T.lokesh 230

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BHARAT HEAVY ELETRICALS LIMITED (BHEL)
HEAVY PLATES & VESSELS PLANT (HPVP), VISAKHAPATNAM
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE AWARD
OF DIPLOMA IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Under The Guidance of
P.JAYA LAKSHMI (B.TECH)
LECTURER
Submitted
T. LOKESH PIN NO: 17221-M-230
Period of training- 05/05/2019 to 05/11/2019
SANKETIKA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
P.M. PALEM, VISAKHAPATNAM
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

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SANKETIKA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
P.M. PALEM, VISKHAPATNAM
This is to certify that the industrial training report on “BHEL” is
bonfire work T.LOKESH: 17221-M-230, submitted partial fulfillment
of the requirement for the award of diploma in mechanical engineering
award by “BHARTH HEAVY ELECTIC LIMITED” HPVP unit, during
the academic session: 05/05/2019 to05/11/2019.
PROJECT GUIDE HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT
EXTERNAL EXAMINIER

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ABSTRACT
This project work done to become an entrepreneur and this is
the complete view of details that we have learn in the project work. In this
we had taken a proper report in the market about the various technologies
that we learn in the period of six months.
This project work helps us to learn
i. Identify and select a product service with an aim to set up a medium
scale industry.
ii. To conduct a detailed market survey.
iii. Listing out the raw material, equipment’s and tools needed for
rendering a specified quality of job.
iv. To explore the various financial arrangements to start the servicing
unit under a mudra scheme in medium scale industry.
v. Marking a survey of requirements of the departments of industries,
municipal, health, inspectorate of factories for starting an industry.
vi. Plan for a type of organization.
vii. Select a site to prepare a techno feasibility report consisting of
drawings, plant layouts, machinery and equipment requirements, raw
material, labour, production and administrative working capital
material flow chart, cashflow chart, cash flow chart financial analysis.

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DECLARATION
We do here by declare that this project report on manufacturing of
boiler items- (Economizer, super heater), cryogenic tanks, etc….
submitted by us in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the awards
of diploma in Mechanical Engineering, Sanketika Polytechnic college,
is a bonfire record of the report work carried out by us under the
esteemed guidance of P.JAYA LAKSHMI and our Head of the
Department, V.V.R MURTHY and that has not been submitted
previously by us at any other institution for the award of diploma.
T. LOKESH-(17221-M-230)

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It gives me an immense pleasure to express deep sense of gratitude to
our MECHANICAL department for their whole hearted and valuable
guidance throughout the project. Without their sustained and sincere
effort, this project would not have taken this shape, they encouraged
and helped me to overcome various difficulties that I had faced at
various stages of my project.
We are greatly obliged to A. RAMA KRISHNA Principal,
Sanketika Polytechnic College, Visakhapatnam, for providing us a
great opportunity to undergo my project work
I would like to sincerely thankful to the Department of
Mechanical providing all the necessary facilities that led to the
successful completion of my project.
I would like to take this opportunity to thank our beloved
H.O.D for providing a great support to us in completing my project and
for giving me the opportunityof doing the project.
Also I would like to thankful to the people who involved in
this project for their support and valuable suggestions and providing
excellent opportunity in completion of this project.
T. LOKESH PIN NO: 17221-M-230

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CONTENTS:
1) INTRODUCTION. 7-7
2) HISTORY. 8-8
3) DEPARTMENTS. 9-9
4) PRODUCTS MADE BY “BHEL” 10-14
5) FEDDER SHOP.
a. Material preparation (M.P). 15-17
b. Light Machine Shop (L.M.S). 18-18
c. Heavy Machine Shop (H.M.S). 19-21
d. Press Shop (P.S). 22-26
e. Shells. 27-29
6) PRODUCTIONSHOP.
a. Pressure vessels (P.V). 30-33
b. Heat Ex-changers (H.E). 34-37
c. Cryogenic Production (C.P). 38-41
d. C.S.P – I (Combustion System Products).
e. C.S.P –II (Combustion System Products). 42-42
7) WELDING TECHNOLOGY.
a. Pipe cladding machine. 43-45
b. Welding. 46-59
8) QUALITY.
a. DESTRUCTIVE TEST. 60-67
b. NON DESTRUCTIVE TEST. 68-70
9) I.B.R (INDIAN BOILER REGULATION). 71-71
10) SAFETY RULES. 72-73
11) CONCLUSION & REFERENCES 74-74

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INTRODUCTION
“BHARAT HEAVY PLATE AND VESSELS LIMITED” Is
Established in 1964 At Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh by “BHARAT
YANTRA NIGAM LIMITED” And It Is Renamed as “BHARAT HEAVY
ELETRICALS LIMITED PLANT (BHEL HPVP) Unit. Now it became the 17th
unit of BHEL not only that it was the first coastal unit of BHEL.
BHPV`S beginning is so humble and it had a turnover of just 5
lakhs’ in 1971-1972 when commercial production first commenced.
Since then, BHPV has come a long way and exceeded a turnover
of 200 crores expanding its product line to include high technology
equipment and systems like multi-layer vessels, turnkey cryogenic plants,
storage and distribution systems, industrial boilers waste heat recovery
systems, oil and gas processing systems etc….,
It has a network of 17 manufacturing units, 2 repair units, 4
regional offices, 8 service centers, 8 overseas offices, 15 regional centres, 7
joint ventures, and infrastructure allowing it to execute more than 150
projects at site across India and abroad. The company has established the
capability to deliver 20,000 mw p.a. of power equipment to address the
growing demand for power generation equipment.
BHEL has retained its market leadership position during 2015-
2016 with 74% market share in the power sector an improved focus on
project execution enable BHEL record is highest ever commissioning /
synchronization of 15059 mw of power plants in domestic and international
markets in 2015-2016, marking a 59% increase over 2014-2015 with the all-
time high commissioning of 15,000 mw in a single year FY2015 has
exceeded 170 GW installed base of power generating equipment.

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HISTORY
BHEL was established in 1964 ushering in the indigenous Heavy Electrical
Equipment industry in India. Heavy Electricals (India) Limited was merged
with BHEL in 1974. In 1991, BHEL was converted into a public limited
company. Over time, it developed the capability to produce a variety of
electrical, electronic and mechanical equipment’s for all sectors, including
transmission, transportation, oil and gas and other allied
industries. However,the bulk of the revenue of the company is derivedfrom
sale of equipment for power generation such as turbines, boilers,etc. As of
2017, BHEL supplied equipment contributed to about 55% of the total
installed power generation capacity of India. The company has alsosupplied
thousands of Electric Locomotives to Indian Railway, as well as defence
equipment such as the Super Rapid Gun Mount (SRGM) naval guns
manufactured in partnership with the Indian Ordnance Factories [4] and
Defence Simulators to the Indian Armed Forces.

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DEPARTMENTS
BHEL HPVP consists of following departments which
plays a crucial role to complete the job.
 Modernization & Captive Investment.
 Engineering Dept.
 Project Management.
 Material Management Dept. (M.M)
 Planning Technology Dept.
 Industrial Engineering Dept.
 Production Dept.
 Quality Control Dept.
 Welding Technology Dept.
 Electric & Instrumentation Dept.
 Works Engineering.
 Erection & Commissioning Dept.
 Research & Development Dept. (R & D)
 Out sourcing Dept.
 Sub-Contracting Machine Dept.

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PRODUCTS MADE BY “BHEL”
1. TRANSPORTATIONTANKS
2. STORAGETANKS
3. DEAERATORS HEATERS
4. CRYOGENIC PRODUCTS
5. PRESSUREVESSELS AND COLUMNS
6. Heat Ex-changers
1. TRANSPORTATION TANKS:
i. Above Ground Tanks
All Enduraplas above ground liquid storage tanks are rotationally
molded with superior, high-density polyethylene. Designed for indoor
and outdoor use, every tank is quality tested to ensure the liquid you are
storing is safe and secure. Our bulk storage and transport tanks are
equipped with unique features like think, ribbed sidewalls and sturdy
mounting systems, all of which add to their unmatched durability.
Browse our complete line-up of horizontal leg tanks and vertical storage
tanks to find the right shape, style and capacity liquid handling solution.

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ii. Trailers:
Our liquid transport trailers are an economic, cost-effective
option for transporting liquid around the farm or construction site.
Whether you’re hauling water to refill your sprayer in the field or
transporting chemical from one site to the next, you have the option to
choose between the HWY-ready, DOT-approved solution or the simple
farm-use-only solution. Both these options are assembled with our
heavy-duty tanks, premium pumps and components to ensure years of
reliability. Build your own Enduraplas nurse wagon, cone bottom trailer
or tender spray trailer.
iii. Below Ground Tanks:
Manufactured from high-quality polyethylene, our underground water and
septic tanks are built tough and with a low profile to provide the industry’s
strongest and best option for below ground waste and water storage. To add
to the unmatched durability, the unique design of these cistern tanks features
a ribbed sidewall to withstand the immense outside pressure underground.
Light weight, easy to handle and simple to install, our below ground tanks
are ideal for ranches, campgrounds, resorts, vacation homes, construction
sites and more. Choose from popular sizes of Enduraplas holding tanks to
find your underground, out-of-sight liquid storage solution.
2. STORAGE TANKS:
Storage tanks are containers that hold liquids, compressed
gases or mediums used for the short- or long-term storage of heat or cold. The
term can be used for reservoirs, and for manufactured containers. The usage
of the word tank for reservoirs is uncommon in American English but is

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moderately common in British English. In other countries, the term tends to
refer only to artificial containers.
Storage tanks are available in many shapes: vertical and horizontal
cylindrical; open top and closed top; flat bottom, cone bottom, slope bottom
and dishbottom. Large tanks tend to be vertical cylindrical, or to have rounded
corners transition from vertical side wall to bottom profile, to easier
withstand hydraulic hydrostatically induced pressure of contained liquid.
Most container tanks for handling liquids during transportation are designed
to handle varying degrees of pressure.
3. Deaerators Heaters:
A deaeratoris a device that removes oxygen and other
dissolved gases from liquids:
 From Water, such as feed water for steam-generating boilers.
Dissolved oxygen in feed water will cause serious corrosion damage in a
boiler by attaching to the walls of metal piping and other equipment and
forming oxides (rust). Dissolved carbon dioxide combines with water to
form carbonic acid that causes further corrosion. Most deaerators are
designed to remove oxygen down to levels of 7 ppb by weight
(0.005 cm³/L) or less, as well as essentially eliminating carbondioxide.
 From products such as food, personalcare, cosmetic products, chemicals,
pharmaceutical to increase the dosing accuracy in filling process, increase
product shelf stability, prevent oxidative effects (discolouration, changes
of smell, taste e.g. rancidity), alteration of ph. and reduce packaging
volume.

