The document outlines risk and protective factors associated with child maltreatment, emphasizing that various individual, relational, community, and societal factors contribute to the likelihood of abuse. It categorizes risk factors into three types: fixed marker, variable marker, and causal, detailing how they can influence occurrences of maltreatment. In contrast, protective factors are identified that can mitigate risks, such as supportive family environments and access to resources, highlighting a transactional model for understanding child abuse dynamics.

1. UNDERSTANDING RISK AND PROTECTIVE FACTORS 1999 Wolfe, David A. Child Abuse (2 nd Edition): Implications for Child Development and Psychopathology. 2007 Miller-Perrin, Cindy L. & Perrin, Robin. Child Maltreatment: An introduction

2. A combination of individual, relational, community, and societal factors contribute to the risk of child maltreatment. Although children are not responsible for the harm inflicted upon them, certain individual characteristics have been found to increase their risk of being maltreated. Risk factors are contributing factors— not direct causes. Risk Factors

3. Three Types of Risk Factors Fixed marker risk factors cannot be demonstrated to change. For example, belonging to a disadvantaged minority group is a risk factor for low academic achievement (Reynolds, Weissberg, & Kasprow, 1992), but such membership cannot be changed; therefore, minority status is a fixed marker risk factor. Variable marker risk factors can be demonstrated to change, but when changed, does not necessarily alter the probability of the outcome. For example, a mother's failing to graduate from high school is a risk factor for a child identified as having a disability (Finkelstein & Ramey, 1980). However, simply awarding a diploma to a mother at the birth of her child ultimately will not change her child's educational trajectory; therefore, maternal possession of a high school diploma is a variable marker risk factor. Causal risk factors can be changed and, when changed, they alter the risk of outcome. For example, high-quality child care for infants has been demonstrated to increase children's academic achievement (Berlin, Brooks-Cunn, McCarton,& McCormick, 1998); therefore, low-quality child care is a causal risk factor. Causal risk factors include certain child (e.g., cognitive deficits, early behavior and adjustment problems) and family characteristics (e.g., parental psychopathology, poor parenting practices). For example, parent management training has been found to improve the social functioning of children at risk for E/BD (Patterson, 1982).

4. Examples of Risk Factors for Child Maltreatment Disabilities or mental retardation in children that may increase caregiver burden Social isolation of families Parents’ lack of understanding of children’s needs and child development Parents’ history of domestic abuse Poverty and other socioeconomic disadvantage, such as unemployment Family disorganization, dissolution, and violence, including intimate partner violence Lack of family cohesion Substance abuse in family Young, single nonbiological parents Poor parent-child relationships and negative interactions Parental thoughts and emotions supporting maltreatment behaviors Parental stress and distress, including depression or other mental health conditions Community violence

5. Protective factors help the family and child resist or ameliorate risk. Protective factors moderate the effects of risk factors. They may lessen the risk of child maltreatment. Protective Factors

6. Examples of Protective Factors Against Child Abuse Supportive family environment Nurturing parenting skills Stable family relationships Household rules and monitoring of the child Parental employment Adequate housing Access to health care and social services Caring adults outside family who can serve as role models or mentors Communities that support parents and take responsibility for preventing abuse (DHHS 2003)

7. Wolfe Transitional Model of Child Physical Abuse The model expands on the ecological model of Belsky, which integrates ontogenic (individual), microsystem (family), exosystem (community, neighborhood), and macrosystem (societal) levels of factors associated with child maltreatment to encompass developmental effects and the transactional process of the abuser, the abused, and the family ecology. One of the benefits of a transactional or process model is that it leads to intervention points and highlights the importance of risk and protective factors to moderate the trajectory of child abuse. Source: Wolfe, David A. Child Abuse (2 nd Edition): Implications for Child Development and Psychopathology. 1999 How Risk & Protective Factors Interact with an Ecological/Transactional Model of Child Physical Abuse

8. Stage 1: Reduced Tolerance for Stress & Disinhibition of Aggression Destabilizing (Risk) Factors Poor child-rearing preparation Low sense of control and predictability Stressful life events Acceptance of physical punishment of children Compensatory (Protective) Factors Socioeconomic stability Social supports and healthy models Supportive spouse Success at work and school

9. Stage 2: Poor Management of Acute Crises and Provocation Destabilizing (Risk) Factors Conditioned emotional arousal to child behavior Multiple sources of anger and aggression Belief that child’s behavior is threatening or harmful to parent Compensatory (Protective) Factors Improvement in child behavior Community programs for parents Coping resources

10. Stage 3: Chronic Patterns of Anger and Abuse Destabilizing (Risk) Factors Child habituates to physical punishment Parent is reinforced for using strict control techniques Child increases problem behavior Compensatory (Protective) Factors Parental dissatisfaction with physical punishment Child responds favorably to non-coercive methods Community restraints/services