d. Data indicates start of the data segment where
data declaration of the program is made.
e. Code indicates the beginning of the code
segment
f. END to indicate the termination of the program.