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4. PRESSURE VESSELS AND COLUMNS:
A pressure vessel is a container designed to hold gases or liquids at
a pressure substantially different from the ambient pressure.
Pressure vessels can be dangerous, and fatal accidents have occurred in
the history of their development and operation. Consequently, pressure vessel
design, manufacture, and operation are regulated by engineering authorities
backed by legislation. Forthese reasons, the definition ofa pressure vessel varies
from country to country.
Design involves parameters such as maximum safe operating pressure and
temperature, safety factor, corrosionallowance and minimum design temperature
(for brittle fracture). Construction is tested using non-destructive testing, such
as ultrasonic testing, radiography, and pressure tests. Hydrostatic tests use water,
but pneumatic tests use air or another gas. Hydrostatic testing is preferred,
because it is a safer method, as much less energy is released if a fracture occurs
during the test (water does not rapidly increase its volume when rapid
depressurization occurs, unlike gases like air, which fail explosively).
In most countries, vessels over a certain size and pressure must be built to
a formal code. In the United States that code is the ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code (BPVC). In Europe the code is the Pressure Equipment Directive.
Information onthis pageis mostly valid in ASME only. Thesevessels also require
an authorized inspector to sign off on every new vessel constructed and each
vessel has a nameplate with pertinent information about the vessel, such as
maximum allowable working pressure, maximum temperature, minimum design
metal temperature, what company manufactured it, the date, its registration
number (through the National Board), and ASME's official stamp for pressure
vessels (U-stamp). The nameplate makes the vessel traceable and officially
an ASME Codevessel.
PRESSURE VESSEL

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5. Heat Exchangers:
A heat ex-changer is a system used to transfer heat between two or
more fluids. Heat ex-changers are used in both cooling and heating processes.
The fluids may be separated by a solid wall to prevent mixing or they may be in
direct contact. They are widely used in space heating, refrigeration, air
conditioning, power stations, chemical plants, petrochemical plants, petroleum
refineries, natural-gas processing, and sewage treatment. The classic example of
a heat ex-changer is found in an internal combustionengine in which a circulating
fluid known as engine coolant flows through radiator coils and air flows past the
coils, which cools the coolant and heats the incoming air. Another example is
the heat sink, which is a passive heat exchanger that transfers the heat generated
by an electronic or a mechanical device to a fluid medium, often air or a liquid
coolant.

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FEDDER SHOP
Fedder Shops:
a. Material preparation (M.P)
b. Light Machine Shop (L.M.S)
c. Heavy Machine Shop (H.M.S)
d. Press Shop (P.S)
e. Shells
a. Material Prepation- (M.P):
In material preparation, as per the customer specification the
Design department releases the drawing for the marking. Depending upon
The drawing specifications materials are brought from the stores. These
Materials are mostly the plates of required compositions that are imported
at the stage of receiving of project itself. Usually the designers will send the
part drawings of a unit to the material preparation shop where the
technicians analyse these drawings and proceed for marking in such a way
that the maximum material is utilized reducing the wastage since optical
utilization of the available sources is the ultimate aim.
The plates are of 2 types.
-Trimmed plates.
-Untrimmed plates
INSTRUCTIONS FOR MARKING AND PREPARATION:
Raw materials shall be marked and cut to size by shearing,
machining, saw cutting, flame or plasma cutting (for SS materials). Flame
cut edges shall be cleaned to remove slag. Uneven edges shall be dressedby
grinding. Gas cutting notches shall by welding using compatible electrodes
and ground before taking up for further fabrication. The tolerance for
marking shall be maintained within +2mm and the diagonal difference shall
be within +3mm. The markings shall be punched at convenient intervals and
bounded by white paint. Stainless Steel materials shall be cut by using
plasma cutting machine or shearing machine. Any further dressing/grinding
of cut surfaces should be done with clean abrasive wheels.
Notches above 3mm shall be thoroughly Cleaned and welded
by a qualified WPS and examined visually and by LPI. The repaired
surfaces are cleaned to bright metal surfaces. Heat treatment, Stress

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relieving for gas cut edges should be done for the material. The prepared
plates shall be visually inspected and repaired.
The raw materials shall be identified with relevant Work Order
No, Part No, PGMA, and material specification/Grade, Heat No, Plate No,
thickness and sizes of the material with the help of a hard stamp and a white
paint.
MACHINES IN MATERIAL PREPARATION SHOP:
In material preparation, welding plays a vital role for cutting.
Once the markings are completed the sheets are sent for cutting as per
dimensions. Depending upon the length, thickness and path to be followed
during cutting the operation is done on different machines like
 Flame planning machine.
 Shearing machine.
 Manual gas cutting machine.
 Gas cutting pug machine.
 Edge planning machine.
FLAME PLANNING MACHINE:
Flame cutting is an important industrial production process
suitable especiallyfor materials like carbon and low alloy steels. Using this
cutting Method, a carbon steel up-to 150 mm can be cut with typical
tolerances from ±1.5mm. This is a semi-automatic machine consisting of
three torches (just like as in gas cutting) side by side. Generally, the centre
torch is used for direct vertical cutting depth wise whereas remaining two
torches were used for angular cutting i.e. Bevel edge preparation. On a
horizontal beam which moves to and fro, two gas cutting machines are
mounted on either side so that material can be removed on the either side of
the plate. The machine was basically used for cutting of lengthy plates of
thickness ranging from 16mm to 200mm. Flame cutting used to groove weld
joint metal designs and to prepare the edges of metal plates and also used to
cut work pieces of small sizes from large metal plates for further usage in
production.

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SHEARING MACHINE:
Shearing, also known as die cutting, is a process which cuts stock
without the formation ofchips or the use ofburning or melting. Strictly speaking,
if the cutting blades are straight the process is called shearing; if the cutting blades
are curved then they are shearing-type operations. the most commonly sheared
materials are in the form of sheet metal or plates, however rods can also be
sheared. Shearing-type operations include: blanking, piercing, roll slitting, and
trimming. It is used in metalworking and also with paper and plastics.
In this operation the metal is brought to the plastic stage by
presenting the sheet between two shearing blades so that the fracture is
initialized at the cutting points. The fracture on the either side further
progressive downwards with the movement of upper shear, finally it was
separation of the slug from the parent strip.
MANUAL GAS CUTTING:
This process was invented by Thomas Fletcher in 1887 and is extensively
used for cutting steels mainly because, the equipment required is simple and
can be carriedanywhere without heavy steel plates.
For cutting metallic plates, the general purpose shears, flame
planning machines are used. These are used for only straight line cuts. To
this end oxy-fuel gas cutting is useful. It is possible to rapidly oxidize iron
and steels when heated to temperature between 800 to 1000centigrade.
When a high pressure oxygen jet with a pressure of the order 300Kpa is
directed against a heated steel plate, the oxygen burns the metal and blows
it away causing the cut.
GAS CUTTING PUG MACHINE:
It is a general cutting machine which carries a torch and works just like a
gas cutting equipment. But only difference is that it is a semi-automatic and
is generally used for small lengths of straight line cutting and contour
cuttings.

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b. Light Machine Shop (L.M.S):
In this shop, all small components machining such as marking
holes in the sheet and drilling of small components will take up here. Light
machine shop is a finishing process of softening the metal and the excess
material is removed. Small lathe machines are used for the job to remove
the excess material. Nozzle to flange welding is done in this shop. In this
feeder shop lathe works, drilling, boring and milling operations are done.
Boiler items, nozzles and flanges, headers are prepared in this shop.
MACHINES ARE USED IN L.M.S:
• Small and Medium Lathes
• Auto Lathes
• Radial Drilling Machine
• Small Horizontal Boring
• Medium Horizontal Boring
• Heavy Lathe
• Plane Drilling Machine
• CNC Drilling Machine
• CNC Deep Hole Drilling Machine (HMT)
• Cylinder Grinding Machine
• Horizontal Surface Grinder
• CNC Lathe Machine

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c. Heavy Machine Shop (H.M.S):
In this shop, the job was brought from the press shop, pressure vessels
etc. for machining. Heavy machine shop is a finishing process of softening
the metal and the excess material is removed. Machining, drilling, surfacing
of the components are done which are carrying the large capacity of job
where the light machine shop can't carry the job. The shop is equipped with
one 200 m diameter, one 400 m diameter, and two 2500 m diameter, heavy
double column, vertical and horizontal boring machines besides a number
of small thickness. Horizontal boring is capable of boring to a maximum
depth of 2000 mm. The machinability is done for heavy jobs in heavy
machine shop.
MACHINES USED IN H.M.S:
 Drilling machines.
 Boring machine.
DRILLING MACHINE:
Drilling is the operation of cutting a round hole by a
rotating tool called drilling. Before the process of drilling, the centre of the
hole is positioned on the workpiece. Two lines at right angles to each other
are drawn. A centre punch is used to mark the centre point at the meeting of
two lines. The rotating drill is pressedat the centre point scribedon the work
piece to produce the hole. Drilling does not produce a precise hole. Only
rough internal surface will be produced by the drilling process. The hole is
lightly bigger than the size of the drill bit used due to the vibration of the
drill.

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APPLICATIONS OF DRILLING MACHINE:
i. Reaming.
ii. Boring.
iii. Spot facing.
iv. Tapping.
v. Under cutting.
vi. Lapping
i. REAMING:
The process of sizing and finishing the drilled hole is called
reaming. The tool used for reaming is known as reamer. It is a cylindrical
tool having many cutting edges. Reamer cannot drill a hole.
ii. BORING:
Boring is a process of increasing a hole with the help of a single
point cutting tool. The internal surface of a hole in a casting is machined by
this boring process. The operation of enlarging the end of a hole
cylindrically is known as counter boring. The operation of making a cone
shaped enlargement at the end of a hole is known as countersinking.
iii. SPOT FACING:
The operation of squaring and smoothing the surface around
hole is known as spot facing.
iv. TAPPING:
The operation of cutting internal threads in a hole by using
cutting tool is called Tapping.
v. UNDER CUTTING:
The operation of increasing the dimension of the hole at any
point between its ends is known as undercutting.
vi. LAPPING:
The operation of sizing hardened holes and extremely limited in
stock removal is called lapping.
ADVANTAGES OF DRILLING:
1. High precision and accuracy.
2. Require less labour.

