Irrigation engineering involves planning and designing water supply systems to provide crops with water during periods without rainfall. The key factors necessitating irrigation are insufficient or uneven rainfall, the need to grow perennial crops year-round, and developing desert areas. The main benefits of irrigation include increased crop yields, optimum crop growth, elimination of undesirable mixed cropping, increased farmer prosperity, and sources of hydroelectric power and revenue. Proper irrigation also protects against famine and increases groundwater levels. However, excess irrigation can raise water tables and create damp, mosquito-breeding conditions. Different types of irrigation include flow, lift, and various storage and diversion schemes.
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It discusses the necessity of irrigation due to factors like insufficient rainfall and uneven distribution. It describes different types of irrigation systems including flow irrigation, lift irrigation, and storage irrigation. It also defines important terms used in irrigation like duty, delta, command area. The document outlines the benefits of irrigation such as increased crop yields and prosperity of farmers. It also notes some ill effects like raising water tables and creating breeding grounds for mosquitoes. Overall, the document provides a broad introduction to key concepts in irrigation engineering.
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It discusses the necessity of irrigation due to factors like insufficient rainfall and uneven distribution. It describes different types of irrigation systems including flow irrigation, lift irrigation, and storage irrigation. It also defines important terms used in irrigation like duty, delta, command area. The document outlines the benefits of irrigation such as increased crop yields and prosperity of farmers. It also notes some ill effects like raising water tables and creating breeding grounds for mosquitoes. Overall, the document provides a broad introduction to key concepts in irrigation engineering.
This document provides an overview of a syllabus for a water resource engineering course. The syllabus includes 6 units covering topics like irrigation and hydrology, water requirements of crops, dams and spillways, minor and micro irrigation, diversion head works, and canals. Key concepts from hydrology like the hydrological cycle, rainfall measurement, and types of rain gauges are also summarized. The document aims to introduce students to important concepts in irrigation engineering and hydrology.
Irrigation engineering involves planning and designing water supply systems for crop irrigation. Key factors that necessitate irrigation include insufficient or uneven rainfall, requirements of perennial crops, and converting desert areas. Benefits of irrigation include increased crop yields, elimination of mixed cropping, prosperity of farmers, and sources of revenue from water taxes. Factors affecting the water requirements of crops include climate, soil type, irrigation method, and ground slope. Important terms include gross command area, culturable command area, crop rotation, base period, delta, and duty. The relationship between duty, base period, and delta is defined. Methods to improve duty involve efficient irrigation methods, reducing canal seepage and evaporation losses, and farmer training.
This document defines irrigation as the artificial application of water to land according to crop requirements throughout the growing season. It discusses the necessity of irrigation when rainfall is insufficient or unevenly distributed. The benefits of irrigation include increased crop yields, famine protection, improved cash crops, prosperity for farmers, and revenue generation. However, potential ill effects include rising water tables, marshy land formation, damp weather, and loss of valuable lands.
Introduction to irrigation engineering 19 07 1 (1)holegajendra
This document provides information about the Water Resource Engineering course taught by Mr. Hole G.R. at J.S. Polytechnic in Pune, India. The course is divided into 6 units covering topics like introduction to irrigation and hydrology, water requirements of crops, dams and spillways, minor and micro irrigation, diversion head works, and canals. The course outcomes include estimating hydrological parameters, crop water requirements, designing dam and spillway components, executing minor irrigation schemes, and designing and maintaining canals. The first unit covers definitions of irrigation, necessity of irrigation in India, advantages and disadvantages of irrigation, classification of irrigation, and hydrological concepts. Different types of irrigation like surface, subsurface, flow, and
This document defines irrigation and describes its objectives, necessity, advantages, disadvantages, challenges in Nepal, sources, types of irrigation systems, and history of irrigation development in Nepal. It provides key details about gravity flow, reservoir, and lift irrigation. It also summarizes Nepal's irrigation status and water resource potential.
This document discusses rainwater harvesting and watershed management. It defines water harvesting as capturing freshwater sources like rainwater and runoff and storing it for uses like irrigation, drinking water, and groundwater recharge. Rainwater harvesting specifically refers to collecting rainwater from rooftops or land surfaces and storing it. There are rural and urban models of rainwater harvesting in India. Watershed management aims to sustainably manage land, vegetation, and water resources within a drainage area. It outlines objectives, parameters, and practices like conserving soil/water, improving water retention, growing greenery, and structures like contour bunds and check dams.
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It discusses the necessity of irrigation due to factors like insufficient rainfall and uneven distribution. It describes different types of irrigation systems including flow irrigation, lift irrigation, and storage irrigation. It also defines important terms used in irrigation like duty, delta, command area. The document outlines the benefits of irrigation such as increased crop yields and prosperity of farmers. It also notes some ill effects like raising water tables and creating breeding grounds for mosquitoes. Overall, the document provides a broad introduction to key concepts in irrigation engineering.
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It discusses the necessity of irrigation due to factors like insufficient rainfall and uneven distribution. It describes different types of irrigation systems including flow irrigation, lift irrigation, and storage irrigation. It also defines important terms used in irrigation like duty, delta, command area. The document outlines the benefits of irrigation such as increased crop yields and prosperity of farmers. It also notes some ill effects like raising water tables and creating breeding grounds for mosquitoes. Overall, the document provides a broad introduction to key concepts in irrigation engineering.
This document provides an overview of a syllabus for a water resource engineering course. The syllabus includes 6 units covering topics like irrigation and hydrology, water requirements of crops, dams and spillways, minor and micro irrigation, diversion head works, and canals. Key concepts from hydrology like the hydrological cycle, rainfall measurement, and types of rain gauges are also summarized. The document aims to introduce students to important concepts in irrigation engineering and hydrology.
Irrigation engineering involves planning and designing water supply systems for crop irrigation. Key factors that necessitate irrigation include insufficient or uneven rainfall, requirements of perennial crops, and converting desert areas. Benefits of irrigation include increased crop yields, elimination of mixed cropping, prosperity of farmers, and sources of revenue from water taxes. Factors affecting the water requirements of crops include climate, soil type, irrigation method, and ground slope. Important terms include gross command area, culturable command area, crop rotation, base period, delta, and duty. The relationship between duty, base period, and delta is defined. Methods to improve duty involve efficient irrigation methods, reducing canal seepage and evaporation losses, and farmer training.
