This document discusses several key aspects and challenges of history as an area of knowledge. It addresses the distinction between history and historiography, the role of bias in the historical process, and the difficulties of determining historical causation and reliability of sources. It also questions how historians select and categorize facts, what paradigms influence their interpretations, and whether history can ever achieve complete objectivity.

1. Theory of Knowledge Areas of Knowledge HISTORY

2. “ All history is then the history of thought.” R.G. Collingwood “ Even God cannot change the past.” Agathon

3. The aims of understanding history as an area of knowledge:

4. Distinction between history and historiography

5. Role of bias and selection in historical process

6. Difficulties in historical causation

7. Historical judgments are subject to standard criteria of plausibility (consistency, coherence, etc.)

8. The role of history with respect to other disciplines (areas of knowledge)

9. The problems of knowing the past: Information can be incomplete. It can be inaccurate. It can be wrong. It may be impossible to know.

10. The facts of history: Collecting facts “hard core” Analyzing them The wishes and interests of the historian decide what is worth knowing.

11. The need to sort and sift The theories of the historians determine how the categorization takes place; therefore, they are no longer hard core facts. For example: Numbered red triangle, green circle, yellow square

12. How do we determine the reliability of our sources?

13. A biased historian is like a scientist “fixing the data” in his experiment so that it lends evidence to his hypothesis. We choose how to describe events and what is important depending on 1. what information is available 2. our paradigms

14. What will our own age be called in the future? Can it be a name we can predict?

15. The study of history is problematic. If state of mind is significant, then some factors are beyond our reach. Is history about indviduals or about social forces? History explains group r/t individual behavior; yet some individuals override the group. Yet no single leader could stop the advancement of information technology

16. What are considered valid sources of history? A personal diary? A government document? Bank accounts? Other?

17. Causationism in history History is about finding causes and effects. How many? How to prioritize? Hierarchy of causes? How far back/forward do we look for causes and effects before reaching absurdity? (Cleopatra’s nose)

18. The inevitability of history? Historical determinism Is history really cyclical? Does history depend on Race? Climate? Class struggle? Psychology of the times? Progress? Pure chance?

19. Select the paradigm Then select the data. Get data, then change the paradigm if necessary.

20. History aims for objectivity. History is a human endeavor. How do we select the right version? Difficulty in obtaining certainty Historian seeks convergence of evidence and hopes that explanations are reasonable and consistent with the evidence. Is a historian more like a painter or a photographer?

21. Food for Thought The study of history can be justified on the grounds that it contributes to our sense of identity it is a defense against propaganda it enriches our understanding of human nature

22. Although history is based on primary sources: Even primary sources are a selective interpretation of events. They cannot always be taken at face value.

23. Since history deals with complex situations: Historical events rarely have a single cause but are usually the result of a combination of factors.

24. Two theories of history: The Great Person Theory (history is determined by great individuals) Economic Determinism (history is determined by economic factors)

25. Revisionists rewrite history. Examples? ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________

26. Perception : how reliable is eyewitness testimony as a primary source? Reason : What common fallacies arise in studying history? Emotion : What role should empathy play in a historian’s work? Language : Can historical events be described in truly neutral language?