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DISADVANTAGES OF DRILLING:
1. The coordinate measuring machine was very costly.
2. If the operation software cracks down it is difficult to restart the entire
system.
BORING MACHINE:
In machining, boring is the process of enlarging a hole that has already
been drilled (or cast) by means of a single-point cutting tool (or of a boring
head containing several such tools), such as in boring a gun barrel or
an engine cylinder. Boring is used to achieve greater accuracy of the
diameter of a hole, and can be used to cut a tapered hole. Boring can be
viewed as the internal-diameter counterpart to turning, which cuts external
diameters.
There are various types of boring. The boring bar may be supported on both
ends (which only works if the existing hole is a through hole), or it may be
supported at one end (which works for both, through holes and blind
holes). Lineboring (line boring, line-boring) implies the
former. Backboring (back boring, back-boring) is the process of reaching
through an existing hole and then boring on the "back" side of the workpiece
(relative to the machine headstock).
Because of the limitations on tooling design imposed by the fact that the
workpiece mostly surrounds the tool, boring is inherently somewhat more
challenging than turning, in terms of decreased toolholding rigidity,
increased clearance angle requirements (limiting the amount of support that
can be given to the cutting edge), and difficulty of inspection of the resulting
surface (size, form, surface roughness). These are the reasons why boring is
viewed as an area of machining practice in its own right, separate from
turning, with its own tips, tricks, challenges, and body of expertise, despite
the fact that they are in some ways identical.

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PRESS SHOP
In press shop, the dished ends required for required for
vessels are prepared and pressing of plates are done by using hydraulic
press.
In BHEL, we have 3 Hydraulic press of different capacity
ie.1600T, 400T. Basicallyhydraulic press with 1600T capacity are used for
pressing of dished ends, petals of storage spheres and various other parts.
In press shop the equipment plates are kept in furnace and remove the
hot plates and molded into different shapes by using hydraulic press.
Pressing is done by forming process.
Stamping is also known as pressing. It is the process of placing
flat sheet metal in either blank or coil form into a stamping press where a
tool and die surface forms the metal into a net shape.
Stamping includes a varietyof sheet metal forming manufacturing
process, such as punching using a machine press or stamping press,
blanking, embossing, bending, flanging and coining. It is a single stage
operation where every stroke of the press produces the desired form on the
sheet metal part, or could occurs through a series of stages. Stamping is done
on cold metal sheet.
FORMING:
Metal forming is the metal working process of fashioning metal
parts and objects through mechanical deformation, the work piece is
reshaped without adding or removing material and the mass remains
unchanged. Forming is done on the principle of plastic deformation, where
the physical shape of a material is permanently deformed. On the industrial
scale, forming is characterized by
 Very high loads and stresses required, between 50 and 2500 N/mm².
 Large, heavy and expensive machinery in order to accommodate such
high stresses and loads.
Forming processes tend to be categorized by differences in effective
stresses.
Forming is of many types, there are:
1. Compressive forming.
2. Tensile forming.
3. Die forming.

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INSTUCTIONS FOR FORMING:
Forming shall be done by using proper machine tools. Forming
operations of sheets/plates shall be done by rolling.
All formed components shall be checked for orientation, angle
and dimensions. Tolerances for formed components are
 Straight length /diameter +1 mm/M, 5 mm max width and height.
 Verticality 1 mm/M, 5 mm Max.
 Squareness 1mm/M of length/dia.
 Straightness 1mm/M, 5 mm Max.
 Radius +5 mm.
 Bend angle +2°.
 Ovality 1%.
 E. P angle +5°/2.5°.
 Diagonal difference +3 mm.
MACHINES USED IN PRESS SHOP:
 SECTION BENDING ROLL.
 PNEUMATIC HAMMER.
 PIPE BENDING.
 HYDRAULIC PRESS 400T.
 HYDRAULIC PRESS 1600T.
 BENDING ROLL FOR TUBES.
 FURNACE.
SECTION BENDING ROLL:
ROUNDO also supplies a range of section bending
machines withfour rolls.This type of machine is perfect for producing body
shell components and similar parts where three dimensional bending is
required. Sections are pinched between top and lower roll, which are also
driven rolls.
PNEUMATIC HAMMER:
Pneumatic hammer (forging), a pneumatically driven forging
hammer. The pneumatic works, when the worker presses down on the
handle, air pumps from the compressor into the jack hammer through a

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valve on one side. Inside the hammer, there’s a circuit of air tubes, a heavy
piledriver,and a drill bit at the bottom. Jackhammer, a pneumatically driven
tool used to break up rock and pavement.
HYDRAULIC PRESS:
A Hydraulic press is a machine that has a bed or a plate in which
the metallic material is placed so that it can be crushed, straightened or
moulded. It is a device using hydraulic cylinder to generate compressive
load.
Joseph Bramah invented the hydraulic press in 1795. Hydraulic press
is also known as Bramah press.
The concept of hydraulic press is based on Pascal's law theory, which
states that when pressure is applied on fluids in an enclosed system, the
pressure throughout the system always remains constant. In simple words,
a hydraulic press is a machine that makes use of the pressure exerted on the
fluids to crush something. Hydraulic presses are a powerful class of machine
tools, they deliver through hydraulic pressure. Hydraulic presses are
generally slower relative to other press machine tools. The largest hydraulic
presses are capable of applying 75,000 tons of force. The hydraulic press is
used to manufacture a metal forging.
The basic working principle of hydraulic press are simple, and rely
on differences on fluid pressure. Since the hydraulic press works on the
principle of Pascal's law, its working is similar to the one of the hydraulic
system. A hydraulic press consists of basic components used in hydraulic
system that includes the cylinder, pistons, the hydraulic pipes etc. The
working of these press is very simple. The system comprises of two
cylinders, the fluid is poured in the cylinder having a small diameter. This
cylinder is also known as slave cylinder.
The piston in this cylinder is pushed so that it compresses the fluid
in it that flows through a pipe into the large cylinder. The large cylinder is
known as master cylinder. The pressure is exerted on the larger cylinder
system that includes the cylinder, pistons, the hydraulic pipes etc. The
working of these press is very simple. The system comprises of two
cylinders, the fluid is poured in the cylinder having a small diameter. This
cylinder is also known as slave cylinder.
The piston in this cylinder is pushed so that it compresses the fluid
in it that flows through a pipe into the large cylinder. The large cylinder is
known as master cylinder. The pressure is exerted on the larger cylinder and
the piston in the master cylinder pushes the fluid back to the original
cylinder.

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The forces applied on the fluids by the smaller cylinder results in a
larger force when pushed in the master cylinder. The hydraulic press is
mostly used for industrial purposes where a large pressure is required for
compressing metals into thin sheets. An industrial hydraulic press uses the
material to be worked upon along with the help of the press plates to crush
or punch the material into a thin sheet.
TYPES OF HYDRAULIC PRESS:
 Hot pressing.
 Cold pressing.
 Arbor presses.
 Laminating presses.
 C-frame presses.
 Pneumatic presses.
 Power presses.
 Assembly presses.
 H-frame presses.
In Press shop hydraulic press is of 3 types
 250 Ton hydraulic press
250 Ton hydraulicpress 400 Ton hydraulic press

27
SHELLS
In this plates are rolled to required size and welding
takes place. Narrow gap welding is done in the plate. Special narrow gap
welding machine is available in this shop, this can weld up-to 350 my thick
groove width about 18 to 25 mm.
In this feeder shop the materials received from the
MP after marking and cutting of plate. Now the plates are rolledon to shells
with the help of bending/rolling machines. The plate bending/rolling
machines are classifiedaccording to the thickness of the plate and diameter
of the shell. In this feeder shop, welding and L-seam welding will also be
done after the plates are rolled. Forming is done and plates are rolled.
FORMING PROCESS:
Forming processes are particular manufacturing processes
which makes use of suitable stresses and which causes the plastic
deformation of the material to produce required shapes. The main material
used is metal due to massive need for various products. During forming
processes no material is removed i.e., they are deformed and displaced.
Some examples are
 Forging.
 Extrusion.
 Rolling.
 Sheet metal working.
 Rotary swaying.
Materials are converted into finished products through
different manufacturing process. Manufacturing process can be classified
into shaping, forming, joining, coating, dividing and machining of the
material. Forming is done through the application of tensile force,
combined force, bending or shear force or combination of these forces.

28
ROLL FORMING CAPABILITY:
Roll forming machines are now available that produce shapes
of different sizes and material thickness using the same rolls. Variations in
size are achieved by making the distances between the rolls variable by
manual adjustment or computerized controls. Tolerances can typically be
held within ± 0.015 inches (0.38 mm) for the width of cross sectional form
and ±0.060 inches (1.5 mm) for its depth.
ADVANTAGES OF ROLL FORMING:
 Reduce wastes, secondary operations and labour costs.
 Compatible with both ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
 Fabricate finished or painted parts.
MACHINES USED IN SHELLS:
 Plate edge planning.
 Plate bending rolls.
 Furnace.
 Submerged arc welding twin head.
TYPES OF ROLLING:
Rolling is divided into two types they are
 Hot rolling
 Cold rolling
HOT ROLLING:
Hot rollingprocess can be done during the uniform working
temperatures. If the temperature of metal is above its re crystallization
temperature, then the process is known as hot rolling. Hot rolling is used to
break down the blocks into billets and blooms.
From that, it transfers the material to produce new products like
sheets, plastics. A set of rolls with compressive force which has applied on
the materials to obtain plastic deformation. Due to rolling the cross section
of the work piece material must be reduced. The material must be passed
between the rolling's. Hot rollingis done at the high temperature ranges only
to developthe large deformation. It results to stress free products. The major
problem occurs at the time is scaling. No dimensional accuracy is
maintained during the hot rolling process. In hot rolling, the grain deform
during processing, they recrystallize, which maintains an equiaxial micro
structure and prevents the metal from work hardening.

