This document examines the statement "there is no best method" in language teaching. It discusses three possible explanations for this statement: 1) Different methods are best for different teaching contexts due to variations in situations and factors. However, determining which contextual factors actually impact methods is complex. 2) All methods contain some truth or validity, suggesting an eclectic approach. But we cannot determine which parts of methods represent truth. 3) The notion of categorizing methods as good or bad is flawed. The author argues the first two explanations are unhelpful and a sustained discussion is needed to clarify the third explanation and understand what it means to say there is no best method.
This document discusses the author's personal learning style as an artistic/intuitive learner and how traditional professional development does not align with his needs. It analyzes adult learning theory and how best practices should consider the intrinsic motivation and life experiences of adult learners. The author argues that professional development needs to be integrated to uphold the goals of learners in order to effectively transfer learning to the classroom. When learners feel valued and that their goals are considered, the learning process will benefit both the attendees and their students.
Teaching is planned activity and assumptions of teachingranvir12345
Teaching is defined by experts as an interactive process of influencing and guiding students to overcome gaps and obstacles in their learning. Effective teaching requires careful planning with clear objectives and engaging activities to meet students' individual needs and promote learning. While teaching involves both imparting knowledge and causing students to learn, the most important aspect is how the teaching is delivered through a supportive relationship between teacher and student.
Top 20 Psychological Principles for Teaching & LearningPhung Huy
This presentation is adapted from the APA-published report on “Top 20 Principles of Psychology” to facilitate the discussion among English educators in Vietnam participating the roundtable hosted by the American Center in Hanoi, Vietnam. Always use the original report for future reference.
The document discusses the psychological foundations of education. It covers several key topics:
1. It emphasizes the importance of understanding the learner, their growth, development, and individual differences.
2. It explores theories of learning and development, motivation, and the teacher's crucial role in creating an effective learning situation.
3. Creating optimal conditions for learning involves understanding concepts like the learning process, situations, theories of instruction, and using techniques like modeling and facilitating.
Scope and importance of educational psychologyAnnieThakur3
This presentation is intended to understand
Educational psychology : scope and its importance
Educational Psychology is important because it trains us to watch for different learning situations and how to adapt to those situations accordingly.
This document provides an overview of various learning theories including philosophy-based, psychology-based, progressive, and associationist theories. It discusses how learning occurs in social and cultural contexts and that people learn in different ways. The role of the environment, brain, emotions, and metacognition in learning are also examined. The document emphasizes that teaching involves organizing the learning environment, knowledge, activities, and people to build bridges between students' existing knowledge and curriculum goals.
The document discusses the Learner-Centered Psychological Principles put together by the American Psychological Association. The 14 principles are divided into 4 factors: cognitive and metacognitive; motivational and affective; developmental and social; and individual differences. The principles focus on psychological factors under the learner's control and acknowledge external environmental interactions. They provide a holistic framework for understanding learners in real-world learning situations.
1) Constructivism views learning as an active process of constructing knowledge rather than acquiring knowledge. Instruction should support this construction process rather than simply communicating knowledge.
2) While constructivism encompasses a diversity of theories, they generally agree that learning occurs through an active process of constructing knowledge in a particular context, rather than acquiring knowledge from an external source.
3) Critics argue that constructivism leads to relativism where all knowledge constructions are equally valid. However, constructivists assert that knowledge can be judged based on its viability and workability rather than absolute truth. While individuals construct unique understandings, communication is still possible within a shared culture.
This document discusses the author's personal learning style as an artistic/intuitive learner and how traditional professional development does not align with his needs. It analyzes adult learning theory and how best practices should consider the intrinsic motivation and life experiences of adult learners. The author argues that professional development needs to be integrated to uphold the goals of learners in order to effectively transfer learning to the classroom. When learners feel valued and that their goals are considered, the learning process will benefit both the attendees and their students.
Teaching is planned activity and assumptions of teachingranvir12345
Teaching is defined by experts as an interactive process of influencing and guiding students to overcome gaps and obstacles in their learning. Effective teaching requires careful planning with clear objectives and engaging activities to meet students' individual needs and promote learning. While teaching involves both imparting knowledge and causing students to learn, the most important aspect is how the teaching is delivered through a supportive relationship between teacher and student.
Top 20 Psychological Principles for Teaching & LearningPhung Huy
This presentation is adapted from the APA-published report on “Top 20 Principles of Psychology” to facilitate the discussion among English educators in Vietnam participating the roundtable hosted by the American Center in Hanoi, Vietnam. Always use the original report for future reference.
The document discusses the psychological foundations of education. It covers several key topics:
1. It emphasizes the importance of understanding the learner, their growth, development, and individual differences.
2. It explores theories of learning and development, motivation, and the teacher's crucial role in creating an effective learning situation.
3. Creating optimal conditions for learning involves understanding concepts like the learning process, situations, theories of instruction, and using techniques like modeling and facilitating.
Scope and importance of educational psychologyAnnieThakur3
This presentation is intended to understand
Educational psychology : scope and its importance
Educational Psychology is important because it trains us to watch for different learning situations and how to adapt to those situations accordingly.
This document provides an overview of various learning theories including philosophy-based, psychology-based, progressive, and associationist theories. It discusses how learning occurs in social and cultural contexts and that people learn in different ways. The role of the environment, brain, emotions, and metacognition in learning are also examined. The document emphasizes that teaching involves organizing the learning environment, knowledge, activities, and people to build bridges between students' existing knowledge and curriculum goals.
The document discusses the Learner-Centered Psychological Principles put together by the American Psychological Association. The 14 principles are divided into 4 factors: cognitive and metacognitive; motivational and affective; developmental and social; and individual differences. The principles focus on psychological factors under the learner's control and acknowledge external environmental interactions. They provide a holistic framework for understanding learners in real-world learning situations.
1) Constructivism views learning as an active process of constructing knowledge rather than acquiring knowledge. Instruction should support this construction process rather than simply communicating knowledge.
2) While constructivism encompasses a diversity of theories, they generally agree that learning occurs through an active process of constructing knowledge in a particular context, rather than acquiring knowledge from an external source.
3) Critics argue that constructivism leads to relativism where all knowledge constructions are equally valid. However, constructivists assert that knowledge can be judged based on its viability and workability rather than absolute truth. While individuals construct unique understandings, communication is still possible within a shared culture.
Critical pedagogy began during South African apartheid when teachers employed it to subvert the racist curriculum and encourage critical examination of social issues. It combines education with critical theory to help students develop consciousness, recognize authoritarianism, and take constructive action. Critical pedagogy involves relationships between teaching and learning through processes of unlearning, learning, and relearning. Problem-based learning is a student-centered approach where students learn through problem solving in groups, while the teacher facilitates the learning process. Reflective practice involves critically examining one's actions and theories to engage in continuous learning. Experiential learning is making meaning from direct experiences, and genuine learning requires willingness to engage, reflection, conceptualization skills, and decision making.
Lorena Torres outlines her teaching philosophy which focuses on promoting lifelong learning and critical thinking in students. She aims to transfer knowledge, mentor students, and encourage hard work and resilience. To achieve this, she will apply educational theories including cognitive, social, and behavioral development as well as addressing student diversity and learning styles. She emphasizes the importance of instructional planning and using various forms of assessment to promote student learning and monitor progress. Her overall goal is to make a positive difference in students' lives through establishing a supportive learning environment.
The document compares three approaches to learning: behavioral, cognitive, and humanistic. The behavioral approach focuses on conditioning and modifying behavior through rewards and punishments. The cognitive approach focuses on developing critical thinking skills and intelligence. The humanistic approach views learning as influenced by the whole child and their environment. Key psychologists who influenced each approach are identified, such as Thorndike, Pavlov, and Skinner for behavioralism; Piaget and Vygotsky for cognitivism; and Maslow and Rogers for humanism.
Basic assumptions of teacher educationSuresh Kumar
The document outlines several assumptions about teacher education and development, including that it is a process of personal and social transformation, that practice generates theory, that good teachers are reflective practitioners who develop autonomous learners. It also notes other assumptions such as the idea that knowing a subject means one can teach it, and that one learns to teach by doing. The document emphasizes that reflection is a key part of professionalization and being a teacher.
Constructivism is a theory of learning that suggests people actively construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world by experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. Each person generates their own "rules" and mental models to make sense of new experiences, and learning occurs when a person adjusts their understanding to accommodate new information. Constructivism views learning as a social activity influenced by culture and context. In a constructivist classroom, students take an active role in constructing knowledge through collaboration, inquiry-based projects, and reflection on their learning. The teacher acts as a facilitator to help students make connections between new and prior knowledge.
