TUTORIAL QUESTIONS – THURSDAY 15th MAY 2014 COMPLETE

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS – THURSDAY 15th MAY 2014
COMPLETE SOLUTIONS TO THE TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
SET ARE BELOW.
1.
A beam of photons is partially attenuated in passing
through
a brick wall, which is thick. If the linear absorption
coefficient is
and the incident photon flux is calculate
the energy deposition rate in Watts for each of wall.
Energy deposition rate ( ) is
To find the change in photon flux
We can use the linear absorption equation

And therefore
(
)
Putting these back into the energy deposition rate equation
gives
(
)
( ) ( )
⁄
To put into appropriate units
⁄
2.

i) If a person has a mass of and presents a total area of ,
calculate the maximum permissible incident radiation intensity
for
photons if the allowed dose rate is ⁄ .
Data: Average absorption length for humans
Human linear absorption coefficient
We know the energy deposition rate equation
(
)
However, we need the equation in terms of incident radiation
intensity
(
)
We are given the energy deposition rate in terms of allowed
dose rate
⁄
To convert to appropriate units

⁄
Knowing the mass of a person is and the total area is
we can find the
energy deposition rate
⁄
Putting this back into the rearranged equation we get
(
)
( )

⁄
ii) If the above photon flux is present on the outside of the 1.5
m thick
concrete shielding of a reactor core, calculate the photon flux at
the
inside of the shield if the linear absorption coefficient of
concrete is
.
We know the linear absorption equation
However, what was previously the incident radiation intensity
is now the latter
radiation intensity so we need to rearrange the above equation
in terms of incident
radiation intensity
Putting in the values

⁄
3.
A concrete wall thick reduces the intensity of a parallel
beam of
rays to an intensity . What is the total thickness of a concrete
wall
required to reduce the beam to 1% of ?
Data: Absorption coefficient of concrete
First of all we calculate the thickness of a concrete wall
required to reduce the beam
from to 1% of . We know the linear absorption equation
Rearranging into terms of and exchanging for
( ⁄ )

Knowing that
( )
We now need to add this value to the original thickness of a
concrete wall required to
reduce the beam from to .
4.
A
fuelled fast reactor contains of
and has a
maximum output of 600 MW (thermal). Calcualte the doubling
time in
years
Data: Breeding ratio ( )
Energy release per fission ( )
Fission cross-section ( )
Absorption cross-section ( )

We know that the doubling time equation is
( )
Using Avagadros Constant we can find
⁄
, , , and are all given in the question. To calculate
⁄

⁄
Putting all the values back into the original equation
( )
( )( )( )
( )( )( )
Converting to appropriate units
5.
Fissile
is to be used in combination with fertile

in a breeding
programme in which the atom ratio of
is 0.15. Determine
the minimum breeding ratio for the process to ensure full
consumption of
the
.
We know the equation for the breeding ratio
We also know that in this combination we have
And in this ratio we have

is in terms of mass and we have the atom ratio. However,
because the molar masses
of these two isotopes are very close we can make the
assumption that the atom ratio is
the same as the mass ratio and thus
6.
Fissile
is to be used in combination with fertile
in a breeding
programme which consumes all of the
. If the breeding ratio is
0.92, calculate the mass ratio in which the two elements should
be
combined.

We use the same equation as in question 5
However, we now have the breeding ratio and are required to
calculate the mass ratio
We know that in this combination of isotopes we have
If we take the mass of
to be 1 we can find the mass ratio of thorium

0.087
Running head: HEALTH, POLICY AND POLITICS TRENDS
1
HEALTH, POLICY AND POLITICS TRENDS
17
Health, Policy and Politics trends
Name:
Institutional affiliations

Health, Policy, and Politics Trends
Reflective Essay on the Ethics and the Public Policy Issue
Analysis of the public health problem that requires policy
change
The modern health care system is in trouble, and it needs
change. Additionally, the experiences of many nurse
practitioners in the modern healthcare world are playi ng a very
crucial role in motivating them to undertake some form of
advocacy to influence policy changes, laws, or regulations that
rule the larger health care system (Hofrichter et al., 2010). I
believe that this type of advocacy requires stepping beyond our
practice setting into the world most of us are less familiar with.
In simple terms, this unfamiliar world revolves around politics,
policies and basically, the world in which most nurse
practitioners do not feel comfortable to operate efficiently.
Moreover, the location of decision making in both private and
public sector, and the nature of the health care policy, both have
an implication on the characteristics and attributes of any
healthcare system (Hofrichter et al., 2010). Furthermore, with
the few years I have experienced as a nurse practitioner, I have
come to realize that, most of the healthcare policies are
influenced and impacted by the preferences of leaders in
politics.
Relevance of the Public Policy Issue Of Health and the Nursing
Profession
The current healthcare environment is filled with a myriad
of healthcare policies, regulations, and laws imposed by private
sectors, government agencies, and insurance institutions as
well. In this case, these multiple strategies challenge both

patients and nurses who are in most cases caught between the
constraints revolving around costs as well as accessibility to
efficient and quality health care. For instance, the United States
Census Bureau that was collected in the year 2005 reported that
the number of insured people has grown to 46.6 million while
the health care cost continues to rise (Hofrichter et al., 2010).
Another notable example is the report compiled by the
Commonwealth Fund which acknowledges that a high-quality
health care is in most cases delivered by a system of
government that is poorly coordinated thus driving up costs
while at the same time putting patients at risk. Therefore,
because the modern world is characterized by rising costs,
variable quality, and deteriorating costs, I believe improving the
legislative health care policy performance is an issue that
requires national urgency (Hofrichter et al., 2010).
According to me, these reports are not surprising. As I
interact with patient families and patients, as a nurse, I am
always the first provider to have a clear view of when and how
the system of healthcare is insufficiently meeting the needs of
its patients. In this case also, we are always positioned every
day, to see not only the effect of the health care policies for
individual patients but also the much-needed change when it
comes to healthcare delivery. In this circumstances, it is not
only the patients and their families that suffer but the
community as well.
Financial Impact of the Policy On Health on the Community
One notable example in which the community is involved
in addressing inadequate healthcare delivery is through the cost
of prescription drugs. In this case, I believe so many healthcare
providers can bear witness and share how so many patients have
requested them to limit or reduce the frequency in which their
prescriptions are awarded. Because they have inadequate funds
or in other words, they simply lack information and knowledge
on how to get discounts or community resources to enable them
to fill their discounts. The leaders in politics should be able to
formulate policies that offer training and education to patients