29
COLD ROLLING:
Cold rolling is used to increase the strength and hardening of
the material during the process and also improves the surface finish of the
work piece materials. During the cold rolling we can produce the products
like sheets, bars, rods, strips etc. Cold rolling process produce smaller
products compare with the hot rollingprocess.In a single pass the hot rolling
reduces the width of the material. We can see various types of strips and
sheets in cold rolling process they are skin rolled, quarter hard, half hard
and full hard. By using the full hard rolling it reduces the thickness of the
material by 50%. Skin rolling reduces the 0.5 to 1% of the material during
the process. With the help of cold rolling we can get the high surface finish,
uniform thickness. In cold rolling, the metal increases the strength via strain
hardening up-to 20%. Cold rolling cannot reduce thickness as much as hot
rolling in a single pass.
ROLLING DEFECTS:
By using the rolls they can produce high amount of rolling
force on the rolling sheets at the case of time the sheet thickness can be
increased without requirement. Elastic deformation in the mills takes place.
Due to elastic deformation we can see uneven thickness in the material
sheets. To reduce the deformation we can choose the material with high
elastic modules. Smaller diameter rolls are used for producing very thin
sheets. Flatness of the sheets mainly depends upon the deflection of the roll.
ROLLING MILLS:
Rolling mills consists of bearings to supports the gear box, motor, speed
control devices, hydraulic system and rolls etc. Rolling mills are dividing in
several types
 Two high rolling mills.
 Three high rolling mills.
 Four high rolling mills.
 Tandem rolling mills.
 Cluster rolling mills

30
PRODUCTION SHOP
a. Pressure vessels (P.V)
b. Heat Ex-changers (H.E)
c. Cryogenic Production (C.P)
d. C.S.P – I (Combustion System Products)
e. C.S.P –II (Combustion System Products)
a. Pressure vessels (P.V):
A pressure vessel is a container designed to hold
gases or liquids at a pressure substantially different from the ambient
temperature. It is equipment that handles or bare pressures greater or lower
than the atmospheric pressure. The pressure vessels are used to store fluids
under pressure. If the pressure vessel are designed in the form of column to
separate the gas at upper portion and liquid is collected at the bottom so
called column generally pressure vessel. Column is used to separate the
gases or liquids by using of trays. Pressure vessels are the containers for
fluids under high pressure.
Pressure vessels can be dangerous, and fatal accidents have
occurred in the history of development and operation. Design involves
parameters such as maximum safe operating pressure and temperature,
corrosion allowance and minimum design temperature.
In most countries, vessels over a certain size and pressure
must be built to a formal code. In the United States that code is the ASME
Boiler and pressure vessel code (BPVC). These vessels are required an
authorized inspector to sign off on every new vessel constructed and each
vessel has a name plate with all details about the vessel, such as maximum
allowable working pressure, maximum temperature, minimum design metal
temperature etc. The pressure vessels are tested by using non-destructive
testing, such as ultrasonic testing, radiography and pressure tests. Hydraulic
tests use water but pneumatic tests use air or another gas. Hydro static
testing is preferred because it is safer method, as much less energy is
released if a fracture occurs during the test. (Water is used for hydro static
test because water does not rapidly increase its volume when rapid
depressurization occurs other gases like air, fail explosively).

31
SHAPE OF PRESSURE VESSEL:
Pressure vessels can theoretically be almost any shape, but
shapes made up of section of spheres, cylinders, cones are usually
employed. A common design is a cylinder with end caps calledheads. Head
shapes are frequently either hemispherical or dished (tori spherical). A
sphere has the best shape of a pressure vessel.
A spherical shape is tough to manufacture, therefore more
expensive. So most pressure vessels are cylindrical with 2:1 semi-elliptical
heads or end caps on each end. Smaller pressure vessels are assembled from
a pipe and two covers. 100 More complicated shapes have historically been
much harder to analyse for safe operation and are usually far more difficult
to construct. A pressure vessel has approximately twice the strength of a
cylindrical pressure vessel with the same wall thickness, and is the ideal
shape to hold internal pressure.
CLASSIFICATION OF PRESSURE VESSELS:
I.TYPES OF PRESSURE VESSEL ON INSTALLATION:
There are many types of pressure vessels. They are
 Horizontal pressure vessels.
 Vertical pressure vessels.
HORIZONTAL PRESSURE VESSELS:
Industrial horizontal pressure vessels are generally structures
having complex geometry comprising of various geometrical discontinuities
and are commonly required to work under high loading conditions such as
external forces, thermal loads, internal pressure etc. The designing and
manufacturing of such products are done by the guidelines and codes as per
the international standards. Common pressure vessel codes used for
designing are ASME boiler and pressure vessel code section. Horizontally
kept cylindrical pressure vessels are generally supported on two saddle
supports. In some cases vessel and saddle support contact is of loose- fitting
type. In this case there is a narrow gap between the saddle support and
vessel. The metal temperature of the pressure vessel is usually different to
the ambient installation. The differential displacement between the supports
due to the temperature change should be considered in design. Usually
saddles are welded to the outer periphery of the pressure vessel. In a
horizontal pressure vessel with saddle support a high localized stress at the
interface of the vessel and saddle is generated. This highest localized stress
is termed as circumferential stress whose intensity is very high at the born
part of the vessel and saddle.

32
VERTICAL PRESSURE VESSEL:
Vertical pressure vessel consists of a cylindrical shell and dished
bottoms. They are placed on three welded legs. The size and positioning of
the filter necks is adjusted according to the customer requirements. The
pressure vessels can be produced from ferrous or austenitic steel. Vertical
pressure vessels are supplied welded into an assembly and without
packaging. The recommended accessories of the vessel consists of a
pressure gauge with a valve, a loop and a seal, thermometer for air
chambers, anchor bolts and level gauges. The safety valve is supplied as
required by the project and is not included in price.
The expansion chambers for the expanders are not included
about the price. In case of damage of the manometer, thermometer or level
gauge, the operator shall order the replacement of the damaged part. Vertical
pressure vessels must be stored as to prevent mechanical damage and to
protect them from the elements. Vertical pressure vessels are used for a
variety of operational needs, mainly as reservoirs of compressed air - air
chambers, as well as pressurized water tanks or expansion tanks to
compensate for the volume of hot water stations with air or steam cushion-
aqua mat, and as re leasers called expanders.
II. BASED ON GEOMETRIC SHAPE:
 Spherical pressure vessels.
 Cylindrical pressure vessels.
SPHERICAL PRESSURE VESSELS:
Spherical vessel is usually preferred for the storage of high
pressure fluids. A sphere is a very strong structure. The even distribution of
stresses on the spheres surfaces, both internally and externally. Spheres
however, are much 103 more costly to manufacture than cylindrical pressure
vessel. Spheres can built from 1000 barrels to 75000 barrels of capacity.
Storage spheres need ancillary equipment similar to tank storage.
Example is Access manhole.
Pressure vessels /vacuum vent that is to prevent venting loss from
boiling and breathing loss from daily temperature or barometric pressure
changes, access ladders and earthling points etc. An advantage of spherical
storage vessels is, that they have a similar surface area per unit volume than
any other shape of vessel. This means, the quantity ofheat treatment from
warmer surroundings to the liquid in the sphere will be less than that for
cylindrical or rectangle storage vessels.Spherical shaped storage in the form

33
of ASME pressure vessels are used in gas and liquid storage in many
industries including midstream, downstream, petrochemical, waste water
and aerospace. Spheres can store many products such anhydrous ammonia,
LPG, NGL, gasoline, naphtha, oxygen, nitrogen etc. A spherical storage
vessel shape offers uniform stress distribution under internal loading
resulting in highly efficient pressurized storage.
CYLINDRICAL PRESSURE VESSEL:
Cylinders are widely used for storage due to their being less
expensive to produces than spheres. Cylinders are not stronger as the
spheres due to the weak point at each end. This weakness is reduced by
hemispherical or rounded ends being fitted. If the whole cylinder is
manufactured from thicker material than a comparable spherical vessel or
similar capacity. Storage pressure can be similar to that of a sphere.
III. BASED ON MANUFACTURING METHODS
 Welded vessels.
 Forged vessels.
 Multiwall vessels.
 Multiwall wrapped vessels.
 Band wrapped vessels.
IV. BASED ON MANUFACTURING MATERIALS:
 Steel vessels.
 Non Ferrous vessels.
 Non-metallic vessels.
Pressure vessel

34
HEAT EXCHANGERS (H.E)
There is a need to transfer the heat energy from one fluid to another by
conduction, convection & Radiation.
Heat Ex-changer is a device used to transfer heat from a hot
fluid to a coldfluid. The exchange of heat takes place either by directcontact
of the two heat exchange fluids or by separating them with a solid
conduction medium generally a metal or an alloy.
The design of heat ex-changer encompasses various subjects
related to mechanical engineering (i.e) heat transfer thermodynamics
strength of materials material science and machines design.
Heat ex-changer finds extensive application in power plant,
petroleum refineries, chemical and other process industries and space
vehicles. Depending on the applications they are generally used for two
purposes. One is to heat a cold fluid by transferring heat from a hot fluid.
This is main objective of the heat ex-changer used in steam and gas power
plants. The other type of application is to cool the hot fluid.
REGENERATORS:
In this type, one and the same heating surface is
alternatively exposed to the hot and cold fluids. The heat carried by the hot
fluid is taken away by and accumulated in the walls of the apparatus and is
then transferred to the cold fluid flowing through the heat ex-changers.
Regenerators of open hearth and glass melting furnaces and air heaters of
blast furnaces are specimens of this type. The process of heat transfer in
recuperative type and regenerative type heat ex-changers is bound with the
surface as a solid. Hence they are known as “Surface Ex-changers”.
RECUPERATORS:
In these heat ex-changers of this variety, cold and hot
fluids flow simultaneously through the heat ex-changers and heat is
transferred through a wall separatingthe fluids. This group consists of steam
boilers,heaters, condensers etc.
TO THE DIRECTION ACCORDING OF FLUID MOTION:
According to the relative direction of two fluids streams the heat
ex-changers are classified into the following three categories:
1. Parallel Flow or Unidirectional Flow heat ex-changers.
2. Counter Flow heat ex-changer.
3. Cross Flow heat ex-changer.

35
PARALLEL OR CO-CURRENT FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER:
In a parallel flow heat ex-changer., as the name suggests the two
fluid streams travel in the same direction. The two streams enter at one end
and leave at the other end. This type of heat ex-changer.need a large area of
heat transfer therefore it is rarely used in practice.
COUNTER FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER:
In counter flow heat ex-changer., the two fluids flow in opposite
direction. The hot and cold fluids enter at the opposite ends. This type of
heat ex-changer.due to counter flow gives maximum rate of heat transfer for
a given surface. Hence such heat ex-changer.are most favored for heating
and cooling of fluids.
CROSS FLOW HEAT EXCHANGERS:
In cross flow heat ex-changer, the two fluids cross one other
in space usually in right angles.
Industrial Heat Ex-changers, are used in various types of
Industries like Refineries, Petrochemicals and Fertilizers. Since different

36
type of chemicals are involved the material composition of the ex-changer
becomes an important criteria.
BHEL is capable of doing special types of mechanical
design apart from normal design of shell, tubes, dished ends, flat covers,
backing ring and flanges etc. Special type of mechanical design covers
design of eccentric/concentric types of shell teakettle type construction,
reverse flange type design, fixed tube sheet with bellows, high pressure
enclosures, and double pipe type heat ex-changer.
BHEL is having a vast experience of manufacturing and
supply of Heat Ex-changers with Carbon steel, stainless steel, Alloy Steel
and Non-ferrous tubes and shell materials. In addition to the type as
mentioned earlier, cladded Ex-changers also have been supplied by BHEL.
• Careful design, compliance to standards and care taken during
manufacturing results in quality product and increase efficiency of unit
• In addition to Normal ferrous and Non-ferrous material, Heat Ex-changers
of special materials like In-Conel and Monel have also been manufactured
& supplied by BHEL.
BHEL-Bhopal Thermal group products manufactured and
supplied all over India to different State Electricity Boards and exported to
countries like LIBYA, Malaysia, Azerbaizan, Bangladesh, OMAN etc.
major customers of thermal equipment's are State Electricity Boards and
NTPC. Similarly Industrial Heat Ex-changers have been supplied to IFFCO,
FEDO, RELIANCE, GAIL, ONGC, IOCL, etc.
Technical Information/Application:
Air coolers, Oil coolers, Water-Water coolers and Hydrogen
Coolers act as accessories to Transformers, turbines, Motors and
Generators, etc. In Generator, Air Coolers are used to cool the generator air
which is a closed circuit air of maintained humidity and which in turn cools
winding of stator. In turbine, oil coolers are used to cool bearing oil or the
oil which in turn cools the rotating parts. Similarly, Transformer Coolers are
used to cool transformer oil by air or water.
Feed Water Heaters:
BHEL is manufacturing feed water heaters for power
stations of Unit Rating up-to 250 MW Thermal Power Project since more
than last 25 years. Feed water heaters (both High pressure and Low