This document defines irrigation as the artificial application of water to land according to crop requirements throughout the growing season. It discusses the necessity of irrigation when rainfall is insufficient or unevenly distributed. The benefits of irrigation include increased crop yields, famine protection, improved cash crops, prosperity for farmers, and revenue generation. However, potential ill effects include rising water tables, marshy land formation, damp weather, and loss of valuable lands.
Introduction to irrigation engineering 19 07 1 (1)holegajendra
This document provides information about the Water Resource Engineering course taught by Mr. Hole G.R. at J.S. Polytechnic in Pune, India. The course is divided into 6 units covering topics like introduction to irrigation and hydrology, water requirements of crops, dams and spillways, minor and micro irrigation, diversion head works, and canals. The course outcomes include estimating hydrological parameters, crop water requirements, designing dam and spillway components, executing minor irrigation schemes, and designing and maintaining canals. The first unit covers definitions of irrigation, necessity of irrigation in India, advantages and disadvantages of irrigation, classification of irrigation, and hydrological concepts. Different types of irrigation like surface, subsurface, flow, and
This document defines irrigation and describes its objectives, necessity, advantages, disadvantages, challenges in Nepal, sources, types of irrigation systems, and history of irrigation development in Nepal. It provides key details about gravity flow, reservoir, and lift irrigation. It also summarizes Nepal's irrigation status and water resource potential.
This document discusses rainwater harvesting and watershed management. It defines water harvesting as capturing freshwater sources like rainwater and runoff and storing it for uses like irrigation, drinking water, and groundwater recharge. Rainwater harvesting specifically refers to collecting rainwater from rooftops or land surfaces and storing it. There are rural and urban models of rainwater harvesting in India. Watershed management aims to sustainably manage land, vegetation, and water resources within a drainage area. It outlines objectives, parameters, and practices like conserving soil/water, improving water retention, growing greenery, and structures like contour bunds and check dams.
This document provides information on various topics related to irrigation. It defines irrigation as the artificial supply of water to soil for crop cultivation. Some key points include:
- Irrigation is necessary due to factors like low and uneven rainfall which cannot support crop growth. It allows year-round cultivation of crops.
- Different types of irrigation systems are described, including flow irrigation methods like surface irrigation and lift irrigation using pumps. Sprinkle, drip and subsurface pipe irrigation are also explained.
- Quality of irrigation water is important, and the document discusses various parameters used to classify water based on factors like salinity, sodium concentration and other ions.
- Related concepts like duty, delta, base period and factors affecting efficient
Irrigation methods can be categorized as gravity or flow irrigation and lift irrigation. Gravity irrigation uses water from a higher elevation conveyed via gravity through canals. It can be further divided into perennial and inundation irrigation. Common surface irrigation methods include furrow, border strip, basin, flooding, and wild flooding. Choosing a method depends on factors like soil type, slope, and crop. Surface methods are generally less efficient than pressurized systems but have lower infrastructure costs.
Rainwater harvesting is the collection and storage of rainwater for various uses like irrigation, domestic use, and groundwater recharge. It has become increasingly important due to rising water demand and depletion of groundwater sources. There are two main types of rainwater harvesting - rural models which use traditional structures like tanks and step wells to facilitate irrigation and drinking water, and urban models which typically involve rooftop catchment and storage tanks. The benefits of rainwater harvesting include supplementing water sources, reducing flooding and soil erosion, and replenishing groundwater through recharge.
Irrigation involves applying water artificially to land or soil to supply moisture for plant growth. There are various methods of irrigation that depend on the available water sources and infrastructure. Surface irrigation methods include border, check basin, and furrow irrigation. Subsurface irrigation applies water below the ground surface through underground trenches. Sprinkler and drip irrigation are pressurized methods that distribute water through pipes and emitters. The choice of irrigation method impacts water usage, uniformity of application, and suitability for different soil and crop types.
This document provides information about traditional and modern methods of irrigation. It begins by introducing the topic of irrigation engineering and some key traditional methods such as moats, chain pumps, dhekli, and rahat systems. It then summarizes various surface irrigation methods like flooding, border strips, check basins, basin flooding, contour farming, and the zig-zag method. Subsurface irrigation methods like natural and artificial systems are also introduced. The document concludes by describing modern sprinkler and drip irrigation techniques, and provides advantages and disadvantages of each.
Irrigation is the process of supplying water to crops artificially to fulfill their water requirements. There are different types of irrigation systems used based on soil, climate, and resources, including surface irrigation, localized irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, drip irrigation, and center pivot irrigation. Irrigation can be carried out through traditional manual methods or modern methods like sprinkler and drip systems, which help ensure even water distribution and compensate for disadvantages of traditional methods. Irrigation is important as it allows for higher crop productivity, multiple cropping per year, stabilization of crop yields, and increased farmer incomes.
This document discusses concepts related to groundwater management and conjunctive water use. It covers topics such as watershed concepts, groundwater supply management, artificial recharge enhancement, spring protection and development, and adaptive groundwater management. Artificial recharge techniques aim to augment groundwater, including surface spreading methods, sub-surface methods like recharge wells, and induced recharge. Developing springs can provide drinking water if flow is reliable and water quality meets standards after treatment. Overall groundwater and surface water should be managed together through conjunctive use approaches.
Surface irrigation methods like furrow and border strip irrigation distribute water over soil surfaces using gravity. Furrow irrigation involves making small channels along slopes for water to flow down, while border strip irrigation uses longer borders oriented with slopes. These methods are suited for row crops but often result in non-uniform water distribution and issues like waterlogging or salinity if not properly managed through drainage and controlling water amounts. Drip and sprinkler irrigation use pipes and emitters to supply water directly to plant roots, allowing more control and efficiency. The appropriate irrigation method depends on factors like crop type, water source, and land characteristics.