in matters revolving around health are a system so as to increase
their awareness when it comes to prescription and the economic
resources available.
Owing to the global legislative health care policy, I
believe nurses are in a better position to provide the much-
needed information about the healthcare practices. As a member
of the nursing community, I think each and every member of the
society has an opportunity and the responsibility to offer
accurate and up-to-date information. Additionally, any nurse
practitioner who has a passing interest in influencing the policy
process even if they possess limited resources and time can
always find a way to establish themselves as confident
advocates. In other words, it is up to a nurse as an individual to
decide on potential strategies they think will be efficient and
they feel comfortable using given their time and energy.
Ethical Principles Impact My Position on the Policy Issue
The Principle of Nonmaleficence which requires nurses to
do no harm is one reason I advocate for the improvement of
legislative policies. In other words, the primary fundamental
objective of most nurse practitioners is to protect the safety of
their patients by increasing the quality of care and facilitating
their access to the needed resources as well as promoting
quality health care. In this case, health care systems are
developing and changing rapidly. Therefore, leaders in politics
and nurses should practice the principle of autonomy to perfume
their activities with self-determination when evolving with
these changes. As a result, nurses also needs to employ the
principle of beneficence to influence the formulation policy
revolving around health care systems postulated by local
politicians rather than just helping in the implementation
process. In so doing, the quality of healthcare both locally and
globally will improve tremendously regarding service delivery,
prescription cost, and patient knowledge of healthcare resources
and medicine.
Policy Brief for the Policy Issue
Identification of the Decision Maker

Political and professional courage is needed amongst nurse
practitioners and professional nursing organization’s managers
to steer nursing towards curbing the dualisms of individuals
versus the acknowledged collective health, as well as, medical
versus social health model. Additionally, having a vision of an
activist, informed nursing profession, can play a primary part in
improving the level of the nursing discourse in the community.
In this case, according to the legislative policy, activism can
offer to mean to a nursing inquiry such that the work of nurses
must interconnect with the work of the larger community. The
local political leaders and healthcare managers need to provide
the suitable conditions for Nurse Practioner to possess the
responsibility and right to act as political elements in both
national and political arenas. Moreover, the nurses as activists
need to formulate an approach that makes them resourceful to
policy makers and community members. In other words, for this
policy advocacy to be successful, nurses as interpreters of
science and advocates, must feel free and empowered to raise
their voice in support of a healthcare policy. In this case, the
legislative healthcare policy requires the attention of the local
political leader who in this case, is Honorable Donald Trumpet
because it is only through him that the nurses will feel
empowered to influence the legislative policy decisions.
Reasons Why the Legislative Policy Requires the Attention of
the Political Leader
Previous research indicates that Honorable Donald
Trumpet and nurse practitioners participating in the legislative
policy advocacy process will need to deliberate on their very
own professional goals revolving around the particular societies
within their working jurisdiction. Additionally, this goal may
encompass challenging healthcare delivery, proposing different
methodologies for research, challenging social policy, and
regulating and promoting the democratization of the institutions
which in one way or the other determine research policy and
priorities. Moreover, the legislative policy will require the
attention of the political leader because; it will motivate nurse

practitioners to venture and step out into the modern and
unfamiliar politics world. In this case, being politically active
does not necessarily mean that they take the initiative, but it
needs a network that can advise nurses when they need political
leadership and response at the appropriate time. However,
having a legislative sponsor or leader for a piece of legislation
policy does not necessarily ensure that the implication of the
policy will be smooth. In most cases, on significa nt but
controversial elements, it is universally acknowledged that there
are equal numbers of individuals who are trying to mobilize
their forces to oppose the policy or the element at hand.
Therefore, the political leader of the individuals who will
receive the policy from the nurse Practioner should be able to
make the nurse practitioners to understand that the legislation
process requires adequate negotiation and consensus.
A study conducted by Institute of Medicine that revolved
around the “Future of Nursing; Leading Change, Advancing
health”, released in the year 2010. It is acknowledged that
political leaders should review the legislative health care
policies to transform the nursing profession to enhance the
value and quality of healthcare services in America (Israel,
2013).. As a political leader, research indicates that Honorable
Donald Trumpet should be able to campaign and advocate for
laws and regulations that are meant to improve the quality of
the healthcare services.
Challenges Involved In Addressing the Health Care Policy Issue
In spite of the ongoing severe nursing shortage, the aging
nursing workforce, wide-spread dissatisfaction among some
bedside nurses, nurse conflicts with physicians coupled with the
lack of opportunities to successfully diversify the nursing
profession demographically, the nursing profession is believed
to have not actualized their collective power. In other words,
realizing the objective of the legislative health care policy may
be more challenging because; nursing has not grown into a
powerful, cohesive professional force that could act as a
counterweight to the medicine in the global policy arena (Israel,

2013). Additional when it comes to matters of advocacy, it is
acknowledged that not so many nurses can collaborate with
political leaders in issues revolving around other health
professional policies. Another challenging aspect when it comes
to this policy is the fact that both nurses and the local political
leaders are very busy people. In other words, nurses are
occupied by health care homes, families, children or elderly
care homes hence time for political connection is very limited
and rare.
Some factors restrain the potential power of Nurse
Practioner to collectively and individually to influence the
decisions of the politicians in matters revolving around
legislative health care policy. First, failure to convey a very
clear message that may encourage a larger number of Nurse
Practioner to exercise their valuable right when it comes to
choosing of leaders. Second, there is inadequate nurse
membership in professional organizations that advocate
collectively for health care policy matters. Finally, lack of
primary education in issues revolving around health advocacy
issues that can play a very crucial role in influencing the
political arena.
Primary Options and Interventions for the Decision Maker
Any political leader and a Nurse Practioner who has an
interest in influencing the policy making the process even if
they possess very limited resources and time can quickly
establish a way of becoming a confident advocate. Additionally,
there are quite some very simple ways of intervening in the
legislative policy decision-making process. One is writing a
very official but simple letter to the ministry of health. Second
is making a telephone call and finally, being elected or
nominated for a political office. Once the policy maker is aware
of the situation in which a legislative policy will improve the
delivery system of the healthcare environment, one can move to
explore the advantages and disadvantages of possible solutions
and afterward, work to get others to get involved and interested
in the social advocacy issue. Moreover, depending on the policy