37
pressure) are used in feed heating system of regeneration cycle by heating
feed water by steam extracted from suitable stages of turbine. Over the years
design and technological developments took place and at present feed
heaters with stainless steel tube materials are being used for longer life
expectancy. Both Horizontal and vertical type of heaters are manufactured
with highest standard of engineering to provide reliabilityin operation. Feed
water heaters are designed as per HEI standard and high pressure heaters
comes under purview of Indian Boiler Regulations. Hence these are
designed and manufactured in strict compliance to applicable code
requirements.
Technical Information/Application:
The high pressure & Low pressure feed water heaters are employed to
increase the overall efficiency of the regenerative cycle by heating the feed
water by the steam extracted from suitable stages of the turbine.The feed
water passes through the 'U' tubes and the steam/drain (condensed steam)
passed over the tubes. These heaters are located in feed water heating cycle
and feed water going to boilers is heated with steam extracted from different
stages of turbine resulting insaving of energy and increasedefficiency. Feed
heaters play a vital role in power plant. The heaters are, therefore, subjected
to very onerous duty and hence the design and manufacture of both type of
heaters, i.e. High Pressure heaters and Low pressure feed water heaters
complies with the highest standard of engineering to provide adequate
reliability in the operation of these heaters. Both High pressure & Low
pressure feed water heaters come under purview of Indian Boiler Regulation
hence compile with all code requirements.

38
CRYOGENICS PRODUCTION (C.P)
It is not well defined at what point on the temperature
scale refrigeration ends and cryogenics begins, but scientists assume a gas
to be cryogenic if it can be liquefied at or below −150 °C (123 K;
−238°F).The U.S National Institute of Standards and Technology considers
the field of cryogenics as that involving temperatures below −180 °C (93 K;
−292 °F). This is a logical dividing line, since the normal boiling points of
the so-called permanent gases lie below −180 °C while
the Freon refrigerants, hydrocarbons, and other common refrigerants have
boiling points above −180 °C.
Discovery of superconducting materials with critical temperatures
significantly above the boiling point of liquid nitrogen has provided new
interest in reliable, low cost methods of producing high temperature
cryogenic refrigeration. The term "high temperature cryogenic" describes
temperatures ranging from above the boiling point of liquid nitrogen,
−195.79 °C (77.36 K; −320.42 °F), up to −50 °C (223 K; −58 °F).
Cryogenics use the Kelvin or Rankine temperature scale, both of which
measure from absolute zero, rather than more usual scales such
as Celsius which measures from the freezing point of water at sea level
or Fahrenheit with its zero at an arbitrary temperature.

39
Cryogenic fluids:
Cryogenic fluids with their boiling point in kelvins.
Fluid Boiling point (K)
Helium-3 3.19
Helium-4 4.214
Hydrogen 20.27
Neon 27.09
Nitrogen 77.09
Air 78.8
Fluorine 85.24
Argon 87.24
Oxygen 90.18
Industrial applications:
Liquefied gases, such as liquid nitrogen and liquid helium, are used in many
cryogenic applications. Liquid nitrogen is the most commonly used element in
cryogenics and is legally purchasable around the world. Liquid helium is also
commonly used and allows for the lowest attainable temperatures to be reached.
These liquids may be stored in Dewar flasks, which are double-walled containers
with a high vacuum between the walls to reduce heat transfer into the liquid.
Typical laboratory Dewar flasks are spherical, made of glass and protected in a
metal outer container. Dewar flasks for extremely cold liquids such as liquid
helium have another double-walled container filled with liquid nitrogen. Dewar
flasks are named after their inventor, James Dewar, the man who first
liquefied hydrogen. Thermos bottles are smaller vacuum flasks fitted in a
protective casing. Cryogenic bar code labels are used to mark Dewar flasks
containing these liquids, and will not frost over down to −195 degrees Celsius.
Cryogenic transfer pumps are the pumps used on LNG piers to transfer liquefied
natural gas from LNG carriers to LNG storage tanks, as are cryogenic valves.

40
Cryogenic processing:
The field ofcryogenics advanced during World War II when scientists found that
metals frozen to low temperatures showed more resistance to wear. Based on this
theory of cryogenic hardening, the commercial cryogenic processing industry
was founded in 1966 by Ed Busch. With a background in the heat
treating industry, Busch founded a company in Detroit called CryoTech in
1966 which merged with 300 Below in 1999 to become the world's largest and
oldestcommercial cryogenic processingcompany.Buschoriginally experimented
with the possibility of increasing the life of metal tools to anywhere between
200% and 400% of the original life expectancy using cryogenic
tempering instead of heat treating. This evolved in the late 1990s into the
treatment of other parts.
Cryogenics, such as liquid nitrogen, are further used for specialty chilling and
freezing applications. Some chemical reactions, like those used to produce the
active ingredients for the popular statin drugs, must occurat low temperatures of
approximately −100 °C (−148 °F). Special cryogenic chemical reactors are used
to remove reaction heat and providea low temperature environment. The freezing
of foods and biotechnology products, like vaccines, requires nitrogen in blast
freezing or immersion freezing systems. Certain soft or elastic materials become
hard and brittle at very low temperatures, which makes
cryogenic milling (cryomilling) an option for some materials that cannot easily
be milled at higher temperatures.
Cryogenic processingis nota substitute forheat treatment, butrather an extension
of the heating–quenching–tempering cycle. Normally, when an item is quenched,
the final temperature is ambient. The only reason forthis is that mostheat theaters
do not have cooling equipment. There is nothing metallurgic ally significant
about ambient temperature. The cryogenic process continues this action from
ambient temperature downto −320 °F (140 °R;78 K; −196 °C). In mostinstances
the cryogenic cycle is followed by a heat tempering procedure. As all alloys do
not have the same chemical constituents, the tempering procedure varies
according to the material's chemical composition, thermal history and/or a tool's
particular service application. Then the entire process takes 3–4 days.
Fuels:
Another use of cryogenics is cryogenic fuels for rockets with liquid hydrogen as
the most widely used example. Liquid oxygen (LOX) is even more widely used
but as an oxidizer, not a fuel. NASA's workhorse space shuttle used cryogenic
hydrogen/oxygen propellant as its primary means of getting into orbit. LOX is
also widely used with RP-1 kerosene, a non-cryogenic hydrocarbon, such as in
the rockets built for the Soviet spaceprogram by Sergei Korolev.
Russian aircraft manufacturer Tupolev developed a version of its popular
design Tu-154 with a cryogenic fuel system, known as the Tu-155. The plane

41
uses a fuel referred to as liquefied natural gas or LNG, and made its first flight in
1989.
Production:
Cryogenic cooling of devices and material is usually achieved via the use
of liquid nitrogen, liquid helium, or a mechanical cryocooler (which uses high-
pressure helium lines). Gifford-McMahon cryocoolers, pulse tube
cryocoolers and Stirling cryocoolers are in wide use with selection based on
required base temperature and cooling capacity. The most recent development in
cryogenics is the use of magnets as re-generators as well as refrigerators. These
devices work on the principle known as the magnetocaloric effect.

42
Combustion System Products
Combustion system production usually deals with the boiler pipe
attachment. In boilersor heat ex-changershaving several pipesand
tubes which are used to carry the flue gases or liquids. In CSP1&2,
mainly welding of boiler panel pipes and welding of nozzles,
flanges and pipes are done. Welding equipment's such as manual
arc welding, sub merged arc, TIG, and including the latest high
productive welding equipment's such as Twin head arc welding.
Narrow gap submerged arc welding and bi-cathode Tig welding
Fining machine are provided.
Machines used in combustion system products:
1. 4-torch machine (panel processing machine).
2. 20-totch machine.
3. Bending machine.
4. Chipping machine.
5. Grinding machine.

43
WELDING TECHNOLOGY
PIPE CLADDING MACHINE:
Cladding is the bonding together of dissimilar metals. It is different
from fusion welding or gluing as a method to fasten the metals
together. Cladding is often achieved by extruding two metals through
a die as well as pressing or rolling sheets together under high pressure.
The United States Mint uses cladding to manufacture coins from
different metals. This allows a cheaper metal to be used as a filler.
Laser cladding:
Laser cladding is a method of depositing material by which a powdered
or wire feed stock material is melted and consolidated by use of
a laser in order to coat part of a substrate or fabricate a near-net shape
part (additive manufacturing technology) .It is often used to improve
mechanical properties or increase corrosion resistance, repair worn out
parts,and fabricate metal matrix composites.Surface material may be
laser cladded directly onto a highly stressed component, i.e. to make a
self-lubricating surface. However, such a modification requires further
industrialization of the cladding process to adapt it for efficient mass
production. Further research on the detailed effects from surface
topography, material composition of the laser cladded material and the
composition of the additive package in the lubricants on
the tribological properties and performance are preferably studied with
tribometric testing.

44
Process:
The powder used in laser cladding is normally of a metallic nature, and
is injected into the system by either coaxial or lateral nozzles. The
interaction of the metallic powder stream and the laser causes melting
to occur, and is known as the melt pool. This is deposited onto a
substrate; moving the substrate allows the melt pool to solidify and thus
produces a track of solid metal. This is the most common technique,
however some processes involve moving the laser/nozzle assembly
over a stationary substrate to produce solidified tracks. The motion of
the substrate is guided by a CAD system which interpolates solid
objects into a set of tracks, thus producing the desired part at the end of
the trajectory.
Great deal of research is now being concentrated on developing
automatic laser cladding machines. Many of the process parameters
must be manually set, such as laser power, laser focal point, substrate
velocity, powder injection rate, etc., and thus require the attention of a
specialized technician to ensure proper results. However, many groups
are focusing their attention on developing sensors to measure the
process online. Such sensors monitor the clad's geometry (height and
width of deposited track), metallurgical properties (such as the rate of
solidification, and hence the final micro-structure), and temperature
information of both the immediate melt pool and its surrounding areas.
With such sensors, control strategies are being designed such that

45
constant observation from a technician is no longer required to produce
a final product. Further research has been directed to forward
processing where system parameters are developed around specific
metallurgical properties for user defined applications (such as micro-
structure, internal stresses, dilution zone gradients, and clad contact
angle).
Advantages:
1. Best technique for coating any shape => increase life-time of
wearing parts.
2. Particular dispositions for repairing parts (ideal if the mould of the
part no longer exist or too long time needed for a new fabrication).
3. Most suited technique for graded material application.
4. Well adapted for near-net-shape manufacturing.
5. Low dilution between track and substrate (unlike other welding
processes and strong metallurgical bond.
6. Low deformation of the substrate and small heat affected
zone (HAZ).
7. High cooling rate => fine micro-structure.
8. a lot of material flexibility (metal, ceramic, even polymer).
9. Built part is free of crack and porosity.
10. Compact technology.