Irrigation is the process of supplying dry land with water through artificial means like pipes, hoses or ditches. Common irrigation methods include flooding, sprinkler, drip/trickle, and furrow irrigation. Factors that influence irrigation include surface slope, roughness, water depth, field size and shape, discharge rate, and field erosion resistance. Proper irrigation conserves water, increases crop yields, reduces costs, and prevents land degradation.
Rainwater harvesting is the collection and storage of rainwater from surfaces like rooftops. It helps address water scarcity by supplementing other water sources and relieving pressure on them. Some key techniques include collecting rainwater from rooftops in tanks, or from streams and rivers during monsoon season. The main components are the catchment surface, delivery systems like pipes, and storage units like tanks. Rainwater harvesting provides multiple benefits like improving groundwater quality, increasing water levels in wells, and mitigating drought impacts. While maintenance costs can be a disadvantage, it is an important solution to water problems in areas with inadequate resources.
1. Water management for subtropical and temperate fruit crops involves providing the optimal quantity of water at the right time through irrigation methods like drip, sprinkler, or basin flooding.
2. Proper water management is important to promote crop growth, optimize water usage, prevent issues like erosion or pollution, and manage soil salinity.
3. Advanced irrigation methods like drip and micro-spray aim to apply water directly to the root zone, improving water use efficiency while conventional methods like border flooding or furrow irrigation require more water.
This document discusses various methods of irrigation, including surface irrigation methods like furrow irrigation, contour farming, and flooding methods. It also discusses subsurface irrigation methods like sprinkler irrigation and drip/trickle irrigation. For each method, it describes the basic components and process, as well as advantages and disadvantages. Surface irrigation methods are best suited for row crops, while sprinkler and drip irrigation methods reduce evaporation and allow more precise water and fertilizer application. Drip irrigation in particular minimizes water usage and loss. The document emphasizes matching the appropriate irrigation method to field and crop conditions.
Rainwater harvesting is the collection of rainwater for reuse on-site rather than allowing it to run off. It has many benefits like reducing water bills, being suitable for irrigation, reducing demand on groundwater, and reducing floods. Some techniques used in urban areas include recharge pits, trenches, and using existing tube wells to recharge deeper aquifers. In rural areas, techniques include gully plugs, contour bunds, gabion structures, check dams, and dugwell recharge. Regular maintenance is required and unpredictable rainfall can limit the water supply. The initial costs are also high but the benefits can outweigh these disadvantages.
Water conservation is an innovative approach required to be adopted to recharge ground water. This includes check-dams, farm ponds,ponds on terraces of hills etc
Storage reservoirs hold untreated water and can be used for purposes like irrigation. They are a basic component of water storage and flood control systems. Distribution reservoirs hold treated water for domestic and industrial use. They are a basic requirement for a good water distribution system and are meant to equalize demand fluctuations and maintain pressure in the system. The storage capacity of distribution reservoirs includes balancing storage for demand equalization, breakdown storage for emergencies, and fire storage. Reservoirs can be formed by dams or embankments and come in various shapes and sizes.
Rainwater harvesting is a method of collecting and storing rainwater runoff from rooftops in underground tanks or reservoirs. It has several advantages, including providing an independent water supply, reducing flooding, and replenishing groundwater. The key components of a rainwater harvesting system are the roof catchment area, gutters, downpipes, a filtration system, and a storage tank. Proper installation and maintenance can provide a low-cost source of non-potable water for households and help conserve fresh water resources.
The CBC machine is a common diagnostic tool used by doctors to measure a patient's red blood cell count, white blood cell count and platelet count. The machine uses a small sample of the patient's blood, which is then placed into special tubes and analyzed. The results of the analysis are then displayed on a screen for the doctor to review. The CBC machine is an important tool for diagnosing various conditions, such as anemia, infection and leukemia. It can also help to monitor a patient's response to treatment.
This document provides information on various topics related to irrigation. It defines irrigation as the artificial supply of water to soil for crop cultivation. Some key points include:
- Irrigation is necessary due to factors like low and uneven rainfall which cannot support crop growth. It allows year-round cultivation of crops.
- Different types of irrigation systems are described, including flow irrigation methods like surface irrigation and lift irrigation using pumps. Sprinkle, drip and subsurface pipe irrigation are also explained.
- Quality of irrigation water is important, and the document discusses various parameters used to classify water based on factors like salinity, sodium concentration and other ions.
- Related concepts like duty, delta, base period and factors affecting efficient
Irrigation methods can be categorized as gravity or flow irrigation and lift irrigation. Gravity irrigation uses water from a higher elevation conveyed via gravity through canals. It can be further divided into perennial and inundation irrigation. Common surface irrigation methods include furrow, border strip, basin, flooding, and wild flooding. Choosing a method depends on factors like soil type, slope, and crop. Surface methods are generally less efficient than pressurized systems but have lower infrastructure costs.
Rainwater harvesting is the collection and storage of rainwater for various uses like irrigation, domestic use, and groundwater recharge. It has become increasingly important due to rising water demand and depletion of groundwater sources. There are two main types of rainwater harvesting - rural models which use traditional structures like tanks and step wells to facilitate irrigation and drinking water, and urban models which typically involve rooftop catchment and storage tanks. The benefits of rainwater harvesting include supplementing water sources, reducing flooding and soil erosion, and replenishing groundwater through recharge.
Irrigation involves applying water artificially to land or soil to supply moisture for plant growth. There are various methods of irrigation that depend on the available water sources and infrastructure. Surface irrigation methods include border, check basin, and furrow irrigation. Subsurface irrigation applies water below the ground surface through underground trenches. Sprinkler and drip irrigation are pressurized methods that distribute water through pipes and emitters. The choice of irrigation method impacts water usage, uniformity of application, and suitability for different soil and crop types.
This document provides information about traditional and modern methods of irrigation. It begins by introducing the topic of irrigation engineering and some key traditional methods such as moats, chain pumps, dhekli, and rahat systems. It then summarizes various surface irrigation methods like flooding, border strips, check basins, basin flooding, contour farming, and the zig-zag method. Subsurface irrigation methods like natural and artificial systems are also introduced. The document concludes by describing modern sprinkler and drip irrigation techniques, and provides advantages and disadvantages of each.