The document discusses the psychological foundations of education by outlining three key components: the learner, the learning process, and the learning situation. It emphasizes that effective teaching requires an understanding of growth, development, learning theories, and motivation from the learner's perspective. Further, it identifies the teacher as a central factor in facilitating learning and discusses various teaching approaches and instructional theories. Overall, the document stresses the importance of applying psychological principles to optimize the educational experience.
The objective here is to present my personal teaching philosophy which will direct my teaching in the future and it outlines how I understand the dynamics of learning. Document prepared as a part of the teaching assistantship course
This document describes eight types of curriculums - Inquirer, Neutral, Enabler, Repressor, Oppressor, Transgressor, Narrator, and Blandisher. For each type, it provides the conception of learning, student, teaching/learning process, and evaluation that define that curriculum. The Inquirer curriculum focuses on active learning through questioning. The Neutral curriculum presents facts without bias. The Enabler activates student potential. The Repressor and Oppressor curriculums control thinking. The Transgressor destroys identity. The Narrator describes objectively. The Blandisher trains obedience.
The importance of understanding the learning process when trying to improve p...wellcome.trust
This document discusses the importance of understanding the learning process when trying to improve public engagement with health research. It argues that learning requires engagement and motivation from the learner in order to go beyond just memorization. When research is conducted in a participatory way where community members identify with the topic and help shape the research questions, it can lead to deeper engagement and learning as people incorporate new information into their own knowledge framework. The document advocates for "glocal" research conducted by teachers that bridges global scientific knowledge with local community contexts in a way that is meaningful and personal to encourage public learning and engagement.
Factors related to the subject matter content and learning material and method of learning; attention, motivation and readiness as factors influencing scholastic learning
This document discusses various topics related to teaching and learning, including:
1. It identifies two types of motivators - intrinsic motivators that come from within the student, and extrinsic motivators from outside rewards.
2. It describes four patterns of classroom interaction, ranging from one-way communication from teacher to students, to full two-way communication among all participants.
3. Finally, it lists ten models of teaching, such as lecturing, group projects, role playing scenarios, and small group discussions.
The document discusses Transformative Learning Theory, which involves a deep shift in a learner's basic premises, worldviews, and perspectives through critical reflection. It defines Transformative Learning and outlines its two types: instrumental learning involving task-oriented problem solving, and communicative learning focusing on understanding meanings communicated by others. The document also discusses the role of reflection and discourse in facilitating perspective and meaning structure transformation through adult education.
Class 4 mezirow's transformative learning theorytjcarter
Mezirow's transformative learning theory posits that learning in childhood is formative, derived from authority figures, while learning in adulthood is transformative as adults can recognize distortions in their own beliefs. Transformative learning involves using prior interpretations to create new understandings to guide future actions. It occurs through instrumental learning of skills and communicative learning of meanings and perspectives. Learning transforms when meaning structures like points of view and habits of mind are revised through critical reflection on assumptions and perspectives, which can result in a perspective transformation - a dramatic shift in worldview. The adult educator's role is to support this process through challenging assumptions and encouraging critical reflection and discourse.
The document discusses experiential learning and provides a 5 stage model of the experiential learning process. The 5 stages are: 1) experience, 2) share, 3) process, 4) generalize, 5) apply. During each stage, participants engage in various activities like role playing, group discussion, reflection, and goal setting to fully experience and learn from an activity or experience. The experiential learning model allows participants to confront issues and examine their behaviors in a way that generates personal involvement and deep understanding.
The document discusses constructivism and modern teaching concepts. It explains that constructivism views the learner as constructing knowledge rather than receiving it from the teacher. The teacher acts as a facilitator rather than dispenser of knowledge. A constructivist classroom is active, evolving, constructed, reflective, inquiry-based, and collaborative. The document outlines differences between traditional and constructivist teaching, including how the curriculum is approached and the role of the teacher and students. It provides a sequence for constructivist teaching and discusses transforming education beyond traditional models.
The document outlines six approaches to teaching Edukasyon sa Pagpapakatao (EsP): 1) values inculcation, 2) moral development, 3) analysis, 4) value clarification, 5) action learning, and 6) emotional-rational. It provides details on each approach, including common teaching methods. Values inculcation uses explanation, reinforcement, and modeling to teach values. Moral development focuses on moral reasoning through role-playing dilemmas. Analysis applies problem-solving to social values issues. Value clarification is a seven-step process of choosing and acting on personal values. Action learning develops abilities to act on values. Emotional-rational adopts a lifestyle of care and consideration
The document discusses different academic ideologies regarding education:
1. The scholar academic ideology views education as preserving academic disciplines by transmitting knowledge to students and the public. Students are seen as capable of learning the content and ways of thinking of their discipline.
2. The social efficiency ideology sees education as a process for efficiently changing student behavior. Evaluation focuses on determining how well a curriculum meets predetermined standards.
3. The learner-centered ideology aims to stimulate student, teacher, and curriculum growth. Students are unique individuals who naturally create meaning through interaction. Learning occurs naturally through relationships of trust between learner and environment. Teachers facilitate growth by providing meaningful experiences.
This document discusses the nature and characteristics of learning. It defines learning as any relatively permanent change or modification in behavior resulting from practice or experience. Learning is described as unitary, involving the whole person; individual and social, occurring within a social context; self-active, requiring personal engagement; purposive, moving towards a goal; and creative and transferable. Key characteristics of learning include reinforcement, feedback, practice, motivation, problem solving, concepts, and peer learning. Effective learning techniques discussed are well-designed instruction, situational learning within similar contexts, and exposure to values and attitudes consistent with one's views.
Teaching perspectives good teaching - one size fits allGoranko
The document discusses a chapter that provides a counterargument to the trend of adopting a single constructivist approach to teacher development and good teaching. The chapter argues that research has found a plurality of good teaching perspectives rather than all constructivist, and describes five perspectives on teaching - transmission, developmental, apprenticeship, nurturing, and social reform - that each have potential for good teaching.
What is good teaching? Who is a good teacher? The search for the answers to these questions has become for teacher education a search for an educational Holy Grail. While appearing to be deceptively simple and seductively straightforward, these questions have instigated an enduring and ever-multiplying research tradition as well as a many sided international conversation involving practitioners, theorists, social scientists, teacher educators and faculty developers at all levels, administrators, and students.
Source: https://ebookschoice.com/the-search-for-an-educational-holy-grail/
Critical pedagogy began during South African apartheid when teachers employed it to subvert the racist curriculum and encourage critical examination of social issues. It combines education with critical theory to help students develop consciousness, recognize authoritarianism, and take constructive action. Critical pedagogy involves relationships between teaching and learning through processes of unlearning, learning, and relearning. Problem-based learning is a student-centered approach where students learn through problem solving in groups, while the teacher facilitates the learning process. Reflective practice involves critically examining one's actions and theories to engage in continuous learning. Experiential learning is making meaning from direct experiences, and genuine learning requires willingness to engage, reflection, conceptualization skills, and decision making.
Lorena Torres outlines her teaching philosophy which focuses on promoting lifelong learning and critical thinking in students. She aims to transfer knowledge, mentor students, and encourage hard work and resilience. To achieve this, she will apply educational theories including cognitive, social, and behavioral development as well as addressing student diversity and learning styles. She emphasizes the importance of instructional planning and using various forms of assessment to promote student learning and monitor progress. Her overall goal is to make a positive difference in students' lives through establishing a supportive learning environment.
The document compares three approaches to learning: behavioral, cognitive, and humanistic. The behavioral approach focuses on conditioning and modifying behavior through rewards and punishments. The cognitive approach focuses on developing critical thinking skills and intelligence. The humanistic approach views learning as influenced by the whole child and their environment. Key psychologists who influenced each approach are identified, such as Thorndike, Pavlov, and Skinner for behavioralism; Piaget and Vygotsky for cognitivism; and Maslow and Rogers for humanism.
Basic assumptions of teacher educationSuresh Kumar
The document outlines several assumptions about teacher education and development, including that it is a process of personal and social transformation, that practice generates theory, that good teachers are reflective practitioners who develop autonomous learners. It also notes other assumptions such as the idea that knowing a subject means one can teach it, and that one learns to teach by doing. The document emphasizes that reflection is a key part of professionalization and being a teacher.
Constructivism is a theory of learning that suggests people actively construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world by experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. Each person generates their own "rules" and mental models to make sense of new experiences, and learning occurs when a person adjusts their understanding to accommodate new information. Constructivism views learning as a social activity influenced by culture and context. In a constructivist classroom, students take an active role in constructing knowledge through collaboration, inquiry-based projects, and reflection on their learning. The teacher acts as a facilitator to help students make connections between new and prior knowledge.