46
WELDING
Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins
materials, usually metals or thermoplastics, by causing fusion, which
is distinct from lower temperature metal-joining techniques such as
brazing and soldering, which do not melt the base metal. In addition to
melting the base metal, a filler material is typically added to the joint
to form a pool of molten material (the weld pool) that cools to form a
joint that, based on weld configuration (butt, full penetration, fillet,
etc.), can be stronger than the base material (parent metal). Welding
also requires a form of shield to protect the filler metals or melted
metals from being contaminated or oxidized.
ADVANTAGES OF WELDING JOINTS;
1. As no hole is required for welding, hence no reduction of area. So
structural members are more effective in taking the load.
2. In welding filler plates, gusseted plates, connecting angles etc, are not
used, which leads to reduced overall weight of the structure.
3. Welded joints are more economical as less labor and less material is
required.
4. The efficiency of welded joint is more than that of the riveted joint.
5. The welded joints look better than the bulky riveted/butted joints.
6. The speed of fabrication is faster in comparison with the riveted joints.
7. Complete rigid joints can be provided with welding process.
8. The alternation and addition to the existing structure is easy.
9. No noise is produced during the weldingprocess as inthe case of riveting.
10. The welding process requires less work space in comparison to riveting.
11. Any space of joint can be made with ease.

47
DISADVANTAGES OF WELDING JOINTS
1. Welded joints are more brittle and therefore their fatigue strength is less
than the members joined.
2. Due to uneven heating & cooling of the members during the welding, the
members may distort resulting in additional stresses.
3. Skilled labor and electricity are required for welding.
4. No provision for expansion and contraction is kept in welded connection
& therefore, there is possibility of racks.
5. The inspection of welding work is more difficult and costlier than the
riveting work.
6. Defects like internal air pocket, slaginclusion and incomplete penetration
are difficult to detect.
CHARACTERISTICS OF BASE METAL (NON – FERROUS
METALS)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
1. Ultimate Tensile Strength
2. Yield Point
3. Elongation
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1. Addition of main alloys like Chromium,
Nickel, Copper, Zinc etc ., 2. Addition of micro
alloys like Vanadium, Tantalum etc., 3. Base
Metals Easily Hard faced.
- Low & medium carbon steels (carbon; 0.4%
max) (Nickel- Copper alloys)
- carbon steels (carbon greater than 0.4%)
(oxyacetylene only)

48
ELECTRODE:
An electrode is an electrical conductor used to make
contact with a nonmetallic part of a circuit (e.g. a semiconductor, an
electrolyte, a vacuum or air). In arc welding, an electrode is used to
conduct current through a work piece to fuse two pieces together.
Depending upon the process, the electrode is either consumable, in the
case of gas metal arc welding or shielded metal arc welding, or non-
consumable, such as in gas tungsten arc welding. For a direct current
system, the weld rod or stick may be a cathode for a filling type weld
or an anode for other welding processes. For an alternating current arc
welder, the welding electrode would not be considered an anode or
cathode.
An AC or DC power source, fitted withwhatever controls
may be needed, is connected by a work cable to the work piece and by a
"hot" cable to an electrode holder of some type, which makes an electrical
contact with the welding electrode.
An arc is created across the gap when the energized circuit
and the electrode tip touches the workpiece and is withdrawn, yet still with
in close contact.
The arc produces a temperature of about 3600_C at the
tip. This heat melts both the base metal and the electrode, producing a
pool of molten metal sometimes calleda "crater." The crater solidifies
behind the electrode as it is moved along the joint. The result is a fusion
bond.
Some of the best known welding methods include:
• Oxy-fuel welding – also known as oxyacetylene welding or oxy
welding, uses fuel gases and oxygen to weld and cut metals.
• Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) – also known as "stick
welding" or "electric welding", uses an electrode that is coated in flux
to protect the weld puddle. The electrode holder holds the electrode as
it slowly melts away. Slag protects the weld puddle from atmospheric
contamination.
• Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) – also known as TIG (tungsten,
inert gas), uses a no consumable tungsten electrode to produce the weld.

49
The weld area is protected from atmospheric contamination by an inert
shielding gas such as argon or helium.
• Gas metal arc welding(GMAW) – commonly termed MIG (metal,
inert gas), uses a wire feeding gun that feeds wire at an adjustable speed
and flows an argon-based shielding gas or a mix of argon and carbon
dioxide (CO2) over the weld puddle to protect it from atmospheric
contamination.
• Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) – almost identical to MIG
welding except it uses a special tubular wire filled with flux; it can be
used with or without shielding gas, depending on the filler.
• Submerged arc welding (SAW) – uses an automatically fed
consumable electrode and a blanket of granular fusible flux. The molten
weld and the arc zone are protected from atmospheric contamination by
being "submerged" under the flux blanket.
• Electro slag welding (ESW) – a highly productive, single pass
welding process for thicker materials between 1 inch (25 mm) and 12
inches (300 mm) in a vertical or close to vertical position.
• Electric resistance welding (ERW) – a welding process that
produces coalescence of laying surfaces where heat to form the weld is
generated by the electrical resistance of the material. In general, an
efficient method, but limited to relativelythin material.
Many different energy sources can be used for
welding, including a gas flame, an electric arc, a laser, an electron
beam, friction, and ultrasound. While often an industrial process,
welding may be performed in many different environments, including
in open air, under water, and in outer space. Welding is a hazardous
undertaking and precautions are required to avoidburns, electric shock,
visiondamage, inhalation of poisonous gases and fumes, and exposure
to intense ultraviolet radiation.
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (Stick Welding, Manual Metal Arc
Welding)
It uses a Metallic Consumable Electrode of a proper
composition for generating Arc between itself and the parent work
piece.The molten electrode metal fills the weldgap and joins the work
pieces. This is the most popular welding process capable to produce a
great variety of welds. These electrodes are coated with a shielding
flux of a suitable composition. The flux melts together with the
electrode metallic core, forming a gas and a slag, shielding the arc and
the weld pool. The flux cleans the metal surface, supplies some

50
alloying elements to the weld, protected the molten metal from
oxidation and stabilizes the arc. The slag is removed after
Solidification.
Advantages of Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW):
1. Simple, portable and inexpensive equipment;
2. Wide variety of metals, welding positions and electrodes are applicable;
3. Suitable for outdoor applications.
Disadvantages of Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW):
1. The process is discontinuous due to limited length of the electrodes;
2. Weld may contain slag inclusions
3. Fumes make difficult the process control.
Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (Gas Tungsten Arc Welding):
This is a welding process,in which heat is generated by
an electric arc struck betweena tungsten non-consumable electrode and
the work piece. The weld pool is shielded by an inert gas (Argon,
helium, Nitrogen) protecting the molten metal from atmospheric
contamination. The heat produced by the arc melts the work pieces
edges and joins them. Filler rod, may be used, if required. Tungsten
Inert Gas Arc Welding produces a high quality weld of most of metals.
Flux is not used in the process.

51
Advantages of Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (TIG,
GTAW):
1. Weld composition is close to that of the parent metal;
2. High quality weldstructure
3. Slag removal is not required (no slag);
4. Thermal distortions of work pieces are minimal due to concentration of
heat in small zone.
Disadvantages of Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (TIG, GTAW):
1. Low welding rate;
2. Relatively expensive;
3. Requires high level of operators skill.
Metal Inert Gas Welding (Gas Metal Arc Welding):
This is a arc welding process, in which the weld is
shielded by an external gas (Argon, helium, CO2, argon + Oxygen or
other gas mixtures). Consumable electrode wire, having chemical
composition similar to that of the parent material, is continuously fed
from a spool to the arc zone. The arc heats and melts both the work
pieces edges and the electrode wire. The fused electrode material is
supplied to the surfaces of the work pieces, fills the weld pool and
forms joint. Due to automatic feeding of the filling wire (electrode)
the process is referred to as a semiautomatic. The operator controls
only the torch positioning and speed.

52
Advantages of Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW):
1. Continuous weld may be produced (no interruptions)
2. High level of operators skill is not required
3. Slag removal is not required (no slag)
Disadvantages of Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW):
1. Expensive and non-portable equipment is required
2. Outdoor application are limited because of effect of wind, dispersing the
shielding gas.
Submerged Arc Welding:
This is a welding process, which utilizes a bare consumable metallic
electrode producing an arc between itself and the work piece within a
granular shielding flux appliedaround the weld.The arc heats and melts
both the workpieces edges and the electrode wire.The molten electrode
material is supplied to the surfaces of the welded pieces, fills the weld
pool and joins the work pieces. Since the electrode is submerged into
the flux, the arc is invisible. The flux is partiallymelts and forms a slag
protecting the weld pool from oxidation and other atmospheric
contaminates.

53
Advantages of Submerged Arc Welding (SAW):
1. Very high welding rate;
2. The process is suitable for automation.
3. High quality weld structure.
Disadvantages of Submerged Arc Welding (SAW):
1.Weld may contain slag inclusions;
2.Limited applications of the process - mostly for welding horizontally
located plates.
Oxy-fuel welding (commonly called oxyacetylene
welding, oxy welding, or gas welding in the U.S.) and oxy-fuel
cutting are processes that use fuel gases and oxygen to weld and cut
metals, respectively.
Oxy-fuel is one of the oldest welding processes,
besides forge welding. In recent decades it has been obsolesced in
almost all industrial uses due to various arc welding methods offering
more consistent mechanical weld properties and faster application.
Gas welding is still used for metal-based artwork and in smaller home
based shops, as well as situations where accessing electricity (e.g., via
an extension cord or portable generator) would present difficulties.

54
TYPES OF WELD JOINTS:
There are five different types of weldedjoints for bringing two parts
together for joining. They are:
 Butt joint
 Corner joint
 Lap joint
 Tee-joint
 Edge joint
Butt joint:
In Butt welded type, the parts lie in the same plane and are joined at their
edges.
Corner joint:
The parts in a corner joint form a right angle and are joined at the center of
the angle.
Lap joint:
Lap joint consists of two overlapping parts.
Tee-joint:
In a Tee-joint, one joint is the right angle to the other joint in the
approximate shape of the letter
“T”.
Edge joint:
The parts in edge joint are parallel with at least one of their edges in
common and the joint is made at the common edge(s).