Irrigation is the process of supplying water to crops artificially to fulfill their water requirements. There are different types of irrigation systems used based on soil, climate, and resources, including surface irrigation, localized irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, drip irrigation, and center pivot irrigation. Irrigation can be carried out through traditional manual methods or modern methods like sprinkler and drip systems, which help ensure even water distribution and compensate for disadvantages of traditional methods. Irrigation is important as it allows for higher crop productivity, multiple cropping per year, stabilization of crop yields, and increased farmer incomes.
This document discusses concepts related to groundwater management and conjunctive water use. It covers topics such as watershed concepts, groundwater supply management, artificial recharge enhancement, spring protection and development, and adaptive groundwater management. Artificial recharge techniques aim to augment groundwater, including surface spreading methods, sub-surface methods like recharge wells, and induced recharge. Developing springs can provide drinking water if flow is reliable and water quality meets standards after treatment. Overall groundwater and surface water should be managed together through conjunctive use approaches.
Surface irrigation methods like furrow and border strip irrigation distribute water over soil surfaces using gravity. Furrow irrigation involves making small channels along slopes for water to flow down, while border strip irrigation uses longer borders oriented with slopes. These methods are suited for row crops but often result in non-uniform water distribution and issues like waterlogging or salinity if not properly managed through drainage and controlling water amounts. Drip and sprinkler irrigation use pipes and emitters to supply water directly to plant roots, allowing more control and efficiency. The appropriate irrigation method depends on factors like crop type, water source, and land characteristics.
Irrigation is the process of supplying dry land with water through artificial means like pipes, hoses or ditches. Common irrigation methods include flooding, sprinkler, drip/trickle, and furrow irrigation. Factors that influence irrigation include surface slope, roughness, water depth, field size and shape, discharge rate, and field erosion resistance. Proper irrigation conserves water, increases crop yields, reduces costs, and prevents land degradation.
Rainwater harvesting is the collection and storage of rainwater from surfaces like rooftops. It helps address water scarcity by supplementing other water sources and relieving pressure on them. Some key techniques include collecting rainwater from rooftops in tanks, or from streams and rivers during monsoon season. The main components are the catchment surface, delivery systems like pipes, and storage units like tanks. Rainwater harvesting provides multiple benefits like improving groundwater quality, increasing water levels in wells, and mitigating drought impacts. While maintenance costs can be a disadvantage, it is an important solution to water problems in areas with inadequate resources.
1. Water management for subtropical and temperate fruit crops involves providing the optimal quantity of water at the right time through irrigation methods like drip, sprinkler, or basin flooding.
2. Proper water management is important to promote crop growth, optimize water usage, prevent issues like erosion or pollution, and manage soil salinity.
3. Advanced irrigation methods like drip and micro-spray aim to apply water directly to the root zone, improving water use efficiency while conventional methods like border flooding or furrow irrigation require more water.
This document discusses various methods of irrigation, including surface irrigation methods like furrow irrigation, contour farming, and flooding methods. It also discusses subsurface irrigation methods like sprinkler irrigation and drip/trickle irrigation. For each method, it describes the basic components and process, as well as advantages and disadvantages. Surface irrigation methods are best suited for row crops, while sprinkler and drip irrigation methods reduce evaporation and allow more precise water and fertilizer application. Drip irrigation in particular minimizes water usage and loss. The document emphasizes matching the appropriate irrigation method to field and crop conditions.
Rainwater harvesting is the collection of rainwater for reuse on-site rather than allowing it to run off. It has many benefits like reducing water bills, being suitable for irrigation, reducing demand on groundwater, and reducing floods. Some techniques used in urban areas include recharge pits, trenches, and using existing tube wells to recharge deeper aquifers. In rural areas, techniques include gully plugs, contour bunds, gabion structures, check dams, and dugwell recharge. Regular maintenance is required and unpredictable rainfall can limit the water supply. The initial costs are also high but the benefits can outweigh these disadvantages.
Water conservation is an innovative approach required to be adopted to recharge ground water. This includes check-dams, farm ponds,ponds on terraces of hills etc
Storage reservoirs hold untreated water and can be used for purposes like irrigation. They are a basic component of water storage and flood control systems. Distribution reservoirs hold treated water for domestic and industrial use. They are a basic requirement for a good water distribution system and are meant to equalize demand fluctuations and maintain pressure in the system. The storage capacity of distribution reservoirs includes balancing storage for demand equalization, breakdown storage for emergencies, and fire storage. Reservoirs can be formed by dams or embankments and come in various shapes and sizes.
Rainwater harvesting is a method of collecting and storing rainwater runoff from rooftops in underground tanks or reservoirs. It has several advantages, including providing an independent water supply, reducing flooding, and replenishing groundwater. The key components of a rainwater harvesting system are the roof catchment area, gutters, downpipes, a filtration system, and a storage tank. Proper installation and maintenance can provide a low-cost source of non-potable water for households and help conserve fresh water resources.
The CBC machine is a common diagnostic tool used by doctors to measure a patient's red blood cell count, white blood cell count and platelet count. The machine uses a small sample of the patient's blood, which is then placed into special tubes and analyzed. The results of the analysis are then displayed on a screen for the doctor to review. The CBC machine is an important tool for diagnosing various conditions, such as anemia, infection and leukemia. It can also help to monitor a patient's response to treatment.
Comparative analysis between traditional aquaponics and reconstructed aquapon...bijceesjournal
The aquaponic system of planting is a method that does not require soil usage. It is a method that only needs water, fish, lava rocks (a substitute for soil), and plants. Aquaponic systems are sustainable and environmentally friendly. Its use not only helps to plant in small spaces but also helps reduce artificial chemical use and minimizes excess water use, as aquaponics consumes 90% less water than soil-based gardening. The study applied a descriptive and experimental design to assess and compare conventional and reconstructed aquaponic methods for reproducing tomatoes. The researchers created an observation checklist to determine the significant factors of the study. The study aims to determine the significant difference between traditional aquaponics and reconstructed aquaponics systems propagating tomatoes in terms of height, weight, girth, and number of fruits. The reconstructed aquaponics system’s higher growth yield results in a much more nourished crop than the traditional aquaponics system. It is superior in its number of fruits, height, weight, and girth measurement. Moreover, the reconstructed aquaponics system is proven to eliminate all the hindrances present in the traditional aquaponics system, which are overcrowding of fish, algae growth, pest problems, contaminated water, and dead fish.