maker’s level of confidence, they may also campaign and testify
about the problem or work with media channels in bringing
attention to the advantages of the healthcare policy decision.
Persuasive call of action for the decision maker
Many policies making issues may be too complex to be
easily resolved by just making phone calls or even be solved by
the dedicated efforts of an individual. Additionally, in reality,
there are very few policy changes that have occurred without
collective efforts of many social policy change advocates.
Therefore, to solve the challenges associated with this policy
change, to join a professional nursing advocacy organization is
a very crucial way to enhance the policy maker’s individual
advocacy efforts. Moreover, nursing professional associations
possess more resources and are in a better position to
effectively strategize to bring the perspectives to legislative
decision policymakers than those nurses acting individually. In
other words, the professional nursing organizations are better
placed to monitor public policy and in the process, provide
ways for its members to learn and know more about health
decision makers. Furthermore, the challenges revolving around
the nursing political affiliation can be easily solved by
professional nursing organizations because they provide tools
and information to ensure that those political candidates who
are supportive of legislative health care are re-elected into
office. Another common persuasive mode will revolve around
how active the advocate can practice and demonstrate effective
communication skills so as to convince others to listen and
benefit from the perception of others. In such cases, repeated
and constant communication with legislators as well as their
staff members in a very straightforward manner would
significantly increase the likelihood that the legislative health
care policy and information postulated by an individual would
be able to be understood and heard.
How to Evaluate the Success of the Policy Brief
Governance institutions play a vital role in developing
policy implementation strategies needed to manage risks as well

as build adaptive capacity starting from the national level to
household level or the project that concerns the decision makers
and the people. The legislative health care policy will clearly be
a success if it is showcasing consistent and clear goals that are
articulated by the top government officials or the political
leader (Israel, 2013). Additionally, the implementation process
of the policy would be advantageous if the nurses involved are
showing clear knowledge and understanding of the pertinent
consequences of the policy regarding causes and effects of the
potential solutions to the ongoing problem. Moreover, the
legislative policy should also have a clear hierarchy of authority
with most of the policy decision established at the top
leadership level, and the system itself is aligned with the
existing rules. In other words, the top-down approach is the
rational, comprehensive approach to policy planning. In this
case, the legislative health care policy will only be a success if
the policy is consistent with an overhead democracy such that
the elected government officials delegate implementation duties
and authority to those public servants who are non-elected but
are accountable to those democratically appointed leaders. In
this instance, it is succinct that the policy implementation
process will also include the modification and evaluation stage
where the already existing policies are revisited and amended
according to the changing circumstances.
Identification of the Professional Organization That Has Shown
Interest in the Policy
It is universally acknowledged that nurses possess the high
potential to contribute to the development of legislative health
care policy by employing a political action. Additionally, those
nurses who engage in policy advocacy often do so via
participation in their employer’s change policy committees or
by supporting already established nursing organizations (Israel,
2013). In other words, professional nursing organizations are
believed to have processes and mandates for nurses to engage at
one point in policy implementation. However, it is universally
acknowledged that, despite the existence of some professional

nursing organizations dealing with policy advocacy, it is still
very challenging to encourage somehow professional nurses to
be involved in politics actively and in the process of healthcare
policy implementation for their very own known reasons. One
major reason is the fact that most of the registered nurses
believe that their primary role is to take care of patients hence
failing to look at the greater picture which may include policy
making (Israel, 2013).
This policy making process intends to collaborate with a
professional nursing organization that is working towards the
same objective of legislative policy advocacy. One best way of
involving other members of the nursing profession is concerning
an organization that encompasses nurses that are members of
the ICN-International Council of Nurses (Israel, 2013). For
instance, United Kingdom’s Royal College of Nurses (UKRCN)
has already expressed interest in joining in the implementation
of the legislative health care policy. UKRCN expressed its
desire to get involved in the policy advocacy because it has
established the tendency to give nurses a voice at the national
level. At the same time providing nurses tools to have an impact
on matters involving decision making and support on how to be
active politically and lobby the top political leaders(Israel,
2013).
CBR principles and how to approach and collaborate with the
interested organization and how their goals align with the policy
In community-based participatory research, it is
acknowledged that partnerships provide an opportunity to bring
together willing individuals who might not have a chance to
work and collaborate and in so doing, it increases the
participant’s skills (Israel, 2013). Given the fact that United
Kingdom’s Royal College of Nurses (UKRCN) aims at giving
nurse practitioners a voice regarding to policy making matters,
it was very easy approaching them to (or “intending to”)
advocate for the legislative policy. Their goal and objective of
advocating for the rights of the nurses when it comes to patient
care in political matters are very similar to the objective of the

legislative policy advocacy. One of the essential elements that
will ensure the success of the policy making process goals is
effective leadership and proper management structure (Israel,
2013).
Actions steps to ensure success
The project leader will ensure that all the participating
partners comprehend that their contributions to policy making
are equally important. Therefore, there is a need to stress the
participant’s equality so as to make both the uneducated and
very educated members to feel free to work with each other.
Moreover, clear and efficient communication of instructions and
project requirements will be adequate for the realization of the
policy making goals and objectives
Developing a unit of identity demands that the partners
involved need to commit the emotional energy required to
establish interpersonal and inter-organizational relationships. In
this case, some of the partners from the organization including
the supporting staff may be volunteering their availability and
energy to get involved in the policy advocacy project and
adding resources and time for the social element which adds
unfunded time commitment for them (Israel, 2013).. In other
words, this time, element relationships among organizations
workers will be very crucial in the success of the legislative
policy advocacy. It should be discussed and explained openly to
all the participating staff members of United Kingdom’s Royal
College of Nurses (UKRCN) as well as the legislative leaders,
and nurses are participating in the policy making process.
Roles and responsibilities
It is acknowledged that not everybody possess equal skills
to others. Therefore, those individuals who choose to work
independently would, therefore, be required to help in the
collection of data from patients and their families. In such
cases, the board members of the policy making partnership will
have to draft a list of participants who are willing to aid in the
policy implementation process. Capacity building activities and
project capacity building team will include registered nurses,