55
HEAT TREATMENT PROCESS:
The field of applications of steel depends on its
properties. These properties can be varied by mechanical working,
alloying and heat treatment. Heat treatment effects mechanical
properties by changing structure and grain size. Heat treatment of steel
involves a combination of heating, holding and cooling at controlled
rates to produce the desired conditions.
 Annealing.
 Normalising.
 Hardening.
 Tempering.
 Surface hardening.
ANNEALING:
The term annealing refers to any heating and cooling operation that is
usually appliedto induce softening. It is commonly employed for castings
and forgings to reduce the coarse grain structure prior to machining.
TYPES OF ANNEALING:
1. Full annealing (30-50°C).
2. Process annealing (600-700°C).
3. Spheroid annealing (730-770°C).
4. Isothermal annealing (50-100°C).
PURPOSE OF ANNEALING:
1. To soften the steel.
2. To improve machine ability.
3. To reduce the hardness.
NORMALISING:
It is the process of heating the steel to above the upper
critical temperature (810- 930°C) followed by cooling in still air.

56
normalising is widely used in industry because it's more economical
than annealing. This process is usually performed after cooling,
forging or casting for grain refinement and to put steel in the best
condition for machining or hardening.
PURPOSE OF NORMALISING:
1. To relieve the internal stresses.
2. To relieve the grain structure.
3. To improve strength and hardness.
HARDENING:
It is defined as the process of heating steel to austenite
phase followed by rapid cooling in a liquid bath such as water or oil.
The hardening process consists of heating the steel to a temperature of
30 to 50°C above A1 hypereutectoid steel and 30 to 50°C above A13
for hypereutectoid steel.
PURPOSE OF HARDENING:
1. To soften the steel.
2. Increases wear resistance and hardness.
3. Decreases the ductility and toughness.
TEMPERING:
It is a process of heating hardened steel to a
temperature below lower critical temperature, followedby slow cooling.
Tempering renders the steel tough and ductile. The process involves
heating the hardened steel below lower critical temperature, holding at
this temperature for sufficient time and slow cooling in air. Cutting
tools are tempered between 230°- 300°C. Tempering causes
transformation of martensite into troosite or sorbite.
CLASSIFICATION OF TEMPERING:
1. Low temperature tempering (150-250°C).
2. Medium temperature tempering (350-450°C).
3. High temperature tempering (500-650°C).
PURPOSE OF TEMPERING:
1. To reduce the thermal stresses.
2. To reduce brittleness.
3. To increase the toughness and ductility.

57
SURFACE HARDENING:
In surface hardening only the surface layers of steel parts
are heated to the hardening temperature and it is quenched in water or some
other medium.
PURPOSE OF SURFACE HARDENING:
1. Hard and wear resistance.
2. Changing the chemical composition.
In order to ensure the material strength of a part is retained after
welding, a process is known as post welded heat treatment is regularly
performed.
POST WELD HEAT TREATMENT:
PWHT are used to reduce residual stresses, as a
method of hardness control or even to enhance material strength. If
PWHT is performed incorrectly, or neglected altogether, residual
stresses can combine with load stresses to exceed a materials design
limitations. PWHT encompasses many different types of potential
treatments, two of the most common types are post heating and stress
relieving.
POST HEATING:
Hydrogen induced cracking often occurs when
high levels of ambient hydrogen permeate into a material during
welding. By heating the material after welding, it is possible to
diffuse hydrogen from the welded area, this preventing HIC. This
process is known as post heating.
STRESS RELIEVING:
The welding place can leave a large number of
residual stresses in a material, which can lead to an increased potential
for stress corrosionand hydrogen induced cracking. PWHT can be used
to release these residual stresses and reduce this potential. The process
involves heating the material to a specific temperature and then
gradually cooling it.
ADVANTAGES OF HEAT TREATMENT:
1. Low operating costs.
2. Localized areas can be heat treated.
3. Very minimal surface oxidation and surface decarburization.

58
DISADVANTAGES OF HEAT TREATMENT:
1. High capital investment.
2. Only certain steels can be induction hardened.
3. This method is restricted to components having a shape that is suitable for
hardening.
SAND BLASTING:
Abrasive blasting, more commonly known as
sandblasting, is the operation of forcibly propelling a stream of
abrasive material against a surface under high pressure to smooth a
rough surface, roughen a smooth surface, shape a surface or remove
surface contaminants. A pressurized fluid, typically compressed air, or
a centrifugal wheel is used to propel the blasting material The most
abrasive are shot blasting (with metal shot) and sandblasting (with
sand). Sandblasting or bead blasting is a generic term for the process
of smoothing, shaping and cleaning a hard surface by forcing solid
particles across that surface at high speeds; the effect is similar to that
of using sandpaper, but provides a more even finish with no problems
at corners or crannies. Sandblasting can occur naturally, usually as a
result of particles blown by wind causing aeolian erosion, or
artificially, using compressed air. Sandblasting equipment typically
consists of a chamber in which sand and air are mixed.
CHEMICAL SYMBOLS FOR SOME OF THE ELEMENTS:
C Carbon Most effective hardening element in steel
Mn Manganese Hardening element second to carbon
Si Silicon Deoxidizer, moderate strengthener
P Phosphorus Causes cracking if too high
S Sulphur Aids in machining-Cracking problems like P
Cr Chromium Hardness (low) - corrosion resistance(high)
Ni Nickel Hardening element - better cold toughness
Mo Molybdenum Harden ability-high temp tensile-creep
B Boron Very small amounts increase hardness
Cu Copper Corrosion resistance (low) - cracking(high)
Al Aluminum Deoxidizer–improves mechanical properties
Ti Titanium Removes: Oxygen, S, N, and C
N Nitrogen Improves strength - lowers toughness

59
Cb Columbium Hardness - Improves mechanical properties
v Vanadium Hardness - Improves mechanical properties
SUPPLY OF AIR TO SHOPS:
Air is sucked from the suction filter and then in the blown
cylinder. When the piston moves back the air enters into the cylinder and
develops up-to a pressure of3kg/cm² at 80°c and when piston moves front,
the air from suction valve enter to the heat exchanger where air passes from
shell side and enters into a high pressure cylinder with a pressure of 7kg/cm²
and exists through the delivery valves. Air is cooled and collected in air
collecting tank. And water in tube side gets heated and goes to the outside
chamber of the water collection tank. The water collection tank have some
plates, so with the help of plates, the hot water again changes to cold water
and used in 2nd heat exchanger. The water is a recycling process in a heat
exchanger. Then the air in the collecting tank is supplied to the shops for
chipping, grinding the material.
LIQUID OXYGEN STORAGE YARD

60
QUALITY
Quality:
The word “QUALITY” itself indicates fit for use or degree of
excellence. Quality is defined as the value of things relative to their purpose
and satisfies the expectations of the customer.
QUALITY DEPARTMENTS:
QUALITY ASSURANCE:
Quality assurance is implemented as a means of providing
enough confidence that`s business requirements and goals for a product &
service will be fulfilled. This error prevention is done through systematic
measurement, comparison with a standard monitoring of process.
Quality Assurance deals with the methodology of carrying out
QA activities as per contract requirements, referencing codes, user’s
specification and related procedures.
QUALITY CONTROL:
The operational techniques & activities necessary to
maintain quality. Inspection and test are done in Quality Control.
QUALITY
QUALITY
ASSURANCE
QUALITY
CONTROL
QUALITY
LABORATORY
QUALITY
STORES
NDT

61
 The method of in process Inspection and testing at various stages
from material issue to final assembly of products.
 Engineer (QC) [Engineer (QC)] shall inspect Materials / Components
/ Sub-Assemblies / Main Assemblies as per Bill of Materials /
Drawing / QAP / Technology / Work instruction / Welding Procedure
Specification (WPS) / activity procedure as applicable during
production process.
 Engineer (QC) shall inspect components manufactured in bulk
quantities.
 Engineer (QC) shall clear the offered stage of inspection for each
operation by signing on the Route card/Daily inspection record, if
found to comply with the requirements as applicable and release for
subsequent operation.
 Engineer (QC) shall take all possible precautions in storing, handling
and usage of measuring instruments and gauges during inspection
and testing.
 Engineer(QC) shall check the various operations performed in shops
like
 Marking & Cutting
 Pressing
 Bending
 Rolling
 Machining
 Assembling
 Welding
 Heat Treatment

62
QUALITY CONTROL DOCUMENTATION:
 The activities to be performed in Document Control by individual
department for issue and updating of various documents.
 Head of concerned issuing department is responsible for issue and
control of latest revision of documents to all users as per standard
distribution lists maintained by them.
 Documents in BHEL are broadly classifiedinto three levels:
First level : QS Manual
Second level : Department/Activity Procedures.
Third level : Work instrumentation and other job related
documents
 Master copies of procedure shall be identified and filed by
concerned procedures issuing department.
 Issue status of First level documents is broadly classified into
CONTROLLED and UNCONTROLLED. Second level documents
shall be issued under Controlled classification.
 Each page of controlled copy shall be stamped as Controlled in red
colour. These are issued for regular use to comply with job
requirements.
 Each copy of uncontrolled copy shall be stamped as Uncontrolled
in blue colour and issued for information purpose only.
 Third level documents such as fabrication drawings, QA plan,
Master Technology, Job cards, Route cards etc. are classified
documents and are issued with due approval of concerned
departments.
 Head (QA) shall issue controlled copies of QS manual and
procedures to the designated person as per the standard distribution

63
list maintained by QA and obtain acknowledgements. He shall also
issue the subsequent revision to all holders of controlled copies of
QS manual after retrieving and destroying the superseded revision.
 Head (QA) may also issue uncontrolled copies of QS manual on
request to outside agencies for information only. Holders of
uncontrolled copies of QS manual may not receive any subsequent
revision.
QUALITY TESTING LABORATORY:
DESTRUCTIVE TESTING:
Destructive testing, tests are carried out to the specimen's
failure/fracture, in order to understand a specimen's structural performance
or material behavior under different loads. These tests are generally much
easier to carry out, yield more information, and are easier to interpret than
nondestructive testing.
THE TYPES OF DESTRUCTIVE TESTINGARE AS FOLLOWS:
1. Tensile Testing
2. Bend Testing
3. Impact Testing
4. Torsion Testing
5. Hardness Testing
TENSILE TESTING:
It’s method of testing in which uniaxial tensile load is
gradually increased until fracture. Test measurements are recorded in PSI
(Pounds per Square Inch). For example, tensile strength of E7018 electrode

64
weld = 70,000 PSI Tensile. Tensile strength, Elastic limit, Yield point, and
Ductility can be measured in this testing method.
Universal Testing Machine Tensile Test Specimens
BEND TESTING:
The samples which are having surface flaws are unable to
perform tensile test on them. Therefore, bend test are employed on such
samples. A rectangular specimen placed with two bottom supports and load
is appliedfrom top which cause a bend. The load is gradually increaseduntil
the specimen failure. The stress level at which fracture occurs is known as
flexural strength or transverse rupture test.
IMPACT TESTING:

65
The main objective of impact testing is to measure the
toughness of a given material. Toughness is the property of a material to
absorb some energy before it fracture. In an Impact test, a heavy pendulum
is used to apply sudden impact on the specimen having V-notch, by which
the amount of force required to fracture the sample is measured for welds
“Heat Affected Zone” (HAZ). Impact testing may be performed using either
the Izod or Charpy method. The common principle for both the testing
method is that, the specimen is supported as a simple beam with a notch in
the center. The figures below show the dimensions of the Izod and Charpy
Impact Test specimen notch, the positions of the striking edge of the
pendulum and the specimen in the anvil. The specimen is broken by the
impact of a heavy pendulum hammer, falling through a fixed distance
(constant potential energy) to strike the specimen at a fixed velocity
(constant kinetic energy). Tough materials absorb a lot of energy when
fractured.
TORSION TEST:
It’s a testing technique in which modules of rigidity and
ultimate shear strength are measured in universal test machine. A specimen
of circular cross-section is placed in a testing machine having two heads,
one for twisting and applying torque and another head is the weighing head
to measure torque.