Understanding Inductive Bias in Machine LearningSUTEJAS
This presentation explores the concept of inductive bias in machine learning. It explains how algorithms come with built-in assumptions and preferences that guide the learning process. You'll learn about the different types of inductive bias and how they can impact the performance and generalizability of machine learning models.
The presentation also covers the positive and negative aspects of inductive bias, along with strategies for mitigating potential drawbacks. We'll explore examples of how bias manifests in algorithms like neural networks and decision trees.
By understanding inductive bias, you can gain valuable insights into how machine learning models work and make informed decisions when building and deploying them.
Batteries -Introduction – Types of Batteries – discharging and charging of battery - characteristics of battery –battery rating- various tests on battery- – Primary battery: silver button cell- Secondary battery :Ni-Cd battery-modern battery: lithium ion battery-maintenance of batteries-choices of batteries for electric vehicle applications.
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Advanced control scheme of doubly fed induction generator for wind turbine us...IJECEIAES
This paper describes a speed control device for generating electrical energy on an electricity network based on the doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) used for wind power conversion systems. At first, a double-fed induction generator model was constructed. A control law is formulated to govern the flow of energy between the stator of a DFIG and the energy network using three types of controllers: proportional integral (PI), sliding mode controller (SMC) and second order sliding mode controller (SOSMC). Their different results in terms of power reference tracking, reaction to unexpected speed fluctuations, sensitivity to perturbations, and resilience against machine parameter alterations are compared. MATLAB/Simulink was used to conduct the simulations for the preceding study. Multiple simulations have shown very satisfying results, and the investigations demonstrate the efficacy and power-enhancing capabilities of the suggested control system.
ACEP Magazine edition 4th launched on 05.06.2024Rahul
This document provides information about the third edition of the magazine "Sthapatya" published by the Association of Civil Engineers (Practicing) Aurangabad. It includes messages from current and past presidents of ACEP, memories and photos from past ACEP events, information on life time achievement awards given by ACEP, and a technical article on concrete maintenance, repairs and strengthening. The document highlights activities of ACEP and provides a technical educational article for members.
2. Irrigation
• Irrigation is defined as a process of supplying water
to crops artificially. The science of planning and
designing a water supply system to the plants, crops,
for their normal growth during the period of no
rainfall with the help of dam, weir, barrage,
reservoir and canal system with head works, cross
drainage works, and miscellaneous works of canal
like canal fall is called Irrigation Engineering.
4. Necessity of Irrigation
• The following are some factors which govern
the necessity of irrigation:
• Insufficient Rainfall.
• Irrigation is necessary in the areas where
rainfall is insufficient for the satisfactory
growth of the crops and the plants.
• Uneven or Non-Uniform Rainfall Distribution
• If the distribution of rainfall in the zone of
crop area
5. Necessity of Irrigation
• Improvement of Perennial Crops.
• Some of the perennial crop requires water
throughout the year. But rainfall is not uniform
in all seasons of the year. These crops cannot be
produced perennially without water for all the
seasons. For the growth or production of those
perennial crops, irrigation is necessary.
• Development of Desert Area.
• The dry and desert areas can be converted to a
beautiful cropland if irrigation water can be
supplied as per need.
7. Benefits of Irrigation
The following are the benefits of irrigation:
• Yields of crops
Yield of crop can be increased by irrigation even
in the period of low rainfall.
• Optimum benefits
Optimum use of water is possible by irrigation to
obtain maximum output.
8. Benefits of Irrigation
• Elimination of mixed cropping
The areas where irrigation is not assured, mixed cropping
is adopted. Mixed cropping means sowing different crops
to-geather in the same field. Mixed cropping is not
desirable as different amount of water and field conditions.
Farmers are not benefitted. If irrigation water is assured,
mixed cropping may be eliminated and single superior
crop may be grown to get the maximum benefits.
• Prosperity of farmers
If irrigation water is assured throughout the year, farmers
can grow two or more crops in a year which adds to their
prosperity.
9. Benefits of Irrigation
• Sources of Revenue
When water tax is taken from farmers for supplying
water, it adds to the revenue of the country.
• Hydro-Electric Power Generation
The reservoir from which irrigation water is supplied,
may be used for generation of power. Besides, the
canals in field have some canal falls or drops in which
mini hydro-projects may be installed.
10. Benefits of Irrigation
• Water Supply:
Irrigation water may be used as source for
domestic and industrial water supply.
• General Communication:
The inspection road beside the canal bank may
serve as communication link in remote village
areas.
• Navigation:
If the irrigation canals are big and deep, they
may be used as navigable water way.
11. Benefits of Irrigation
• Aesthetic View:
New man-made lake if preserved carefully, may
increase aesthetic view of the surroundings.
• Development of fishery
Reservoir and canals may be utilized for
development of fishery.
• Tree Plantation:
Trees can be grown along the bank of the canal,
which increase the wealth from timber and help
in controlling soil erosion of the bank.
12. Benefits of Irrigation
• Protection from Famine: Food production is increased
due to irrigation by producing more crops used as food.
This protects a country from famine situation.
• Increase of Groundwater Level.
• Due to constant seepage and percolation of water from
canal, groundwater level in the nearby area is increased.
• Aid to Civilization.
• Irrigation water is normally available from river valley
project. Some tribes living near the valley, adopt
irrigation as their profession, increase production, live
peacefully which leads to the general civilization of the
country.
13. Benefits of Irrigation
• Nutrition of Population
• Due to irrigation, increased agricultural production takes
place and this production improves the nutrition of the
people.
• Recreation
• Recreation facilities like parks, restaurants may be
developed near the canal banks or reservoir sites.
• Social and Cultural Improvement.
• If increases the cultural and social level of population
living nearby canals and reservoirs. Tourists interest in the
area of newely constructed reservoir may be enhanced.