project investigators, health care experts, academician,
gerontology nurse, and the assisted living nurses from both
sides of the partnership.
Primary elements of developing a collaborative evaluation plan
The joint assessment plan will be developed using the
following key elements and guiding principles. The first
working and guiding principle of partnering with the United
Kingdom’s Royal College of Nurses (UKRCN) is
acknowledging the collaboration as a unit of identity. In other
words, this character can be created as a condition for funding
the research (Israel, 2013). Another guiding principle that will
ensure that the collaboration with the organization is swift and
efficient is establishing or forming a legal corporate identity.
However, our collaboration with the United Kingdom’s Royal
College of Nurses (UKRCN) did not necessarily need to take
this path because there was no need to hire researchers and their
staffs, sign space rental contracts or perform any other activities
that are typical of start-up partnerships. In such cases, the joint
evaluation plan may be built on the resources and the strengths
of the participants in the policy making process. In simple
terms, promoting a core-learning as well as capacity building
among the participating partners is also crucial in determining
the collaboration evaluation plan (Israel, 2013).
Evaluation plans process
The best approach that can be used in this process is the
bottoms-up approach. It assumes that the people on the ground
or rather at the household level can generate knowledge and
skills based on their very own frameworks and categories before
the information is passed to the top management level which in
this case, is the local political leader, Honorable Donald
Trumpet. In other words, people at the household level will be
essential in delivering and producing more accurate and richer
data that will help in establishing precise results of the inquiry
process. As a consequence, will assist in stabling greater
commitment to the legislative health care policy and their
commitment to change (Chiranjeewee & Harald, 2011). One of

the advantages of bottoms –up approach is that people can
identify what affects them most and in the process, they can
identify with the policy making process decisions.
Analysis of the strengths and challenges of the bottoms-up
approach and the Top-bottoms approach
Advantages of Top-bottoms evaluation process
The policy making process realizes a total employment of
resources from the applications managed by individuals at the
household level (Chiranjeewee & Harald 2011).Additionally,
the first stage of implementation acts as a guiding principle of
the policy making process. Moreover, after completing the
policy-making process, this approach is believed to help in the
implementation of more mature, accurate, and broad system
solutions
Disadvantages of top bottoms approach
It is believed that this approach provides a limited
coverage during its first phases of implementation.
Additionally, a subtle percentage of policies affecting the user
accounts are managed during its first implementation stages
(Chiranjeewee & Harald, 2011). Moreover, it requires
individuals at the household level to adapt to the ongoing
implementation process during its first phase. Furthermore, the
community will not realize the importance of the policy rapidly.
Besides, the cost of implementation as far as resources and time
involved are more likely to be higher.
Merits of Bottoms-up approach
Benefits of the policy are realized during its first
implementation –phases because the users are aware of the
policy at the household level. Additionally, there is no need for
developing custom adapters for its users since they helped in
the formulation of the policy (Chiranjeewee & Harald
2011).Moreover, during the first phase, the participants, as well
as the organization, broadens its identity skills and
understanding of the policy
Disadvantages of the bottoms-up approach
The policy making process may have to undergo some changes

during a later roll-out phase. Additionally, because the users at
household level will start feeling the implication of the policy
during its earlier stages, the roll-out stage may cause severe
adverse consequences (Chiranjeewee & Harald 2011).Moreover,
it is driven by existing demands and structures at the
community level rather than the policy-making process itself.
Analysis of the best approach
Given the fact that, the objective of the policy is to benefit
patients by the nursing care, bottom-up approach is the best
alternative because it produces earlier benefits to the users, and
there is high visibility of changes (Chiranjeewee & Harald,
2011). Additionally, bottoms-approach approach causes greater
impact to the organization regarding returns and high
deployment coverage during its early phases of implementation.
Therefore as compared to a top-bottoms approach which has
delayed returns and lower impact on the users and the
organization, bottoms approach is a much better alternative
given limited resources and time.
References
Chiranjeewee K. & Harald V., (2011).Comparing a top-down
and bottom-up approach in the identification of criteria and
indicators for sustainable community forest management in
Nepal. Retrieved from:
http://forestry.oxfordjournals.org/content/85/1/145.full?sid=8ec
b647d-3306-47a1-ab77-b3404c68e8a6

Hofrichter, R., Bhatia, R., & National Association of County &
City Health Officials (U.S.). (2010). tackling health inequities
through public health practice: Theory to action. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Israel, B. A. (2013). Methods for community-based
participatory research for health. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Evaporators
Understand the process of
evaporation and why
evaporators are used
Understand hazards of
evaporator systems

“To lose or cause to lose liquid by
vaporization, leaving a more
concentrated residue”
◦ Reprocessing raffinate volumes are reduced by about 50 -100
times
reducing the storage volume required
◦ Without evaporation, the downstream processes would become
inefficient
Simple and robust with no moving parts
and min maintenance

Feeding
Hot Vapour discharge
Disentrainment
Recirculation of liquor
Heating
Steam
reduces corrosion
id runaway reactions (Reaction rate)

Evaporator Bump Over
energetic event caused by a sudden conversion
of superheat in a liquor to a vapour, which in
turn carries liquor with it.
Cause: The Application of vacuum to a liquid, where the
temperature of
the liquid before the vacuum is applied (or increased) is greater
than the
boiling point of the liquid at that applied vacuum. The liquid
becomes
superheated relative to its boiling point at that reduced pressure.
• Loss of vacuum without loss of steam heating followed by re-
instatement of vacuum
• Loss of vacuum with loss of steam (but not radiogenic heat)
followed
by re-instatement of vacuum
• Air in-bleed control valve fails shut
• Temporary loss of cooling water to the condenser without
tripping the
vacuum raising ejectors

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Temp C
B
ar
a
Partial loss
of vacuum
Continue
heating
Vacuum
reinstated
BUMP

OVER !!
Do not apply a vacuum to a liquid where the
temperature of the liquid before the vacuum is
applied (or increased) is greater than the boiling
point of the liquid at that applied vacuum
than that before the loss of vacuum, then reinstate the
vacuum
Loss of cooling capacity due to failed components
This is only of concern if the evaporator contents are self
heating
The heat load of the evaporator contents will be limited to
ensure
sufficient cooling capacity is available
Loss of / or low cooling water flow to the evaporator
condenser