The document discusses the psychological foundations of education by outlining three key components: the learner, the learning process, and the learning situation. It emphasizes that effective teaching requires an understanding of growth, development, learning theories, and motivation from the learner's perspective. Further, it identifies the teacher as a central factor in facilitating learning and discusses various teaching approaches and instructional theories. Overall, the document stresses the importance of applying psychological principles to optimize the educational experience.
The objective here is to present my personal teaching philosophy which will direct my teaching in the future and it outlines how I understand the dynamics of learning. Document prepared as a part of the teaching assistantship course
This document describes eight types of curriculums - Inquirer, Neutral, Enabler, Repressor, Oppressor, Transgressor, Narrator, and Blandisher. For each type, it provides the conception of learning, student, teaching/learning process, and evaluation that define that curriculum. The Inquirer curriculum focuses on active learning through questioning. The Neutral curriculum presents facts without bias. The Enabler activates student potential. The Repressor and Oppressor curriculums control thinking. The Transgressor destroys identity. The Narrator describes objectively. The Blandisher trains obedience.
The importance of understanding the learning process when trying to improve p...wellcome.trust
This document discusses the importance of understanding the learning process when trying to improve public engagement with health research. It argues that learning requires engagement and motivation from the learner in order to go beyond just memorization. When research is conducted in a participatory way where community members identify with the topic and help shape the research questions, it can lead to deeper engagement and learning as people incorporate new information into their own knowledge framework. The document advocates for "glocal" research conducted by teachers that bridges global scientific knowledge with local community contexts in a way that is meaningful and personal to encourage public learning and engagement.
Factors related to the subject matter content and learning material and method of learning; attention, motivation and readiness as factors influencing scholastic learning
This document discusses various topics related to teaching and learning, including:
1. It identifies two types of motivators - intrinsic motivators that come from within the student, and extrinsic motivators from outside rewards.
2. It describes four patterns of classroom interaction, ranging from one-way communication from teacher to students, to full two-way communication among all participants.
3. Finally, it lists ten models of teaching, such as lecturing, group projects, role playing scenarios, and small group discussions.
The document discusses Transformative Learning Theory, which involves a deep shift in a learner's basic premises, worldviews, and perspectives through critical reflection. It defines Transformative Learning and outlines its two types: instrumental learning involving task-oriented problem solving, and communicative learning focusing on understanding meanings communicated by others. The document also discusses the role of reflection and discourse in facilitating perspective and meaning structure transformation through adult education.
Class 4 mezirow's transformative learning theorytjcarter
Mezirow's transformative learning theory posits that learning in childhood is formative, derived from authority figures, while learning in adulthood is transformative as adults can recognize distortions in their own beliefs. Transformative learning involves using prior interpretations to create new understandings to guide future actions. It occurs through instrumental learning of skills and communicative learning of meanings and perspectives. Learning transforms when meaning structures like points of view and habits of mind are revised through critical reflection on assumptions and perspectives, which can result in a perspective transformation - a dramatic shift in worldview. The adult educator's role is to support this process through challenging assumptions and encouraging critical reflection and discourse.
The document discusses experiential learning and provides a 5 stage model of the experiential learning process. The 5 stages are: 1) experience, 2) share, 3) process, 4) generalize, 5) apply. During each stage, participants engage in various activities like role playing, group discussion, reflection, and goal setting to fully experience and learn from an activity or experience. The experiential learning model allows participants to confront issues and examine their behaviors in a way that generates personal involvement and deep understanding.
The document discusses constructivism and modern teaching concepts. It explains that constructivism views the learner as constructing knowledge rather than receiving it from the teacher. The teacher acts as a facilitator rather than dispenser of knowledge. A constructivist classroom is active, evolving, constructed, reflective, inquiry-based, and collaborative. The document outlines differences between traditional and constructivist teaching, including how the curriculum is approached and the role of the teacher and students. It provides a sequence for constructivist teaching and discusses transforming education beyond traditional models.
The document outlines six approaches to teaching Edukasyon sa Pagpapakatao (EsP): 1) values inculcation, 2) moral development, 3) analysis, 4) value clarification, 5) action learning, and 6) emotional-rational. It provides details on each approach, including common teaching methods. Values inculcation uses explanation, reinforcement, and modeling to teach values. Moral development focuses on moral reasoning through role-playing dilemmas. Analysis applies problem-solving to social values issues. Value clarification is a seven-step process of choosing and acting on personal values. Action learning develops abilities to act on values. Emotional-rational adopts a lifestyle of care and consideration
The document discusses different academic ideologies regarding education:
1. The scholar academic ideology views education as preserving academic disciplines by transmitting knowledge to students and the public. Students are seen as capable of learning the content and ways of thinking of their discipline.
2. The social efficiency ideology sees education as a process for efficiently changing student behavior. Evaluation focuses on determining how well a curriculum meets predetermined standards.
3. The learner-centered ideology aims to stimulate student, teacher, and curriculum growth. Students are unique individuals who naturally create meaning through interaction. Learning occurs naturally through relationships of trust between learner and environment. Teachers facilitate growth by providing meaningful experiences.
This document discusses the nature and characteristics of learning. It defines learning as any relatively permanent change or modification in behavior resulting from practice or experience. Learning is described as unitary, involving the whole person; individual and social, occurring within a social context; self-active, requiring personal engagement; purposive, moving towards a goal; and creative and transferable. Key characteristics of learning include reinforcement, feedback, practice, motivation, problem solving, concepts, and peer learning. Effective learning techniques discussed are well-designed instruction, situational learning within similar contexts, and exposure to values and attitudes consistent with one's views.
Teaching perspectives good teaching - one size fits allGoranko
The document discusses a chapter that provides a counterargument to the trend of adopting a single constructivist approach to teacher development and good teaching. The chapter argues that research has found a plurality of good teaching perspectives rather than all constructivist, and describes five perspectives on teaching - transmission, developmental, apprenticeship, nurturing, and social reform - that each have potential for good teaching.
What is good teaching? Who is a good teacher? The search for the answers to these questions has become for teacher education a search for an educational Holy Grail. While appearing to be deceptively simple and seductively straightforward, these questions have instigated an enduring and ever-multiplying research tradition as well as a many sided international conversation involving practitioners, theorists, social scientists, teacher educators and faculty developers at all levels, administrators, and students.
Source: https://ebookschoice.com/the-search-for-an-educational-holy-grail/
This document provides an introduction to academically productive talk in science classrooms. It discusses the key elements of productive talk, including establishing ground rules, having clear academic purposes for discussions, and using strategic "talk moves" to facilitate discussions. Productive talk is important because it allows teachers to assess student understanding, supports learning through memory and language development, encourages students to reason with evidence, and apprentices students into the social practices of science.
Borje Holmberg distance educaction
Scholarly theories imply a systematic ordering of ideas about the phenomena of our field of
inquiry and are usually of two kinds. One is concerned with understanding, the other
with explanation and prediction. Basically Moore’s and Peters’s theories are of the former
kind, mine of the second.
Peters regards distance education as an industrialised type of teaching and learning. He has
shown that it is characterised by rationalizing, division of work between several cooperating
people, mechanising, planning, organisation, production-line work, mass production etc. This
is his description and understanding of the didactic structure of distance education.
Moore regards transactional distance as the generally descriptive feature of distance
education, on the basis of which distance education functions. ’Transactional Distance is the
gap of understanding and communication between the teachers and learners caused by
geographic distance that must be bridged through distinctive procedures in instructional
design and the facilitation of ineraction’ (Moore & Kearsley 2005 p. 223). Here again we
have a theory attemping to describe and understand the concept of distance education.
My theory is of a different kind. It implies that the application of a methodological approach
- empathy-creating conversational style – leads to increased motivation to learn and better
results than conventional presentation of learning matter. This is a predictive theory that
generates intersubjectively testable hypotheses which can be – and have been - empirically
tested (Holmberg, B., Schuemer, R. & Obermeier 1982, and Holmberg, B. 2003)
This is not to say that Moore’s and Peters’s approaches are devoid of predictive elements or
that mine does not contribute to the understanding of distance education. Nevertheless it
places our theoretical approaches in their basic categories. These categories were, as far as I
know, first identified by Droysen in 1858 and later described by Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-
1911). Cf. Bollnow 1967.
Joao Jose Saraiva da Fonseca
http://joaojosefonseca1.blogspot.com/
This document discusses the history of approaches to teaching foreign languages. It begins by reviewing early methods like the Grammar-Translation Method and moves through subsequent approaches including the Communicative Language Teaching approach. The document also discusses bilingual education programs and factors that influence language teaching approaches. It aims to help teachers understand different trends in language teaching and draw conclusions about effective methodology.
This summary provides an overview of a discussion on conceptualizing teacher roles and post-method pedagogy in TESOL:
1) The discussion focuses on three roles for teachers: passive technicians who follow methods strictly, reflective practitioners who adapt methods, and transformative intellectuals who challenge sociopolitical assumptions.