• Self-Sufficiency in Food
• Irrigation makes the country self-sufficient in food by
improving the production.
15. Ill- Effects of Irrigation
• Besides benefits, there are some ill-effects of irrigation also.
However, benefits are more than ill-effects.
• Effects on Raising Water Table.
• In unlined irrigation canal, excessive seepage of water through bed
and sides takes place which raises the water table of the
surrounding areas. Soil in the root zone of the crop is saturated and
become alkaline which is harmful to the crops and plants. Thus the
nearby area may be waterlogged.
• Damp Climate.
• Temperature of the command area of an irrigation projects may be
lowered and damp climate prevails, which adversely affect the
health of the community living in this area.
• Breeding Places of Mosquitoes
• Due to excess application of water, seepage and leakage from
canal, marshy land may be formed leading to breeding place of
mosquitos.
17. Ill- Effects of Irrigation
• Loss of Valuable Land
• Valuable land may be submerged due to
construction of reservoir by dam, weir and
barrages.
• Return of Revenue
• Irrigation projects are complex and expensive. If
project fails due to absence of regular
maintenance, return of revenue to the
government becomes low compared to its cost of
construction. Maintenance cost is quite high for
normal functioning of the project.
18. Types of Irrigation
• Two main types of irrigation are:
• Flow Irrigation:
• Flow irrigation is that type of in which flow of water to crop
field from the source takes place due to component of gravity
force. This flow Irrigation may be further classified into:
• Perennial Irrigation:
• In this type of source of water is from a river which is perennial.
A weir or barrage is constructed across this river. Sometimes
dam may be constructed to form a reservoir upstream. Main
canal with a regulator is constructed where one or both banks
supply water to the crop field. This type is reliable as water is
available during the whole period of the year.
21. Types of Irrigation
• Inundation or flood irrigation
• It is that type of irrigation in which no control structures
like weir, barrage, regulator, etc are constructed. During
rainy season, water level in the river rises and canal bed
level is kept below High Flood Level (HFL) of the river. The
portion of water above the canal bed is diverted to
inundate the crop field.
• This inundation water is drained off or allowed to absorb
in the crop field prior to planting the crop. The whole
system depends on the water level in the river. Although no
such expenditure is involved in this system, over-irrigation
may damage the crops. Therefore, this system is not
popular.
23. Types of Irrigation
• Direct Irrigation: Diversion Scheme
• In Direct Irrigation no storage of water upstream of
diversion weir is provided. Water is directly diverted to
canals, without any storage. Water through the canals
with regulators is diverted directly to the canals.
• Storage Irrigation: Storage Scheme
• A dam is constructed across the reservoir to store water
upstream in a reservoir. It is of a bigger magnitude,
water stored is used for hydroelectric production, water
supply, etc. besides irrigation depending upon the
volume of water stored. A network of canal system is
used. In this scheme bigger area could be irrigated to
raise more crops. The scheme is costlier than other
schemes.
26. Types of Irrigation
• Combined Storage and Diversion Scheme.
• In this system, a dam is constructed across a
river to form a reservoir. This stored water is
used to produce electricity. A powerhouse is
constructed just downstream of the dam. The
discharge from the lower house is fed back
into river downstream of the dam, a pickup
weir at a suitable side is constructed to divert
this available water to the crop field by the
canals.
27. Combined Storage and Diversion
Scheme.
• This type of scheme and the combined storage
and diversion scheme, along with main aim of
irrigation, following aims and purposes may be
served
• Hydroelectric power generation
• Water supply
• Flood Control in the river valley
• Fishery
• Recreation
29. Types of Irrigation
• Lift Irrigation:
• Lift Irrigation is the process of lifting water
normally from underground sources and
sometimes from surface source by pump, i.e.
mechanical power or man or animal power
and then direct this lifted water is supplied to
the agricultural field. In remote villages, if
electric energy is not available in open well,
shallow and deep tube wells.
31. Advantages and Disadvantages of Two
Types of Irrigation
• In Lift Irrigation, farmers can supply water to
the crop field according to their need, hence
there is no possibility of over irrigation which
may occur in flow irrigation.
• Water table is lowered considerably in lift
irrigation. Therefore, there is no possibility of
water that may happen in surface irrigation.
• In lift irrigation, as water is directly applied to
the field, loss of water due to seepage in
conveyance of flow irrigation is less.
32. Advantages and Disadvantages of Two
Types of Irrigation
• Initial cost of construction in flow irrigation system is quite
high as it requires to construct a barrier like dam or weir,
other hydraulic structure like canal headworks, silt
excluder or rejector, etc. But in lift irrigation initial cost is
quite low as it does not require any hydraulic structures.
• As the loss of water is small in lift irrigation, duty of water
is very high.
• Maintenance cost in flow irrigation is higher than lift
irrigation.
• More than one crop may be grown in a year in the same
crop field in lift irrigation.
• Yield of crop in flow irrigation is more than lift irrigation
water.
33. Different Types of Soil
• Residual Soil
• It is formed due to disintegration of natural rocks by the
action of air, moisture, frost and vegetation.
• Alluvial Soil
• This soil is formed by the deposition of silt, sediment by the
river during flood time. This soil is available in Indo-Gangetic
plains, the Brahmaputra basin and basin of other big rivers of
India. Alluvial soil has very good moisture retention capacity
and is strong in chemicals, manure essential for crop and
plant growth.
35. Types of Soil water or Soil Moisture
• When water fills the soil surface by irrigation or by rainwater, it is
absorbed by the soil. The amount of absorption is different for different
types of soil. The water absorbed by pores is called soil water or soil
moisture. Some of the soil water are:
• Gravitational Water
• It is that water which drains into the soil under the influence of gravity.
After irrigation and rainfall this water remains in the soil and saturates it
preventing circulation of air and void spaces.
• Capillary Water
• Below the gravitational water, a part of water held by the soil by the
capillary action of surface tension force against gravity. This part of water
is absorbed by the root zone of the crop.
• Hygroscopic Water
• Water attached to soil particles through loose chemical bond is termed as
hygroscopic water. This water can be removed from the soil only by
application of heat. During draught situation, plant roots can extract
small fraction of this water.