This will result in loss of vacuum to the condenser and
subsequent
evaporator pressurisation
It is normal to trip the steam heating and / or the vacuum
raising
ejectors on low cooling water flow to the condenser
If cooling water is restored to the condenser without having
tripped the
steam heating, then bump / boil over may result
Activity Breakthrough
ade reversal. Due to steam collapse in the
heating
component resulting in the pressure in the evaporator being
greater
than that in the heating component
detection of
activity in the steam condensate (or cooling water) returns an
automatic isolation valve will close preventing radioactivity
migration
Hydrogen Build-up from radiolysis
Solvent Nitrate Reactions

self accelerating and can result in evaporator
pressurisation due to high non-condensables
that contains nitric acid
(steam distillation) and limits on evaporator temperature
• Thermal decomposition giving non condensables. This can
also result in evaporator pressurisation
• Limit Ammonium Nitrate concentrations and evaporator
temperature
can force active liquor out of the controlled area.
��MSc Process Safety and Loss Prevention� �Safety in
Nuclear Operations� (Module CPE6014)��Waste
ProcessingLearning Objectives:What is evaporation?Why
evaporation?Evaporator typesThermosyphonHighly active kettle
evaporatorWhy Reduced Pressure?Hazards – Boil Over Slide
Number 10“Bump Over”Evaporator Bump Over: Cause Bump
Over: Cause Evaporator Bump Over: Prevention Preventative

MeasuresOther HazardsOther HazardsOther Hazards:Other
HazardsSlide Number 20
Surname 1
Name:
Instructor:
Course:
Date:
Safety in the Nuclear Industry
QUESTION 1A
Ref. Control Type of control Rank
A Each batch of
enriched uranium
must not exceed a
net uranium-235
mass of 600g.
PASSIVE ENGINEERED SAFETY FEATURE-It is
universally accepted that nuclear energy is

responsible for approximately 15% of the global
electricity (Mario, et al 1260). In this case, so many
nations are in the process of introducing nuclear
energy or grow their overall nuclear
energy .Additionally, ever since the beginning of the
1980s, it known that the application of passive
engineered safety features or rather those systems
whose overall operation takes full advantage of
convention and gravity natural forces, can either
directly or indirectly play a very crucial role in
making the economics of nuclear energy more
simplified and potentially improve the dynamics of
nuclear power plant designs. For instance the
Conference that revolved around the Safety of
1
Surname 2
Nuclear Power that was basically convened in the

year 1991 argued that the employment of passive
safety measures is very effective and desirable in
realizing simplification and improving performance
reliability of the effective and essential safety
functions and for this case, it should be used
wherever necessary
B The uranium-235
concentration in the
dissolver must be
monitored by regular
sampling and must
not be allowed to
exceed
10 gU235/litre.
ACTIVE ENGINEERED “SAFETY
MECHANISM”- One major difference between
active engineered safety mechanism and passive

safety feature is the fact that active safety depends
on a computer automated intervention or an operator
whereas on the other hand, passive safety
mechanisms depends basically on natural selection
or rather the laws of nature in ensuring that the
reactor adjusts automatically on adverse events in a
very effective manner (Mario, et al 1260).
Additionally, this systems mechanisms are activated
automatically in response to any accident or safety
concern or any related abnormal event .besides, in a
nuclear reactor, such mechanism are activated with
3
Surname 3
the help of a human operator, mechanically or
automatically with the help of a computer driven
systems.

C The total quantity of
liquor in the
dissolver must be
monitored and
automatically
controlled as not to
exceed a maximum
of 10 litres.
ACTIVE ENGINEERED “SAFETY
MECHANISM”- Active engineered systems
mechanisms are basically the system mechanisms
that employ the active understanding of the nuclear
dissolver vessel in ensuring that the nuclear reactor
is working in a more effective way (Mario, et al
1260). In other words, this system mechanism takes
into consideration the nuclear stability control
systems, traction control systems.

4
D The dissolver vessel
should be designed
to be safe by
diameter for all
possible uranium
enrichments and
concentrations.
Operational controls “operating instructions”- In the
implementation of safety in the nuclear reactor
dissolver, consideration should also be given to the
type and quality of information provided by each
operational indicator. In other words, it is accepted
that there is a direct relationship when it comes to
the safety and the indicator
7
E The dissolver vessel
should be fitted with

Operational controls “operating instructio ns”- ,
indicators are operational indicators should not be
5
Surname 4
fixed neutron
poisons so that
criticality safety will
be ensured for all
possible uranium
enrichments and
concentrations.
susceptible to any kind of manipulation and the
indicators should not be expressed in quantitative
terms accepted as unambiguous
F Batches of
gadolinium should

be added to each
batch of uranium to
ensure that the
dissolver product
will be safe under all
possible conditions.
Passive engineered-safety feature”- Some new
passive engineered designs fundamentally utilize
natural selection basically as a technique of
eliminating core power in normal nuclear energy
operations. However, the employment of passive
engineered systems help in the elimination of costs
that revolve around maintenance, operation,
installation of active features that need several
pumps with redundant and independent electric
power supplies. On the contrary, taking into account
the weak driving forces associated with this kind of
safety features based on natural circulation, analysis

methods and careful designs must be used so as to
see to it that the passive engineered safety measures
focus only on their intended purpose. For instance,
for thermal insulation purposes, the size and the type
2
Surname 5
of the insulation used in the reactor will be basically
be predominantly reflective metallic. besides, any
other fibrous insulation methods employed in the
nuclear energy reactor should be basically be
conformance with the nuclear reactors’ RG 1.36 as
far as the leachable concentration of enriched
uranium oxide in nitric acid. Passive nuclear safety
is universally accepted as a nuclear reactor feature
that does not need any operator to shut it down in
case of an emergency which in most cases results
from overheating due to loss of coolant flow or loss

of coolant. One reason why this safety feature is
important in enriched uranium oxide in nitric acid
nuclear creator is based on the fact that their basic
physics law tend to slow rather than increasing
because of their tendency to rely ion engineering of
components. Therefore, given the nature of its
operation in the dissolver vessel, then it is one of the
best safety measures.
G The dissolver vessel
should be designed
Operational controls “Operating Instructions”-in this
case, the nuclear reactor organization needs to set up
6
Surname 6
with a maximum