2) Post-method pedagogy is presented as a more flexible framework than rigid language teaching methods, allowing teachers to develop context-sensitive approaches based on guiding principles.
3) While some argue methods are irrelevant concerns for practicing teachers, others note teachers have long blended techniques from different methods based on their expertise and classroom needs.
A Study of the Effects of Competitive Team-Based Learning and Structured Academic Controversy on the Language Proficiency of Iranian EFL College Seniors
Seyed Mohammad Hassan Hosseini, PhD (TESOL)
E-mail: mhhosseini73@yahoo.com
• This article was published at the International Journal of Adult Vocational Education and Technology, 3 (2012): 54-69.
See http://beyondelt.blogfa.com
This document provides an overview of various teaching methods and aspects of curriculum development. It discusses the importance of clarity and organization in curriculum and teaching. It then describes several common teaching methods like lecturing, demonstrating, collaboration, classroom discussion, and debriefing. It also outlines several models of curriculum development, including the Tyler model and grassroots model, and discusses curriculum evaluation.
MAE522 Module 4: The Curriculum Development Processeckchela
This is a Trident University course (MAE522), Module 4: The Curriculum Development Process. It is written in APA format, has been graded by Dr. Louise M. Williamson (A), and includes references. Most higher-education assignments are submitted to turnitin, so remember to paraphrase. Let us begin.
This document discusses the concept of differentiation and its importance in education. Some key points:
- Differentiation is a philosophy that recognizes students differ in their readiness, interests, styles of learning, experiences and circumstances. These differences significantly impact what and how students learn.
- Students learn best when supportive adults challenge them at an appropriate level, when learning connects to their interests and experiences, and when classrooms foster a sense of community.
- Differentiation is wary of standardization and acknowledges students are not standard or uniform. It aims to refine high-quality teaching practices to maximize individual growth for each student.
- Challenges to differentiation include standardized testing, pressures to cover large amounts of content quickly, and
Chapter 1 Introduction to the Study of LearningRuss Nyland tea.docxwalterl4
Chapter 1 Introduction to the Study of Learning
Russ Nyland teaches a graduate education course on learning and cognition. It is toward the end of the semester, and as class finishes one day, three students approach him: Jeri Kendall, Matt Bowers, and Trisha Pascella.
Jeri:
Dr. Nyland, can we talk with you? It’s late in the course and we’re still confused.
Russ:
About what?
Jeri:
Well, we’ve been studying all these theorists. It seems like they’re saying different things, but maybe not. Bandura, Skinner, Vygotsky, and the others. They make different points, but then some of what they say seems to overlap what others say.
Matt:
I’m confused too. I read these theorists and think I agree with that. But it seems like I agree with everything! I thought you were supposed to have one theory, to believe one way and not others. But it seems like there’s a lot of overlap between theories.
Russ:
You’re right, Matt, there is. Most of what we’ve studied in this course are cognitive theories, and they are alike because they say that learning involves changes in cognitions—knowledge, skills, beliefs. Most theorists also say that learners construct their knowledge and beliefs; they don’t automatically adopt what somebody tells them. So yes, there is much overlap.
Trisha:
So then what are we to do? Am I supposed to be something like an information processing theorist, a social cognitive theorist, a constructivist? That’s what I’m confused about.
Russ:
No, you don’t have to be only one. There may be one theory that you like better than the others, but maybe that theory doesn’t address everything you want it to. So then you can borrow from other theories. For example, when I was in grad school I did research with a professor whose specialty was cognitive learning. There was another professor who did developmental research. I really liked her research, probably because I had been a teacher and was interested in development, especially the changes in kids from elementary to middle school. So I was a learning theorist who borrowed from the developmental literature and still do. It’s okay to do that!
Jeri:
Well, that makes me feel better. But it’s late in the course, and I guess I want to know what I should be doing next.
Russ:
Tell you what—next class I’ll spend some time on this. A good place to start is not to decide which type of theorist you are, but rather determine what you believe about learning and what types of learning you’re interested in. Then you can see which theory matches up well to your beliefs and assumptions and maybe do as I did—borrow from others.
Matt:
Isn’t that being eclectic?
Russ:
Perhaps, but you may still have one preferred theory that you adapt as needed. That’s okay to do. In fact, that’s how theories are improved—by incorporating ideas that weren’t in them originally.
Trisha:
Thanks, Dr. Nyland. This is really helpful.
Learning involves acquiring and modifying knowledge, skills, strategies, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. People.
This document provides an overview of how reading research can enhance professional development for educators. It discusses that research has value in addressing practical problems, challenging assumptions, and suggesting new strategies, though it cannot be the sole guide for practice. The document outlines different types of research purposes, including basic, applied, evaluation and action research. It also contrasts quantitative and qualitative research methods. The overall message is that critically reading research fosters reflection on practice and supports professional growth, even if published research has limitations.
Research methods for the self study of practice(chapter ivDaysi Pachacama
This document summarizes research conducted on preservice teacher education programs and beginning teachers. The research identified seven priorities for teacher education based on data analysis, including program planning, pupil assessment, classroom organization/management, inclusive education, subject knowledge, professional identity, and vision for teaching. Advice is provided for longitudinal research, such as being prepared for deep effects, allowing flexibility, working with a team, connecting with others, and starting to write and implement findings early.
This document discusses strategies for generating meaningful mathematical discourse in the classroom. It begins by defining discourse and its importance according to the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) and the Common Core State Standards. The document then outlines five teaching practices for improving classroom discourse: using talk moves to engage students; effective questioning techniques; leveraging student thinking; establishing a supportive physical and emotional environment; and orchestrating classroom discussions. Specific strategies are provided for each teaching practice, such as wait time, revoicing student responses, and arranging students in circular formations. The overall goal is to get students actively discussing and building on each other's mathematical ideas.
This document discusses generating math discourse to support student learning. It begins by defining discourse as communication about mathematical ideas, as shaped by classroom tasks and environment. The Common Core emphasizes communication to develop conceptual understanding and justify procedures. Five teaching practices are discussed to improve discourse: using talk moves to engage students; effective questioning; building on student thinking; establishing a supportive environment; and orchestrating discussions. Specific strategies are provided for each practice, such as wait time, revoicing, and explicitly teaching discussion skills. The document concludes by reflecting on implementing discourse strategies in kindergarten and second grade classrooms.
This document discusses generating math discourse to support student learning. It begins by defining discourse as communication about mathematical ideas, as shaped by classroom tasks and environment. Next, it examines discourse through the lens of the Common Core standards, which emphasize conceptual understanding and justification. The document then outlines five teaching practices to improve discourse: using talk moves, effective questioning, building on student thinking, setting a supportive environment, and orchestrating discussions. It provides examples for implementing each practice and concludes by reflecting on discourse from kindergarten and second grade classrooms.
Teaching methods and approaches can be planned in advance or arise spontaneously in response to situations. Effective teaching requires recognizing teachable moments, cultivating relationships for learning, scaffolding learning to support independence, and differentiating instruction to meet diverse needs. Common teaching approaches include teacher-centered methods like lectures, as well as student-centered approaches like discussions, debates, inquiry-based learning and cooperative learning. A variety of techniques can be used within these approaches, including think-pair-share, problem-solving, and constructivist models. Team teaching, computers, audio-visual resources, and co-curricular activities can also enhance the learning experience.
This document provides an overview of the EDCI 620 School Curriculum course, including introductions, journaling, and discussion activities on the first day. It reviews the syllabus, assignments, and policies. Key topics of the course are developing an understanding of curriculum theories, examining the impact of policies on curriculum and instruction, and understanding the history and societal influences on education. The instructional model is a seminar approach with small and large group discussions. Assignments include class participation, online responses, papers, a group presentation, and a final exam assessing comprehension of course content.
O poema "The Sick Rose" de William Blake descreve uma rosa doente que está sendo destruída por um inseto invisível. O inseto representa algo que está prejudicando a vida da rosa de forma secreta e obscura. O poema pode ser lido como uma advertência à mulher (representada pela rosa) sobre algum mal escondido que ameaça sua vida ou inocência.
The document discusses strategies for teaching English to children. It recommends making lessons fun, using gestures and visuals, encouraging participation, and recycling language through games, songs and stories. Young children learn best through exposure rather than explicit instruction. The document also discusses adapting techniques for very young learners versus older children, developing multiple intelligences, and using activities like TPR, listening, drawing and role plays.