37. Permanent Wilting Coefficient
• Permanent wilting point or wilting coefficient
is that water content at which plants can no
longer extract sufficient water from soil for its
growth. It is the lower end of available
moisture range. At this point wilting of the
plant occurs. It is expressed in percentage.
39. Ultimate Wilting
• In Ultimate Wilting, the plant cannot regain
its turgidity even if sufficient water is added
to the crop, the crop will die.
40. Limiting Soil Moisture Conditions
• For satisfactory growth of crops, it is essential to
maintain readily available water in the soil. If the
soil moisture is either deficient or excessive, the
growth of the crop is retarded. If the soil moisture is
slightly more than wilting coefficient, plant has to
expend extra energy, hence growth is hampered.
Again if water supply is excess, it fills the pores with
water driving out the required air or oxygen for
plant growth. Thus to maintain a satisfactory or
healthy growth of the plant, optimum moisture
content is necessary.
41. Water Requirement of Crops
• Factors Affecting Water Requirements:
• Water Table
• Depending upon position of water table to ground surface or much
below, water requirement may be less or more, respectively.
• Climate
• The evaporation loss in hot climate, hence, water requirement will
be more and in cold climate water requirement will be less.
• Type of soil
• If soil is porous (i.e. sandy) water percolates quickly, retention of
water is less, therefore, water requirement is more. But in clayey
soil, water requirement is less.
• Method of Ploughing
• In deep ploughing, soil can retain water for a longer period and
water requirement is less.
42. Water Requirement of Crops
• Factors Affecting Water Requirements:
• Intensity of Irrigation
• Intensity of irrigation means the ratio of area under cultivation to
the total culturable area. If this intensity is more, more area is
under cultivation, hence water requirement is more.
• Ground slope
• In steep ground water flows down quickly, finds little time to
absorb required amount of water, hence, water requirement is
more. For flat slope, water flows slowly, finds enough time for
absorption, hence, water requirement is less.
• Method of application of water
• In surface flow irrigation, evaporation is more and in sub-surface
irrigation, evaporation loss is minimum. Hence, water requirement
is more in surface irrigation than sub-surface irrigation.
44. Definitions of some Common Important
Terms
• Gross Command Area (GCA)
• It is the area up to which irrigation canals are capable of
supplying water for irrigation purpose.
• Culturable Command Area (CCA)
• It is the area on which crops can be grown satisfactorily.
• Cash Crops
• Crops like vegetables, fruits are cultivated by farmers to sell
in the market to meet the current financial requirements and
they are called cash crops.
45. Definitions of Some Common
Important Terms
• Crop Rotation
• The process of changing type of crop to be grown in the same
field is known as crop rotation. It has been found that if same
crop is grown in the same land every year, fertility of the land
gets diminished and crop production is reduced. The necessary
salt required by the same crop for growth is exhausted. If crop
rotation is adopted, fertility of soil is restored.
Crop Period
• It is the period required by a crop from the time of sowing to the
time of harvesting.
Intensity of Irrigation
• Intensity of irrigation means the ratio of area under cultivation
to the total culturable area. If this intensity is more, more area is
under cultivation, hence water requirement is more.
47. Definitions of some Common
Important Terms
• Base Period or Base (B)
• It is the period in days during which flow is continued
for a particular crop.
• Delta ( )
• It is total depth of water provided to a crop during the
entire period.
• Duty (D)
• It is the total area irrigated by a unit discharge running
continuously during the base period and its unit is area/
cumec. Thus, duty gives the relationship between the
volume of water and area of the crop which it matures,
i.e.
48. Relation between Duty (D), Base (B)
and Delta ( )
• Let, D= Duty of crop in ha /cumec
• B= Base period of crop in days
• = Delta is depth of water in m.
• Now 1 cumec of water running continuously for
a period of B days provides a volume of
• [ (B x 24 x 60 x 60) x 1] m3
• Amount of water required to flood 1ha of land
with a depth m = (1 x 10 4) m2 x m
49. Relation between Duty (D), Base (B)
and delta ( )
• Hence, the area in ha that can be irrigated by
1 m 3/sec running for the base period B days,
i.e., i.e.
• Duty= B x 24 x 60 x 60 = 8.64 B
10 4 x
50. Methods of Improving Duty
• If the factors affecting duty may be made less
effective, duty of water may be improved. Thus,
methods of improving duty are:
• Suitable and efficient method of applying water to
the crop should be used.
• Canals should be lined to reduce seepage loss.
Water should be conveyed quickly to reduce
evaporation loss.
• Idle length of the canal should be reduced.
• Construction parallel canals to run side by side,
F.S.L. is reduced to minimize the losses.
51. Methods of Improving Duty
• Proper ploughed and leveled crop land improves duty.
• The source of supply should provide good quality of
water.
• Crop rotation, if practiced, improves duty.
• Volumetric assessment of water with water tax
compels the farmers for economic use of water which
improves duty.
• The farmers must be trained to apply correct quantity
of water at right time.
• Maintenance of irrigation project from headworks to
the end of canal by the administrative should be
adequate.
52. Intensity of Irrigation
• Intensity of Irrigation means the ratio of area
under cultivation to the total culturable area.
If the intensity is more, more area is under
cultivation, hence water requirement is more.
53. Consumptive Use of Water (CU)
• Water requirement of crop is the total quantity of
water from the time the crop is sown to the time it is
harvested. This water requirement may vary from
crop to crop, from soil to soil and period to period.
Water required to meet the demand of evapo-
transpiration and metabolic activities of the crop to-
geather is known as consumptive use (CU) of water
54. Factors Affecting Consumptive Use
(CU)
• Evaporation which is dependent on humidity
• Mean monthly temperature
• Monthly precipitation
• Wind velocity in the locality which affects
evaporation
• Soil type and its topography
• Cropping pattern, growth stage and type of crop
• Growing season of the crop
• Method of applying irrigation
• Irrigation water depth
• Day light hours
56. Evapo Transpiration
• Evapotranspiration (ET) is a term used to
describe the sum of evaporation and plant
transpiration from the Earth's land surface to
atmosphere. Evaporation accounts for the
movement of water to the air from sources such
as the soil, canopy interception, and water
bodies. Transpiration accounts for the movement
of water within a plant and the subsequent loss
of water as vapor through stomata in its leaves.