volume of 10 litres.
appropriate arrangements that will see to it that the
nuclear reaction minimizes the risks to health and
safety. Hence the volume of the nuclear reactor
should as well be conducted based on the quality
assurance of the organization and the dissolver
vessel quality.
QUESTION 1B
Table 1b (Question 1b)
Ref. Control Type of control Rank
A Only paint tins with a
gross mass of less than
10kg may be admitted
to the store.
PASSIVE ENGINEERED SAFETY FEATURE-
When this remotely actuated makeup safety feature
is implemented effectively, it will ensure the

adequacy of uranium bearing sludge. Storage and
in the process, it will help in the protection of the
safety and human health in case of any accident
conditions. Besides, if this storage safety feature is
demonstrated to be reliable, it is universally
accepted that it will ensure that the decomposition
coolant reactor is just below the normal weight of
1
Surname 7
the uranium bearing sludge that can be supported
effectively by the nuclear reactor.
B Operators must ensure
that the edge to edge
separation between
paint tins in the store
is not less than 60cm.

Active engineered “safety mechanism”-this safety
mechanism is very approximate because in this
case, it is assumed that the maximum gradients for
each recovered sludge, each wall and the reactor
floor occur simultaneously. Apparently as a result
of their differing strengths then then will basically
heat up and decompose at different rates.
Moreover, another reason is because there are
doubts about the extent to which the nuclear
decomposer structure will be capable of resisting
the thrusts generated by the recovered sludge and
the steel liner. In this case, the estimated thickness
measurers at a number of cross-sections are an
evidence of the strength of the recovered sludge,
the comprehensive strength of the decomposition
sludge and the sections dimensions.
3
C Paint tins must not be

stacked on top of each
other.
OPERATIONAL CONTROLS “operation
measures”-stacking tins on top of each other may
cause adverse conditions as far as changes and
modifications in properties that may result from
loss of material. In other words, the operational
5
Surname 8
effectiveness when it comes to storage of
recovered sludge depends on the uniqueness of its
content and therefore, it should not be ambiguous
in any state.in some case, protective steel are
embedded in the spaces between the stacks as well
as the equipment situated inside the nuclear reactor
container.
D A grid of 60cm

squares must be
marked on the floor
area of the store. Each
grid square may hold
only a single paint tin,
which must be placed
at the centre of the
square.
Operational controls (Control measures) - this is a
control measure that will ensure that the recovered
sludge is arranged in a very organized manner. In
this case, the nuclear reactor will be able to detect
the nature of human error during operations.
6
E A wooden framework
will be provided to
provide a series of
defined storage

locations for the paint
tins awaiting assay.
Paint tins may only be
Passive engineered “safety feature”-Employment
of a wooden framework will ensure that the
recovered sludge decompose through natural
selection or the forces of gravity. In this case, The
framework or rather the containment design will
ensure that the nuclear reactor decomposition curb
the uncontrolled release of sludge and radioactivity
4
Surname 9
stored in these
designated locations.
to the neighbouring environment hence to some
extent, it acts as a safety feature to human health.

F The paint tins to be
used must have a
volume of 10 litres.
Operations control “Control measures”-because
the primary purpose of the tins is to basically
control the adverse effects of the recovered sludge
due to pressure differences, therefore, it is obvious
that since the pressure in the nuclear reactor
coolant is very high, the volume or rather the
capacity of the tins should as well be very high
(Herrero, and Otero 1237). Therefore, the 10 litre
tins should be very helpful in controlling any cases
of flooding because of sludge overflows.
2
Question 2
A very good nuclear health and safety culture is universally
accepted to possess the
following attributes: First, whenever there is any possible

adverse case, Quality, and safety are
given priority over cost and schedule (David J., et al 233). In
other words, any potential errors
and near misses whenever they occur are basically viewed as an
issue of concern that can be as
well be taken to be a learning experience that can later generate
benefits to the nuclear plant. In
simple terms, individuals are therefore encouraged to report,
identify and correct any form of
imperfections so as to ensure that any individual attached to the
nuclear plant to avert any future
problems (Mariscal, Herrero, and Otero 1237). Moreover, every
change that occur in the nuclear
Commented [U1]: *What are the 3 key safety
characteristics unique to the nuclear industry that need to
be managed?
This part was not answered. Please introduce the 3 key
safety characteristics unique to the nuclear industry? And
then show how they’re managed.
What stated in the Draft is NOT unique to the Nuclear
industry and is applicable in any process industry? Please
rectify.
Looked at functionally, the three basic safety functions in a
nuclear reactor are:
•to control reactivity,
•to cool the fuel and
•to contain radioactive substances.

See Ref/http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-
library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/safety-of-
nuclear-power-reactors.aspx
Surname 10
plant, every safety assessment and every plant meeting should
be considered as an opportunity to
learn, reinforce and tech the preceding principles and attributes
(David. et al 255). Besides, this
can only be realized if the nuclear reactor plant management
prevent isolationism or
individualism and in the process, help in the establishment of a
learning organization.
Second, the nuclear plant activities should be carried out based
on the energy plant
procedures. In other words, if any individual has any doubts as
far as the procedure is concerned,
the plant evolution is stopped by ensuring that the nuclear
reactor plant is returned is to its initial
stable and safe condition.in such circumstances, the procedures
are changed and evaluated if
need be before moving to the next stage (Mariscal, `Herrero,

and Otero 1237). Besides, if
problems are identified, the root cause of the devastating effect
is the root cause and in the
process establishing the best solutions without necessarily being
diverted by who contributed or
identified the devastating effect or who contributed to the
challenging problem. In such
instances, the primary goal is to see what is right and not
basically who is right.
Third, the main primary objective of supervisory management
revolves around the fact
that each nuclear plant task is performed in a very effective
manner the first time (Alberto and
Ketokivi 66). Additionally, the management or the supervisory
should be able to accept full
responsibility for each and every happening and the success of
each work and be involved in the
work in every possible manner that will ensure that the work is
successfully (Herrero, and Otero
1237). Moreover, the supervisors should as well establish
policies and practices that convey an
overall nuclear plant’s attitude of individual trust and in the
process, set up measures that can be
able to foster teamwork at each and every organizations level

and in the process, reinforce
positive working attitude towards safety and health (Mario, et al
1260).
Surname 11
Furthermore, feedback should be solicited from each and every
organization personnel to
assist in establishing impediments, concerns and any
opportunities to improve on the level of
organizational safety. In simple terms, this is achieved
whenever the management encourages
and reinforces a collective behavior that reinforces and leads
the plant staff to identify any
potential problems fully and promptly. Therefore, the nuclear
plant as an organization possesses
an obligation and a commitment to improve the safety and
health continuously and in the
process, help in managing any form of change effectively.
QUESTION 3
ALARP is universally accepted as an aspect of reducing the
level of risks in such a way
that it is very practically low (As Low As Reasonably