Planejamento de curso_-_la_li_i_-_fac_3_2010ADRIANA BECKER
Este documento apresenta o plano de curso para a disciplina de Linguística Aplicada em Língua Inglesa I no primeiro semestre de 2010. O curso abordará tópicos como linguística aplicada no Brasil, PCNs para língua estrangeira, teorias de ensino e aprendizagem de línguas, e análise de materiais didáticos. A avaliação incluirá provas, trabalhos individuais e em grupo ao longo do semestre.
Metodologias de ensino_de_língua_estrangeiraADRIANA BECKER
1) O documento discute oito métodos de ensino de línguas estrangeiras, descrevendo seus princípios e técnicas principais.
2) Os métodos incluem o Método da Tradução e Gramática, Método Direto, Método Audio-Lingual, "Silent Way", "Suggestopedia", "Community Learning" e "Total Physical Response".
3) Cada método tem abordagens e objetivos diferentes, como foco na tradução, uso da língua alvo desde o início, ênfase na memorização e repetição ou aprend
Este plano de ensino descreve uma disciplina de Lingüística Aplicada em Língua Inglesa I para estudantes de Letras. O curso abordará conceitos de lingüística aplicada e ensino de inglês como segunda língua com foco nos PCNs, teorias de ensino e aprendizagem, planejamento de aulas e análise de material didático. As aulas serão expositivas, seminários e trabalhos em grupo.
O documento discute a formação de professores de língua estrangeira, destacando a necessidade de prática pedagógica durante a graduação e estágio supervisionado. Também aborda o desafio de resgatar o respeito e prestígio da disciplina perante alunos, pais e sociedade.
O documento discute a linguística aplicada e o ensino de línguas. Apresenta exemplos de enunciados em português e inglês, analisando se estão de acordo com a norma culta. Também discute a importância da comunicação e do entendimento entre emissor e receptor, mesmo com erros gramaticais. Explica o surgimento da linguística aplicada e seu foco no ensino e aprendizagem de idiomas com base em teorias linguísticas e outras ciências.
O documento discute a evolução da Linguística Aplicada. Inicialmente focada na aplicação de teorias linguísticas, tornou-se uma disciplina autônoma e multidisciplinar preocupada com questões de uso da linguagem. Nos últimos anos, passou a enfatizar estudos críticos e a conscientização sobre como a linguagem reflete e reproduz relações de poder na sociedade.
O documento discute a evolução das metodologias de ensino de idiomas ao longo do tempo. Inicialmente foram populares métodos como a tradução gramatical e o audiolingualismo. Posteriormente, teorias cognitivas como as de Piaget e Vygotsky levaram ao declínio desses métodos prescritivos e ao surgimento de abordagens mais comunicativas e naturalistas. As ideias de Chomsky também influenciaram o maior foco no aluno e na comunicação. Finalmente, Krashen desenvolveu a Abordagem Natural, integrando essas contribuições à ps
O documento discute a teoria do desenvolvimento cognitivo de Jean Piaget. Segundo Piaget, o conhecimento é construído através da ação e interação com o mundo, e não é simplesmente transmitido. Ele identificou quatro estágios de desenvolvimento intelectual por que todas as crianças passam. Piaget defendia métodos de ensino ativos que enfatizam a aprendizagem por descoberta e a construção do conhecimento por parte do aluno.
Este artigo resume uma pesquisa que analisou a relação de alunos de uma escola pública com o aprendizado de inglês com base no conceito de "relação com o saber". Os dados mostraram que os alunos consideram importante saber inglês para obter emprego e preferem aprender a língua pela internet, videogames e música. No entanto, o ensino de inglês na escola pública enfrenta problemas que dificultam a aprendizagem efetiva.
1. O documento descreve a evolução histórica dos métodos de ensino de línguas estrangeiras.
2. Inicialmente, o método tradicional de gramática e tradução era dominante, focando em regras gramaticais e tradução.
3. Posteriormente, surgiram novos métodos como o direto e audiolingual, influenciados pelo avanço da linguística e fonética.
O documento resume as principais abordagens do processo de ensino: a tradicional, comportamentalista, humanista, cognitivista e sócio-cultural. Cada abordagem é descrita em termos de ensino-aprendizagem, relação professor-aluno, metodologia e avaliação.
O documento discute termos básicos da linguística, desde o nível fonético até o textual. Apresenta os processos internos que o falante segue para formar fonemas, signos, morfemas, sintagmas, sentenças e discurso, e como esses resultados internos se manifestam externamente como fones, vocábulos, locuções e texto. Distingue processos e resultados internos e externos.
Este documento apresenta um resumo do livro "Pensamento e Linguagem" de Lev Vygotsky. O livro explora a relação entre pensamento e linguagem durante o desenvolvimento infantil, incluindo experimentos que mostram a evolução dos significados de palavras e o desenvolvimento de conceitos científicos versus conceitos espontâneos. Vygotsky também discute como a linguagem influencia o pensamento e o papel da interação social no desenvolvimento cognitivo.
Este documento discute a variação linguística e o preconceito linguístico. Aponta que todas as línguas variam geograficamente e mudam ao longo do tempo, mas diferenças linguísticas são muitas vezes usadas para justificar preconceitos sociais. Exemplifica processos fonológicos comuns no português brasileiro e em outras línguas, e discute a norma padrão e a variedade culta versus outras variedades.
1) O módulo trata da morfologia, que estuda a formação das palavras através de elementos mórficos menores.
2) As palavras podem ser decompostas em morfemas, que são as menores unidades de significado lexical ou gramatical.
3) Existem diferentes tipos de morfemas, como radicais, prefixos e sufixos, que modificam o significado das palavras.
1) O texto discute o conceito de morfema, a menor unidade lingüística com significado, como raízes, afixos e palavras gramaticais.
2) Explica exemplos de morfemas como prefixos, sufixos e desinências e como um mesmo som pode ser um fonema ou morfema dependendo do contexto.
3) Reflete sobre casos complexos que desafiam a teoria, como se "demais" é uma ou duas palavras.
A linguagem humana se distingue da comunicação animal pela dupla articulação, que consiste na combinação de fonemas em unidades mínimas de significado chamadas monemas. A linguagem humana também é criativa ao poder gerar um número infinito de enunciados a partir de um conjunto finito de símbolos, ao contrário dos sistemas de comunicação animais que são limitados. Além disso, a linguagem humana é independente do contexto e arbitrária.
Este documento apresenta o plano de ensino e aprendizagem para a disciplina de Linguística II no curso de Letras. O plano descreve a ementa, objetivos, conteúdo programático, metodologia, avaliação e cronograma para o curso, que irá abordar tópicos de morfologia e sintaxe dentro da linguística.
A Visual Guide to 1 Samuel | A Tale of Two HeartsSteve Thomason
These slides walk through the story of 1 Samuel. Samuel is the last judge of Israel. The people reject God and want a king. Saul is anointed as the first king, but he is not a good king. David, the shepherd boy is anointed and Saul is envious of him. David shows honor while Saul continues to self destruct.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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The chapter Lifelines of National Economy in Class 10 Geography focuses on the various modes of transportation and communication that play a vital role in the economic development of a country. These lifelines are crucial for the movement of goods, services, and people, thereby connecting different regions and promoting economic activities.
Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
In this webinar, participants learned how to utilize Generative AI to streamline operations and elevate member engagement. Amazon Web Service experts provided a customer specific use cases and dived into low/no-code tools that are quick and easy to deploy through Amazon Web Service (AWS.)
Andreas Schleicher presents PISA 2022 Volume III - Creative Thinking - 18 Jun...EduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher, Director of Education and Skills at the OECD presents at the launch of PISA 2022 Volume III - Creative Minds, Creative Schools on 18 June 2024.
Level 3 NCEA - NZ: A Nation In the Making 1872 - 1900 SML.pptHenry Hollis
The History of NZ 1870-1900.
Making of a Nation.
From the NZ Wars to Liberals,
Richard Seddon, George Grey,
Social Laboratory, New Zealand,
Confiscations, Kotahitanga, Kingitanga, Parliament, Suffrage, Repudiation, Economic Change, Agriculture, Gold Mining, Timber, Flax, Sheep, Dairying,
1. There Is No Best Method—Why?
N. S. PRABHU
National University of Singapore
This paper examines the possible substance of a statement, often
heard but rarely explained, in the discussion of language teaching,
namely, that there is no best method. Three possible explanations
of the statement are discussed, based on a broad interpretation of
the term method: (a) that different methods are best for different
teaching contexts; (b) that all methods are partially true or valid;
and (c) that the notion of good and bad methods is itself
misguided. The first two explanations are shown to be unhelpful;
the third is discussed in some detail, with an exploration of the
concept, teachers’ sense of plausibility.