Evapotranspiration is an important part of the
water cycle.
58. Irrigation Efficiency
• It is the water stored in the root zone after losses to the water
pumped or supplied in the system, i.e. it is the ratio of the water
output to the water input and usually expressed in percentage.
Loss of water occurs in conveyance, water application, water
storage and water use. Therefore, irrigation efficiency may be
efficiency in conveyance, efficiency in water application,
efficiency in storage and efficiency in water use.
• For ex, if 1 cumec of water is pumped to the farm, but 0.75
cumec is delivered in length of 1 km from the well, the loss (1-
0.75) = 0.25 cumec is due to conveyance.
• Therefore, Efficiency of water conveyance= 0 .75 x 100 = 75 %
1.0
61. Assessment of Irrigation Water
• Irrigation projects are undertaken by the
government with the primary object of supplying
water to the cultivator for raising crops to give
maximum yield. Charges are levied on the cultivator
for making use of irrigation water. The charges are
not only defray maintenance and operation costs but
also include some return on the capital investment
on the project.
62. Assessment of Irrigation Water
• Irrigation charges are not uniform in all the states of
India. Generally the water charges comprises of one
or more of the following elements.
• Water rate, depending on the kind and extent of
crop.
• Increment in land revenue, base on increased benefit
derived annually.
• Providing Irrigation facilities.
63. Assessment of Irrigation Water
• Betterment Levy representing the government’s
share.
• Irrigation Cess being the annual charge per
hectare of irrigable area.
• Water rates are collected by all state
governments in the form of water rate,
surcharge on land revenue, irrigation Cess etc.
• The rate at which water is charged for different
crops vary from state to state. Rates are paid
charges on the area basis for different crops.
64. Method of Assessment
• The various methods of assessment of irrigation
water are:
• (i) Assessment on area basis or crop basis:
• The factors to be considered: Cash value of the
crops.
• Water Requirements of Crops
• Time and demand of irrigation water.
• Drawbacks of this system are: Wasteful use of
water as the charges are not made on the basis of
actual quantity of water but on the area of crop.
• (b) Unequal distribution of water. The irrigators at
the head reach of canal draw more water than due
share and irrigators at the tail end of canal suffer.
65. Method of Assessment
• (ii) Volumetric Assessment
• Charges are levied on the basis of actual
volume of water supplied at the outlet head.
Most economical use of water in the field
leads to more extent of irrigation area.
• It requires installation of water metres at all
irrigation outlets in the canal system
66. Method of Assessment
• (iii) Composite rate assessment
• Combined land revenue and water tax are levied from
the cultivators. It is not much common method of
assessment.
• (iv) Permanent Assessment or Betterment Levy.
• In area where canals are provided as insurance
against drought, the farmers are levied at a fixed rate
every year irrespective of the fact whether or not they
use the canal water. In drought year, the farmers are
allowed to draw canal supplies without paying
charges extra to normal betterment levy.
67. Relation between Duty (D), Base (B)
and Delta ( )
• Let, D= Duty of crop in ha /cumec
• B= Base period of crop in days
• = Delta is depth of water in m.
• Now 1 cumec of water running continuously for
a period of B days provides a volume of
• [ (B x 24 x 60 x 60) x 1] m3
• Amount of water required to flood 1ha of land
with a depth m = (1 x 10 4) m2 x m
68. Relation between Duty (D), Base (B)
and delta ( )
• Hence, the area in ha that can be irrigated by
1 m 3/sec running for the base period B days,
i.e., i.e.
• Duty= B x 24 x 60 x 60 = 8.64 B
10 4 x
70. Examples
Calculate the delta for kharif crop having duty
as 2500 ha/cumec. (B for kharif= 123 d)
Using the equation:
Duty= 8.64 B
Therefore, = 8.64 B = 8.64 x 123
Duty 2500
= 0.42 m or 42.5 cm
71. Examples
• An area irrigated by a distributary is 220 ha out of
which 150 ha is Jowar (kharif) and 70 ha
sugarcane, if delta for Jowar is 45 cm and that of
sugarcane is 180 cm, average transit losses during
Kharif are 20 % and annual transit losses are 40 % ;
Calculate the duty of each crop at the head of
distributory.
• ( B= 120 d for Jowar, B= 360 d Sugarcane)
72. Examples
Duty= 8.64 B
Where,
D= duty in Ha/Cumec
= Deltain m
B= Base Period in days.
1) Jowar
Area under Jowar 150 Ha; = 45 cm= 0.45 m
Duty = 8.64 B = 8.64 x 120 = 2304 ha/cumec
0.45
73. Examples
Consider Transit Losses duty = 2304 x 80 =1843.2ha/cumec
100
Sugarcane: Perennial Crop = 360 Days
Area under Sugarcane 70 ha = 180 cm
Duty = 360 x 8.64 = 1728 ha/ cumec
1.8
Considering 40 % losses
Duty= 1728 x 60 = 1036.80 ha/ cumec
100
74. Example
A Channel is to be designed for Irrigating 5000 ha in
kharif crop and 4000 ha in Rabi crop. The water
requirement for kharif and rabi are 60 cm and 25 cm
respectively. The crop period for kharif crop is 21 days
and for rabi crops 28 days. Determine the discharge of
the channel for which it is to be designed.
75. Example
Using the relation.
Duty= 8.64 B
Where,
D= duty in ha/ Cumec
= Delta in m
Discharge for kharif crop
Here = 60 cm = 0.60 m, B= 21 Days
Duty= 8.64 x 21 = 302.4
0.60
Area to be irrigated= 5000ha
Required discharge of channel= 5000 = 16.53 cumec
302.4
76. Example
Discharge for Rabi Crop
Here, = 25 cm = 0.25 m
B= 28 days
Therefore, Duty= 8.64 x 28 =967.68 ha/Cumec
0.25
Area to be irrigated = 4000 ha
Required discharge of channel= 4000 = 4.13
967.68
= 4.13 cumecs