Practicable). Additionally, the operator in
practice must be in a position to portray through supported and
reasoned arguments that in the
operation, there are no any other options that can be adopted
reasonably tom curb the risk level
to a much lower level (Knut 235). Reasonably practicable in
this case is used to represent a much
narrower terminology as compared to physically possible. In
other words this can be assumed
that the amount of risk is weighed upon the placement of the
sacrifices involved in curbing the
risk whether it is time, trouble, or money. If there will be any
gross disproportion between the
two scales the risk being found to be insignificant then the
defendants is able to discharge the
onus on the two calculated options (Prasad, Cole and Haase).
Any safety case is supposed to show how its operator will be
able to meet the regulatory
provisions requirements that are very relevant to the control of
any adverse effects including
risks top health and safety of its personnel at the facility (Alan,
et al 453). Most of the legal
regulations are embedded in the terminology or rather the
phrase that revolve around curbing the

risk level to ALARP. In this case, it is accepted that the
operator must work hard to prove via
Surname 12
supported and reasoned arguments that indeed there are no any
other measures or techniques that
can practically be employed to make the risks to be as low as
possible further (Prasad, 213).
Additionally, the phrase reasonably practicable is very
significant to the health and safety of any
nuclear energy regime (Barnard, et al 265). In other words, it
gives room to the operator to
establish goals to ensure their own safety rather than depending
and following blindly
prescriptive requirements. Besides, such conditions also allow
the nuclear plant to either accept
or reject any arrangements of the operator as far as safety is
concerned. Furthermore, this act of
flexibility in any nuclear plant can be very beneficial but it can
at times be very challenging
because it basically needs individuals to practice judgment with
respect to how they will be able

to curb any potential risks (Barnard, et al 270). One striking
aspect in this case is the fact that a
decision can be reached upon evaluation of any existing good
practice. However, in case the
nuclear plant incurs a complex situation, it is accepted that it
can be very challenging to make a
decision based on good practice alone. For example, in case the
nuclear plant has embraced a
new technology, then it can be very challenging to make a
decision following previous good
practice hence leaving room for other decision-making
techniques to be employed in informing
the judgment.
The safety case for any nuclear plant must possess a detailed
description of the legal
formal assessment of safety that is worked on by the operator.
In such instance, the regulations of
the FSA should identify all potential adverse happenings that
might cause a major accident.
Besides, the FSA should also identify control measures and
technical measures that are important
in reducing any potential risks to a level that can be classified
to be ALARP. In other words,
ALARP can basically be classified, as a very reasonable way

that any nuclear plant can approach
any adverse effects or potential problems since it acknowledges
that there is no organization that
Surname 13
can realize 100% absolute safety which makes an essential par t
of legislative goal setting.
Moreover, the adopted control measures in ALARP for any
primary adverse event can be taken
to collectively eliminate the risk to a level that can be deemed
to be ALARP. Thus basically
implies that, it is only the inclusion of sufficient level of related
risk information will some
nuclear plants be able to make the right decision as far as the
appropriate safety and health
measure is concerned.
When it comes to legacy facilities, the extent of reasonable
practicability revolves around
whether the potential risks that are anticipated can be reduced
based on previous good practice.
In this case, the risk assessment is performed by taking into
consideration some of the previous

held legal principles and good practice that entailed very low
sacrifices. In this case, the higher
the original level of risks in question, the more extensive is the
effort involved in showing that
the employment of the good practice will help curb the risk to
ALARP. On the other hand, for
new facilities, a selection between multiple fields is encouraged
at any stage including the design
stage that revolve around making a decision as far as the design
concepts are concerned.
However, in such instances, it is accepted that anew installation
has no potential of producing
risk or a problem that is much extensive than the already
existing good practice cannot handle for
comparable functions. In other words, in case of anew project, it
is wise for the operators to take
into consideration the risks and adverse conditions that are
involved over the whole project life
cycle. Therefore, the reasonable risk applicability should
therefore be determined based on the
assumptions of this baseline hence ensuring that the risk
reduction technique that is chosen is
very ALARP.
Question 4

Commented [U2]: Question 4 part (a):
No answer was found for this part of the question [Describe
the principal reactions within a reactor core ]!!
please consider adding an appropriate answer to this part of
the question?? DISCRIB WHAT REACTIONS (EXOTHERMIC
REACTIONS) TAKE PLACE INSIDE THE REACTOR CORE?
THEN,
PRESENT THE SHIELDING MEASURES FOR THE PROCESS.
Surname 14
Radiation protection is universally accepted as a science of
protecting the environment
from the adverse influence and implications of ionizing
radiation. Additionally, it is a very
extensive issue not only in nuclear energy plants but as well as
in medical centers and industries.
Some of the ways in which individuals are protected from
ionizing radiation ids through. First,
reducing the time because the a level of radiation an individual
is exposed to basically depends
on the time that the individual are directly exposed to the
radiation source hence this can be
curbed by reducing the exposure time (Barnard, et al 268).
Second, by reducing the distance such

that if an individual is very near the source of radiation then
they are believed to be very
vulnerable as compared to if they are very far (Herrero, and
Otero 1237). Third is shielding such
that if the source of radiation is very intensive such that
distance and time cannot deal with it,
shielding is found to be very efficient. In this case, shielding is
made up of concrete, water, or
lead barriers. In case of gamma radiation, it is accepted that
depleted uranium can be employed
as a potential shield protection but is found to be inadequate
when it comes to shielding of
neutron radiation. The primary source of nuclear radiation in
nuclear plants is the nuclear reactor
core and the nuclear reactor itself (Barnard, et al 268). Hence in
such instances, the nuclear
shielding employed is biological shielding. Additionally,
radiation shields are employed in this
case in reducing neutrons or gamma rays on the reactor vessels.
In so doing, this shielding
protects the reactor vessels alongside its internal parts from
intensive heat caused by gamma ray
absorption using thermal shields.