It is uncommon these days to have a sustained discussion on language
teaching without someone at some point declaring that there
is no best method, or words to that effect. Such a declaration usually
occurs at a late stage in an indecisive debate about different
methods, and has the general effect of altering the orientation of the
debate itself, somewhat abruptly. It also carries the ring of an
incontrovertible statement—or a statement so tolerant and
reconciliatory in spirit that to dispute it would be professionally
churlish. As a result, one rarely sees a detailed examination of what
it might mean to say that there is no best method.
I think it helpful to see the statement as having an illocutionary as
well as a propositional meaning. As an illocutionary act, it seeks to
terminate a debate without reaching any substantive conclusion,
and it does so not by admitting defeat in the effort to reach a
conclusion, but by appearing to raise the debate itself to a higher
level, thus helping to save professional face all round. It suggests not
just that proponents of different methods agree to disagree, but that
they give up their pursuit of agreement and disagreement as being
unproductive. It manages to reconcile conflicting views by defining
a position to which all can honorably subscribe, and by striking a
philosophical note on which enlightened discussion can properly
end. It is thus a convenient device for legitimizing nonresolution of
methodological issues.
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2. The propositional content of the statement, on the other hand,
calls for a great deal of clarification and substantiation, in terms of
the sense in which a method can be considered good, the reason
why no method can be thought or shown to be better than others,
the consequence of that position for the theory and practice of
pedagogy, the revaluation it demands of the assumptions currently
underlying conflict and debate between methods, and the forms in
which debate or discussion may still be of use from the new
perspective. What is involved is not just the termination of a
discussion, but the beginning of a new one—or rather the beginning
of a new phase in the discussion, as a positive outcome of the earlier
phase. It is this propositional content of the statement that is the
concern of this paper; I hope to clarify the sense in which there can
be said to be no best method of language teaching.
First, however, a word about the term method. I use the term
inclusively, to refer both to a set of activities to be carried out in the
classroom and to the theory, belief, or plausible concept that
informs those activities. The reader will thus find one or both of
these aspects the focus of particular parts of the discussion. I
consider this “global” interpretation of the term appropriate to
analysing a statement that is equally global in spirit.
There are, I think, three general lines of argument that can be
advanced in support of the statement to be discussed. These are
examined in turn.
IT ALL DEPENDS ON THE TEACHING CONTEXT
If those who declare that there is no best method are asked why,
the most immediate and frequent answer is likely to be “Because it
all depends,” meaning that what is best depends on whom the
method is for, in what circumstances, for what purpose, and so on.
That there is no best method therefore means that no single method
is best for everyone, as there are important variations in the teaching
context that influence what is best. The variations are of several
kinds, relating to social situation (language policy, language
environment, linguistic and cultural attitudes, economic and
ideological factors, etc.), educational organisation (instructional
objectives, constraints of time and resources, administrative
efficiency, class-size, classroom ethos, etc.), teacher-related factors
(status, training, belief, autonomy, skill, etc.), and learner-related
factors (age, aspirations, previous learning experience, attitudes to
learning, etc.). There have been several attempts to categorize such
variables systematically and comprehensively (e.g., see Brumfit,
1984), but even the brief and random listing above shows that they
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3. are at different levels of generality, as well as of discreteness and
tangibility. Moreover, recent and current work in the field seems to
be adding new factors and categories to the inventory, in the form
of varied learning styles, communication strategies, personality
factors, and psychological processes. Together with slightly earlier
work on variations in learners’ needs and purposes, this seems to
suggest that variability on such dimensions is infinite, thus strongly
challenging the notion that any given method can be good for
everyone. “It all depends,” and what it depends on is a vast number
of things.
Notice, however, that to say that no single method is best for
everyone is also to say that different methods are best for different
people—or for different teaching contexts. This implies that, for
any single teaching context, there is in fact a method that is best and,
further, we are able to determine what it is. If we are unclear or in
disagreement about what method is best for a specific context,
there is need for discussion, debate, and interaction between
differing perceptions; we should be seeking to further pedagogic
debate rather than to terminate it with a face-saving formula. It is
perhaps not without significance that statements like “There is no
best method” are made most often as defensive postures-as ways
of saying not only that one does not agree with what is being
argued, but that one refuses to engage any further in the argument.
Such statements succeed in preserving the conversational peace, but
cause a loss of the productive potential of professional debate. For
such statements to act as a contribution to debate, we will need to
interpret them as proposing only a narrowing of the scope to some
single teaching context, so that dependencies between contextual
variables and methodological options might be explored, and a
search for the best method might be continued with greater focus.
The statement that there is no best method would then be an
assertion, not of the futility of looking for the best method, but of
the desirability of asking what method is best for some specific
context; contextual variability would serve not as a means of
avoiding methodological issues, but as a possible new approach to
resolving them.
I think it is important to realise how complex it can be to
determine dependencies between contextual factors and instructional
methods. To begin with, many of the factors that are
discussed are neither easy to identify nor simple to assess: They tend
suspiciously to fit different slots in different taxonomies. Formal
environment, for instance, may refer to classroom learning, as
against learning through social exposure, or to the formal school
system, as against private language instruction, or to relative
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4. formality in teacher-learner relations, as against informal relations,
or even to teacher-fronted activities, as against group work among
learners. Motivation may mean anything from future career
ambitions, to a desire for group approval, to a passing interest in a
particular classroom activity. What are identified as attitudes are
seldom clear-cut or unmixed or even stable. When we come to
factors like preferred learning styles, sociocultural influences, or
personality factors, we are faced with unclear and overlapping
distinctions, and are therefore forced to simplify and stereotype,
often in preconceived ways. Further, even when some contextual
factors are clearly identifiable, their consequence for instructional
procedures can be far from clear. Do older learners need a different
method of teaching from younger ones, and if so, how fundamentally
different? Is a change in method more likely to succeed in the
hands of experienced teachers, or less? If there is a mismatch
between official language policy and learners’ personal goals, which
should have what weight in the choice of an instructional method?
If we identify certain learning strategies that learners naturally tend
to employ, do we conclude, for that reason, that they are good
learning strategies? If not, are learners likely to learn more by
following their own strategies, which may be less than good in our
view, or by adopting strategies we consider more conducive to
learning, though they may go against such natural tendencies? If
earlier experience has conditioned learners or teachers to certain
perceptions of learning and teaching, does that constitute an
argument against change, or indicate a greater need for change?
The point I am making is not just that our knowledge is uncertain
at this time; the more important point is that it is only when we can
show a relationship between a contextual factor and a methodological
decision that the contextual factor becomes significant for
pedagogy. What we need is not just an identification and projection
of variation but, equally, some way of determining which form of
variation matters to instruction and how, and which does not. If we
look for variation merely on the assumption that the teaching
context matters for teaching methodology, we are sure to find
indefinite variation on many dimensions, thus making it impossible
to justify any instructional method for any single group of learners.
If all physiological variation among individuals (including fingerprints)
were assumed to call for matching differentiation in medical
treatment, no medical practice would be justifiable.
It is, of course, possible to obviate the problem of relating
contextual factors to instructional methods by giving contextual
factors a central role in pedagogy and treating instructional
methods as a kind of logical derivation from them. This is the move
164
5. often advocated: from a preoccupation with teaching methods to an
effort at “curriculum development” or “course design.” The assumption
is that, with such a move, decisions concerning methods will
either be rendered unnecessary or play only a small part in the enterprise.
As one applied linguist puts it, “The important issues are not
which method to adopt but how to develop procedures and instructional
activities that will enable program objectives to be attained”
(Richards, 1985, p. 42). The procedures envisaged are those of situational
analysis, needs analysis, analysis of “authentic” samples of
target language use, surveys of opinions and attitudes, estimates of
resources, etc.—that is to say, compilations of different kinds of information
about learners, teachers, the school, and the society, with a
view to determining instructional objectives. Instructional procedures
are seen to follow, or be easily determinable, from the profile
of contextual factors and the statement of objectives. This is, in
effect, a kind of discovery procedure for methods: That method is
best, it seems to say, which results from a careful implementation of
the procedure, the soundness of the method being guaranteed by the
soundness of the procedure leading to it.
There is, however, a price to pay for this simplification of
pedagogy. The instructional procedures most directly derivable
from a specification of needs, wants, and objectives are those of
supplying to learners the relevant tokens of language, or getting
them to rehearse target language behaviour in simulated target
situations. Any concept of developing in learners a more basic
capacity for generating tokens of language when needed, or for
adapting to unforeseen target language behaviour as necessary,
leads one toward ideas about the nature of language ability and the
process of language acquisition—complex methodological issues
that the discovery procedure seeks to avoid. Besides, a more
elaborate analysis of contextual factors results in a correspondingly
larger set of criteria to be met by instructional content or procedure,
and the larger the set of criteria to be met, the fewer the choices
available in meeting them. Language instruction that attempts to
cater directly to social objectives, learning needs, target needs,
learners’ wants, teachers’ preferences, learning styles, teaching
constraints, and attitudes all round can end up as a mere assemblage
of hard-found pieces of content and procedure—a formula that
manages, with difficulty, to satisfy multiple criteria and therefore
cannot afford to let itself be tampered with. What sets out to be a
widening of attention to varied educational considerations can thus
end up as an abridgement of choice and flexibility in the practice of
pedagogy. In avoiding adherence to a single method, one will have
arrived instead at a single, fixed, teaching package.