66
HARDNESS TESTING:
Hardness may be defined as the resistance to permanent
indentation. Three common hardness measuring tests are.
i. Rockwell Test
ii. Vickers Test
iii. Brinell Test
ROCKWELL TEST:
The Rockwell testing machine operates like a press,
using an indenter to penetrate the surface of the test sample. The depth of
the indentation determines the materials hardness on a scale of 0-100.
Different hardness scales are used for different materials. The different
scales used are A scale, B scale, C scale, D scale and so on. The depth of
the indentation is measured depending on the scale as HRA, HRB, HRC and
HRD and so on.
VICKERS TEST:
The Vickers hardness test method consists of indenting the
test material with a diamond indenter having a square base and an angle of
136° between opposite faces subjected to a test force of between 1gf and
100kgf. The full load is normally applied for given period of time. The two
diagonals of the indentation are measured using a microscope and their
average is calculated. The area of the sloping surfaces of the indentation is
calculated. The Vickers hardness is the obtained by dividing the kg load by
the square mm area of indentation.
BRINELL TEST:
The Brinell hardness test uses a ball indenter of diameter, D,
which is pressed into the surface of the test piece using a prescribed force,
F. The time for the initial application of the force, is 2 s to 8 s, and the test
force is maintained for 10 s to 15 s. The diameter of the indentation, d, is
measured after the force has been removed. The Brinell hardness number,
HB, is given by:

67
The designation "HBW" specifies the use of a tungsten
carbide ball indenter.The designation "HBS" specifies the use of a hardened
steel ball indenter but is now deleted from standards. It should be noted that
measurements of HBW and HBS on the same sample may differ in value
due to differences in the tri-biological characteristics of the indented-
specimen interface.
QUALITY CONTROL STORES:
 Inspection of Materials at Receipt and Issue stages.
 Inspection of materials / components at vendor / sub vendor’s woks.
 Receipt inspection of welding consumables.
 Vendor performance analysis and assistance in vendor development.

68
NON- DESTRUCTIVE TEST:
Non-destructive examination (NDE) or non-destructive
testing is defined as those inspection methods, which allow materials to be
examined without changing or destroying their usefulness. NDE is an
integral part of the quality assurance program. A number of NDE methods
are employed to ensure that the weld meets design specification and does
not contain defects.
The inspector should choose an NDE method capable of
detecting the discontinuity in the type of weld joint due to the configuration
and lists the common types and location of discontinuities and illustrates
their positions within a butt weld.
The five most common testing methods used for weld examinations are:
1) Visual Testing
2) Dye Pentrant Test
3) Magnetic Particle Test
4) Ultrasonic Test
5) Radiography Test
Visual Testing:
Visual testing is the most basic and common inspection
method. Visual testing is a process done by naked eye to identify the
surface defects. Usually after each and every testing process, visual
examination is required. Visual examination also includes equipments
like magnifying glasses, fiber scope, mirror, micro scope etc.

69
Dye pentrant Test:
Dye Penetrate methods have been developed to detect
Cracks, Porosity, Blow holes and Flaw in non porous material. This
will not reveal defects, which are not open.
In this method, visible (or) fluorescent dye penetrate,
which are surface active in nature, are applied to cleaned surface of
specimen by suitable means. After allowing sufficient time (dwell
time) for penetration of pentrant. On the surface is approximately
removed. Care to be taken not to disturb the penetration in the
discontinuity. The developer which is absorptive in nature is applied
to the specimen, which aids the bleeding out of pentrant to the surface
after sufficient time thereby outlining the discontinuity. The specimen
is post cleaned to remove the remaining pentrant & developer materials
& coating to prevent corrosion is also applied.
Magnetic Particle Test:
This method uses electric current or a permanent magnet
to create a magnetic field in the surface to be checked which the
magnetic particles indicated where the field is broken by a
discontinuity. Fluorescent magnetic particles are also used for
enhanced identification of defects. This method is used on Ferro
magnetic metals.

70
Ultrasonic Test:
Ultrasonic tester is a portable precise direct reading and easy
to operate type of instrument, to measure the depth of cracks & internal
defects etc.
In ultrasonic testing, ultrasound waves are generated by
piezo electric transducers which converts electrical energy to mechanical
vibrations and vice versa. These waves are made to fall on the material to
be tested. As the wave travels through the material, it may get reflected,
refracted, scattered (or) transmitted depending upon the structure of
material. As they reach deflects they reflected back& these waves are
displayed on the monitor at verse time & inspector can visualize a cross
section specimen shaving depth of futures that are recorded.
Radiography Test:
Radiography has grown out of engineering, and is a major
element of non-destructive testing. It is a method of inspecting materials for
hidden flaws by using the ability of short X-rays and Gamma rays to
penetrate various materials. The specimen to be inspected is placedbetween
the source of radiation and the detecting device, usually the film in a light
tight holder or cassette, and the radiation is allowedto penetrate the part for
the required length of time to be adequately recorded.

71
I.B.R (INDIAN BOILER REGULATION)
IBR means Indian Boiler Regulations is the law of India,
which was created in 15th September, 1950 in exercise of the powers
conferred bysection 28 & 29 of the Indian boilers act.It governs design,
manufacture, installation and operation of all steam producing vessels
which fall under its purview.
Indian Boiler Regulations manufacturer of boiler or
boiler components wishing to send them to India needs IBR
certification. The IBR covers the design, fabrication, inspection,
testing and certification of: – Boilers or any boiler part including feed
piping and fittings or vessels attached thereto.
 Boiler components, meaning
 Steam piping
 Feed piping
 Economizers
 Super heaters
 Valves, including safety valves
 Any mounting or fitting or any external or internal part of a boiler which
is subjected to pressure exceeding one Kg/cm square gauge
 Steam receivers, separators, steam traps, accumulators and similar
vessels
 Heat ex-changers, converters, evaporators and similar vessels in which
steam is generated – Materials, e.g. forgings, castings, tubes, pipes,
plates, welding consumables.

72
SAFETY RULES
Safety is given the primary importance in any of the
process industry. Everyone should follow safety rules inorder to avoid
accidents and hazards that might occur during working time. Everyone
should aware of accidents and have knowledge regarding safety.
Use of masks:
 To protect oneself against certain poisonous gases such as CO,
NH3 it is necessary to use masks provided with a filter fitted with
adsorbers, which eliminate the poisonous gas.
 The nitrogen accumulated in an improperly ventilated area is
dangerous since it involves a lowering of the oxygen
concentration. In that case, the mask must be connected up with
unpolluted air or with an oxygenated atmosphere.
 Nitrogen is not poisonous, but if its concentration is too high, it
prevents oxy hemoglobin of blood from regenerating properly.
 In case the work is done in an area difficult to get to (for e.g. into
a cold box), the person who is getting into will be tied up with a
rope strong enough to carry his weight. This rope shall not hinder
his breathing. The other end of this rope will be in the hands of the
supervisor who will thus be able to help him anytime.
 Combustion in an airtight chamber is only possible if there are air
inlets. In case of ex-changer or column or leak on a pipe, pressure
should be maintained in the equipment in order to prevent from
coming in & cause dangers of explosion.
Causes of fire:
The risks of explosion or fire in an oxygen plant may
result from the contact of fuel element (wood, etc.) with the rich
liquid, liquid oxygen or gaseous oxygen coming from a leak or a
broken pipe. So, avoid cause of sparks within 50m around the plant.
 Fire extinguishers should be placed everywhere.
 The personal must avoid the wearing the nailed boots, which
might create sparks on the metal floors. Rubber or leather-soled
shoes are recommended. Smoking is strictly prohibited near the
plant.
 In order to avoid these risks, it is necessary to keep plant
surroundings always clean to avoid the presence of combustible
materials near the plant.

73
 The only dangerous thing that might happen in the oxygen plant
is due to accumulation of hydrocarbons in the vaporizer, the most
dangerous of them being acetylene which is
not very soluble in liquid oxygen and causes violent explosions
even when its concentration amounts to 1ppm approximately.
 In most cases, the explosions are due to thermal or mechanical
shocks (sudden heating of liquid either inside of a pipe or on a
wall or vessel and sudden expansion in the drain valves).
 The results of breathing in an atmosphere rich in nitrogen (that is
to say under oxygenated) lead to the victim faints a few seconds
to a few minutes.
 A thick fog due to the condensation of the atmospheric humidity
signalizes a leak of liquified cryogenic gas; such a fog always
means a danger. So, warning or forbidden signs and alarms must
be placed at necessary points, the access of which is to regulate.

74
CONCLUSION
This industrial training at “Bharat heavy electrical
limited” (HPVP-UNIT) has helped us to gain a vast amount of
practical knowledge and real difficulties associated in pressure
vessels making, cryogenic tanks, heat ex-changers, boilers etc. We
as the students of sanketika polytechnic college believe that this
training experience help us to build a successful career. We are very
thankful to the training department and all the engineers and
supervisors in BHEL. Who guided us for gaining knowledge.
I learn the importance of co-ordination between
supervisors and sub-ordinates for desired functioning of the
industry. I also developed my communication skills and personal
characteristics.
I conclude that Industrial training helped me a lot in
developing my technical knowledge, self-confidence and moral
stretch.
REFERENCES
1. Bhel manual -NAHIN SHINGAL.
2. www.bhel.com/home.php -V.R.PATNAYAK.

T.lokesh 230

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