A strange gamma and neutron radiation is sometimes employed
in protecting the reactor
vessel most especially when it comes to PWR nuclear power
plants. Additionally, structural
materials that involve reactor internals and pressure vessels are
destroyed by fast neutrons
(Herrero, and Otero 1237). One sure thing is the fact that fast
neutrons are responsible in
Surname 15
establishment of structural defects that result into embrittlement
of material that are embedded in
the pressure vessel. In this case, in order tom reduce the neutron
flux level that occurs at the
vessel level, the core loading strategy can undergo some
modifications (Barnard, et al 268). To
curb this issue, out-in fuel loading technique fresh fuel
assemblies are employed and placed at
the core periphery. In nuclear plants, one challenging aspect is
to shield neutrons and gamma
rays owing to the fact that the ranges of charged particles like
alpha-particles and beta-particles
as far as matter is concerned are basically very short.

4b) determination of photon flux
Given mass= 70kg
Projected area= 0.7m2
Depth=0.20m
Linear energy absorption coefficient = 7 m-1
Given the fact that the SI diode thickness is 20 microns, energy
is 7 Kev, diode current 1.0 and
assuming the thickness of Al filter =0.20 microns surface area
or rather the distance travelled is
0.20 mm, the calculated photon flux is 9.131933045233797
multiplied by 10^12 photons per
second.
4c) Shielding to decrease outside radiation hazard is performed
when increasing distance or
decreasing the time is not possible. The material to be used in
shielding depends on the kind of
energy and type of radiation. Particles of Alpha are shielded
easily. Thin pieces of papers are
enough to stop the alpha particles; hence alpha particles present
no outside radiation hazard.
Particles of beta are more penetrating as compared to alpha

particles. The shields for beta are
made of brass, aluminum, plastic, or any other materials that
possess low atomic number.
Commented [U3]: Please provide the reference of this
equation
Commented [U4]: Explain the results determined and
state what does the calculated value mean in this context.
Please rectify
Surname 16
Material
Linear energy
absorption
coefficient
(cm2/g)
Density
(g/cm3)
Linear energy
abs. coeff.

(m-1)
Water 4.942E-02 1.000E+00 4.94
Concrete 4.557E-02 2.300E+00 1.978
Lead 4.606E-02 1.135E+01 4.058
Iron 4.265E-02 7.874E+00 0.542
Glass 4.447E-02 2.230E+00 1.994
C2) the best material to help reduce the implication of gamma is
lead because it has a lower
density and very high absorption rate. Besides, since the linear
energy absorption coefficient is
bigger compared to other materials, lead is much better..
4d)
Control Principle Description
Commented [U5]: Relate and refer the determined
answer to the concept of ALARP by including a connection
statement between the result found and ALARP concept.
And consider what so called Cost Benefit Analysis and
economical decision making? is lead available and
economical?

Surname 17
Reduce
exposure time
the radiation
amount which an
individual
accumulates
depends on the
time they stay in
the field of
radiation
To reduce an individual’s dose, it is advisable to restrict
the time of exposure in the area.in other words, how long
an individual stays in a radiation area is computed based
on limit/dose rate.
Reduce the
exposure
distance

The amount of
gamma radiation
an individual is
exposed to
depends on the
proximity to the
gamma radiation
source.
The intensity of gamma radiation decreases as the
distance between the gamma radiation source and an
i9ndividual decreases.
Lead shielding
Shielding is a
more effective
technique when
employed in
areas where time
and distance are

not able to
Lead is a very common and effective shielding material
because it is inexpensive, it possesses a very high
density, and it is very cheap to work with. However, the
intensity and the amount of shielding employed is
believed to depend on the level and the amount of
photon energy
Surname 18
reduce the
gamma radiation
exposure.
Employment
of a half value
layer
Shows how best
a material is able

to reduce the
intensity of
radiation half as
low as its
original
intensity.
The higher the thickness of a material is able to reduce
the radiation exposure, the more effective it is as far as
reducing the halfway radiation exposure reduction is
concerned (Barnard, et al 268).
Surname 19

Works Cited
Barnard, S., et al. "The first gamma-H2AX bio dosimetry
intercomparison exercises of the
w2434developing European biodosimetry network RENEB."
Radiation protection
dosimetry 164.3 (2015): 265-270.
Birnbach, David J., et al. "A framework for patient safety: A
defense nuclear industry-based
high-reliability model." Joint Commission Journal on Quality
and Patient Safety 39
(2013): 233-240.
Hernansanz, Alberto, and Mikko Ketokivi. "Getting to the Core
of Matter: The Outsourcing
Hazard in the Nuclear Industry." Academy of Management
Proceedings. Vol. 2013. No.
1. Academy of Management, 2013.
Mariscal, M. A., S. García Herrero, and A. Toca Otero.
"Assessing safety culture in the Spanish
nuclear industry through the use of working groups." Safety
science 50.5 (2012): 1237-
1246.

Martin, Alan, et al. An Introduction to Radiation Protection 6E.
CRC Press, 2012.
Martínez‐ Córcoles, Mario, et al. "Strengthening Safety
Compliance in Nuclear Power
Operations: A Role‐ Based Approach." Risk Analysis 34.7
(2014): 1257-1269.
Prasad, K. N. "Rationale for using multiple antioxidants in
protecting humans against low doses
of ionizing radiation." The British journal of radiology (2014).
Prasad, K. N., W. C. Cole, and G. M. Haase. "Radiation
protection in humans: extending the
concept of as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA) from dose
to biological damage."
The British Journal of Radiology (2014).
Surname 20
Ringen, Knut. "Optimal Safety and Health Management of
Construction Activities: Evidence
from the US Nuclear Power Industry." 30th International
Congress on Occupational
Health (March 18-23, 2012). Icoh, 2012.
Schneider, Mycle, and Antony Froggatt. "World nuclear

industry status report 2013." (2013).

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