165
6. Avoiding adherence to a single method has a certain ideological
aura to it. It suggests liberation from a monolithic mould, a refusal
to be doctrinaire, an espousal of plurality. It is, however, also a
denial of the role of understanding in language pedagogy, which is
necessarily a matter of ideation: We understand something when we
have a set of ideas or principles that cohere to make up a conceptual
model, or theory. Although theory is only an abstraction, it is about
the only instrument we have (at any rate, the most accessible
instrument) for making sense of complex phenomena and
conveying that sense to one another. Theory, as we know, arises not
from a cataloging of diversity, but from a perception of unity in
diverse phenomena—a single principle, or a single system of
principles, in terms of which diversity can be maximally accounted
for. If the theories of language teaching (that is to say, methods) that
we have at present fail to account sufficiently for the diversity in
teaching contexts, we ought to try to develop a more general or
comprehensive (and probably more abstract) theory to account for
more of the diversity, not reject the notion of a single system of
ideas and seek to be guided instead by diversity itself. Pointing to a
bewildering variety of contextual factors as a means of denying the
possibility of a single theory can only be a contribution to bewilderment,
not to understanding.
There is also the fact that a concentration on dissimilarities
between teaching contexts is likely to obscure similarities between
them; in the case of language learning, we are dealing with a human
ability that constitutes a defining characteristic of the species. It is
true that variations in social situation, institutional organisation,
individuals’ histories, attitudes, or intentions can all have the effect
of limiting or extending opportunities for desired forms of
pedagogic action. However, to imply that they call for a matching
differentiation in pedagogic theories is to make the very large claim
that the process of language acquisition—a basic human attribute—
itself varies according to contextual factors.
THERE IS SOME TRUTH TO EVERY METHOD
I have discussed in some detail one form of substantiation of the
statement that there is no best method, namely, that different
methods are best for different teaching contexts. A different form
of substantiation is also heard fairly frequently, namely, that there is
some truth (or value or validity) to every method—or, at any rate,
to several different methods—even though the methods may be
conceptually incompatible. This, as we know, is an argument for
eclecticism in language pedagogy—not an argument that different
166
7. contexts should use different methods, but an argument that the
same context should use a number of different methods, or perhaps
parts of different methods. There is an immediate appeal to
common sense in this stance: If every method is a partial truth, then
it seems clear that none represents the whole truth; to adopt any
single method is to settle for much less than one can get by adopting
all or several of them.
As a comment on our state of knowledge at this time (or indeed
at any time), the suggestion that no method contains more than a
partial truth is clearly unexceptionable. We continue to engage in
the professional activity of research, concept development,
discussion, and debate because all of our understanding of language
learning and teaching is at best partial, and for any of us operating
with a theory, which can represent only a partial truth, it remains
entirely possible that other theories represent partial truths as well.
However, this philosophical perception of imperfect knowledge
does not help us to see which theory represents which part of the
truth—or which part of a given theory represents the truth. Were we
able to see that, we would no longer be operating with a theory of
which only a part is known to represent the truth, and missing those
parts of other theories that are known to represent other parts of the
truth. Our knowledge would make a leap toward the whole truth—
whatever that might mean. The fact, however, is that the
understanding one has of a phenomenon at a given time—the theory
one is operating with—represents for one the whole truth. Other
theories are true to the extent they share the understanding
represented by one’s own theory. In this sense, each theory can
claim to represent the partial truths of other theories: If there is an
overlap of understanding between it and certain parts of other
theories, then it can be said to contain those parts of other theories
that constitute partial truths.
But the statement that there is some truth to every method needs
to be seen not just as an epistemological observation, but as a plea
for an eclectic blending of all or several methods. Now, any such
blending of different methods is either done with a perception of
what is true about each method, or it is done without any such
discrimination. If there is a perception of which part of what
method is a partial truth, then that perception constitutes a theory,
which happens to have an overlap of understanding with various
other theories. It therefore represents a method, which is like any
other method, with an overlap of understanding with others. There
is no reason to think, on the strength of its being a blend, that it has
any more of the truth than any other method. It is simply one of the
methods that share some of their concepts or procedures with other
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8. methods; how much of the truth it represents is a matter not of how
much blending it does, but of what particular perception makes the
blending possible. What we have, therefore, is not an eclectic blend,
but a different method—or else, all methods which happen to have
partial overlaps with others are equally eclectic.
If, on the other hand, an eclectic blending of different methods is
done not with any particular perception of what parts of those
methods represent the truth, but rather in the hope that whatever is
true about them will be captured in the blending, then the eclectic
blend does not constitute a method, but instead an act of gambling
or a hedging of bets: It can only have treated all parts of different
methods as being equally likely to be true or untrue, and, as a result,
there is as strong a possibility of its being a blend of the untruthful
parts of different methods as there is of its representing the truthful
parts (whatever notion of truth and untruth we may care to
employ). Further, such indiscriminate blending of methods adds
nothing to our pedagogic understanding, since it offers no
perception of what may be true about which method. It simply
plays it safe—as safe from truth as from untruth. An eclectic
blending that constitutes a form of pedagogic understanding at least
offers us an additional method, though it makes an unjustified claim
to being more than an additional method; an eclectic blending that
does not constitute an additional method in that sense leads us away
from any furtherance of understanding, while offering us a chance
at what may be called “truth by accident.”
WE NEED TO RETHINK WHAT “BEST” MIGHT MEAN
Let me now turn to a third possible way of substantiating the
statement that there is no best method. This is that we have no
adequate notion of what “best” might mean—or that the notion of
good and bad needs to be reexamined and clarified.
A prevalent notion of the best method is that it is the method that
yields the best results in terms of learning outcomes. Since the aim
of all teaching is to bring about as much learning as possible as
quickly as possible, it seems self-evident that teaching methods
should be judged by the amounts of learning they can lead to, in a
given period of time. This appears to call for a comparison of
methods and a quantification of learning outcomes, through welldesigned,
controlled experiments, in keeping with the spirit of
objective, scientific enquiry. It is true that such objective evaluation
is so difficult to implement that all attempts at it in the past have
resulted in a wider agreement on the difficulties of doing an
evaluation than on the resulting judgement on methods. It is also
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9. true that arguments have been put forward for a possible alternative
to the experimental design. Nevertheless, we generally continue to
assume, more or less consciously, that there is a method that is
objectively the best, that it is in principle possible to demonstrate
that fact, and that once demonstrated, the superiority of the best
method will lead to its widespread acceptance in the profession.
That is to say, we generally see ourselves as working to that ideal, on
the tacit premise that what is unrealised is not necessarily
unrealizable, and that all our professional endeavour is a form of
progress toward it. Alternatives such as trying to construct comprehensive
descriptions of methods—as “illuminative” evaluation
(Parlett & Hamilton, 1977)—involve an abandonment of that ideal,
thus threatening to disorient our professional thought. We prefer to
retain the ideal as the basis of all our professional effort.
Seen in this context, the statement that there is no best method is
a questioning of the current concept of the best method—an
argument that the ideal of objective and conclusive demonstration
is not only an unrealised one, but an inherently unrealizable one, and
that working with such an ideal is unproductive for the pedagogic
profession. Brumfit (1984), for instance, has strongly questioned the
notion that teaching methods, which are essentially concerned with
human interaction, can usefully be subjected to the processes of
objective testing and prediction, which are part of the scientific
method. He argues, in summary, (a) that a teaching method in
operation is necessarily an embodiment of certain general
pedagogic principles into a variety of specific contextual features
(including participants’ psychological states); (b) that predictive
testing of a method demands manipulation and control of the
manifold contextual features; (c) that many of the contextual
features are either difficult or impossible to control; and, most
important, (d) that any success actually achieved in controlling
contextual features will have only the effect of disembodying the
method, as it were, of its actual, operational form, thus rendering
the outcome of the testing inapplicable to the operation of the
method in any specific context. Brumfit comments:
A claim that we can predict closely what will happen in a situation as
complex as [the classroom] can only be based on either the view that
human beings are more mechanical in their learning responses than any
recent discussion would allow, or the notion that we can measure and
predict the quantities and qualities of all these factors. Neither of these
seems to be a sensible point of view to take. (pp. 18-19)
While Brumfit’s argument is based largely on the complexity of
the pedagogic operation, it is also possible to point to the
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10. complexity of assessing language attainment as such. Examining
aspects of this latter complexity further underscores the futility of
attempts to objectify method evaluation. To begin with, an
important consideration for language teaching methods is the
quality of learning to be promoted, as distinct from the quantity.
The question of quality has been a recurrent concern for the
profession through the ages, being conceptualised and verbalised
variously as grammar in contrast to practice, knowledge in contrast
to skill, explicit knowledge in contrast to implicit knowledge,
accuracy in contrast to fluency, learning in contrast to acquisition,
ability to display in contrast to ability to deploy, etc. There may be
disagreements about how the different kinds of knowledge or
ability are related to each other, but it is remarkable how, whenever
a distinction is made between different forms of knowledge of a
language, it is the less conscious, less observable, and less
quantifiable form that is seen to be of greater value or validity.
Objective evaluation of methods, however, necessarily relies on a
quantification of learning outcomes, and therefore tends to measure
the more quantifiable form of knowledge. This means that the more
objective the evaluation is, the less likely it is to assess learning of the
desired quality, and vice versa.
Second, a perception of language ability as an implicit form of
knowledge is linked to a perception of its development as an
internal, unobservable process that is organic rather than additive,
and continuous rather than itemizable. This means that at any stage
of the growth process, there is not only the growth achieved so far,
but a potential for further growth achieved as a part of it—a
potential that can be thought of in terms of inchoation or
incubation. Our most ambitious effort at language testing can only
hope to give us evidence on the actual growth achieved at the stage
of testing, not on the potential generated for further growth, since
knowledge in an inchoative state is even less accessible to elicitation
and quantification than implicit knowledge as such. Again, not
everyone in the profession may regard knowledge of a language as
being equally implicit in nature or organic in its development, but
the point is that an objective evaluation of methods is unlikely to be
able to cope with concepts of implicitness and inchoation and, as a
result, unlikely to provide widely acceptable decisions.
Third, an objective evaluation of methods is not just an assessment
of learners’ language attainments; it also involves an objective
attribution of the learning that has taken place to the teaching that
has been done. However, the relationship between language
teaching and language learning becomes less and less direct as one
perceives language as being an implicit ability and an internal
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11. development: What is less conscious and less observable is also less
directly teachable. The more indirect the relationship is between
teaching and learning, the more difficult it is to attribute any
specific piece of learning to any specific piece of teaching. It is,
ultimately, difficult to tell what learning has taken place as intended
by the teaching, and what has taken place independent of it (or,
indeed, what in spite of it). We have problems enough maintaining
a subjective perception of general causation between teaching and
learning in the development and discussion of particular methods.
An evaluative comparison of different methods calls for a degree of
objectivity and specificity in cause-effect relations that may well be
unreasonable to expect in the field of language pedagogy.
More generally, the notion behind an objective evaluation of
methods is that there is something in a method that is by itself—
independent of anyone’s subjective perception of it—superior or
inferior to what there is in another method. If some method were
shown by such evaluation to be superior to all others, then that
method would be expected to benefit all (or a large number of)
classrooms, regardless of how it is subjectively perceived by the
different teachers involved. A method, in this view, is a set of
procedures that carries a prediction of results; the fulfillment of the
prediction depends only (or mainly) on an accurate replication of
the procedures, not on any perceptions of those who do the
replication—rather in the way the replication of a procedure in
chemistry yields the predicted result, regardless of the chemist’s
thoughts or feelings about it. No doubt the idea looks fairly absurd
when put in this form: It reduces teaching to a faithful following of
highly specified routine—something of a pedagogic ritual. I am,
however, unable to see how a serious pursuit of objective method
evaluation can be sustained without some such idea. The only
alternative to it is to maintain that the method that is shown to be
objectively superior will somehow carry with it the subjective
perception that lay behind its development and, equally, that the
perception concerned will then replace the differing perceptions of
all the teachers who may be led to adopt that method on the
strength of the objective evaluation. This implies, among other
things, that teachers’ pedagogic perceptions are as easily replaceable
as classroom procedures, an idea that could hardly be less
absurd.
It is useful to ask why it looks absurd to suggest that a good
teaching method can be carried out, without loss, as merely a
routine. We find it necessary to think of good teaching as an activity
in which there is a sense of involvement by the teacher. When we
encounter an instance of really bad teaching, it is most often not a
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12. case of the teacher following a method with which we disagree, but
rather of the teacher merely going through the motions of teaching,
with no sense of involvement. When a method considered to be
good has been implemented on a large scale and later thought not
to have “worked,” an important part of the reason identified has
been that teachers followed the method “mechanically,” with no
sense of understanding or identification. Indeed, the more
“efficiently” a method is implemented (that is to say, with all
possible measures to ensure that teachers will carry out the
procedures envisaged), the more likely it is that mechanical
teaching will turn out to be the main impediment to success.
Perhaps, then, there is a factor more basic than the choice
between methods, namely, teachers’ subjective understanding of
the teaching they do. Teachers need to operate with some personal
conceptualisation of how their teaching leads to desired learning—
with a notion of causation that has a measure of credibility for them.
The conceptualisation may arise from a number of different
sources, including a teacher’s experience in the past as a learner
(with interpretations of how the teaching received at that time did
or did not support one’s learning), a teacher’s earlier experience of
teaching (with similar interpretations from the teaching end),
exposure to one or more methods while training as a teacher (with
some subjective evaluation of the methods concerned and perhaps
a degree of identification with one or another of them), what a
teacher knows or thinks of other teachers’ actions or opinions, and
perhaps a teacher’s experience as a parent or caretaker. Different
sources may influence different teachers to different extents, and
what looks like the same experience or exposure may influence
different teachers differently.
The resulting concept (or theory, or, in a more dormant state,
pedagogic intuition) of how learning takes place and how teaching
causes or supports it is what may be called a teacher’s sense of plausibility
about teaching. This personal sense of plausibility may not
only vary in its content from one teacher to another, but may be
more or less firmly or fully formed, more or less consciously
considered or articulated, between different teachers. It is when a
teacher’s sense of plausibility is engaged in the teaching operation
that the teacher can be said to be involved, and the teaching not to
be mechancial. Further, when the sense of plausibility is engaged,
the activity of teaching is productive: There is then a basis for the
teacher to be satisfied or dissatisfied about the activity, and each
instance of such satisfaction or dissatisfaction is itself a further
influence on the sense of plausibility, confirming or disconfirming
or revising it in some small measure, and generally contributing to
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13. its growth or change. I also think that the greater the teacher’s
involvement in teaching in this sense, the more likely it is that the
sense of involvement will convey itself to learners, getting them
involved as well and helping to create that elusive but highly
regarded condition in the classroom: teacher-learner rapport. It is of
course possible that other factors have a role, too, in the creation of
rapport, such as learners’ own perceptions of learning and their
interpretations of the teaching activity (Allwright, 1984). My point is
that an engagement of the teacher’s sense of plausibility is a major
condition for classroom rapport, whether or not it is the only
condition. It is common to hear that learning is enhanced when
learners enjoy classroom activity, but enjoyment is a broad notion
and is often equated with some form of light entertainment
interspersed with more serious activity. I think there is a form of
enjoyment arising from teacher-learner rapport that is less
conspicuous but more integral to classroom activity, and more truly
productive of learning.
The picture of classroom activity that engages the teacher’s sense
of plausibility is no doubt closer to an ideal than to a factual
description of much of the teaching that actually goes on. But that
does not detract from the suggestion I am making, namely, that that
ideal is more worth our while to pursue than the notion of an
objectively best method. The question to ask about a teacher’s sense
of plausibility is not whether it implies a good or bad method but,
more basically, whether it is active, alive, or operational enough to
create a sense of involvement for both the teacher and the student.
Mechanical teaching results from an overroutinisation of teaching
activity, and teaching is subject to great pressures of routinisation. It
is, after all, a recurrent pattern of procedures on regularly recurrent
occasions. It is also a form of recurrent social encounter between
teachers and learners, with self-images to protect, personalities to
cope with, etc. And, like all recurrent social encounters, teaching
requires a certain degree of routine to make it sustainable or even
endurable. There are, in addition, varied feelings of adequacy or
confidence among teachers, varied degrees of concern for
maintaining status, stress of overwork, threat of peer comparisons
or of expectations from superiors, etc., all of which can use the
protection offered by role-defining routines. More fundamentally,
there is the fact that learning by learners is essentially unpredictable
and, consequently, it is an unacceptably high risk for teaching to
have to justify itself in direct relation to learning: There is need for
a way to claim that the teaching expected has been performed,
though the learning expected may still not have occurred; and
teaching defined as a routine precisely meets that need.
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14. An active sense of plausibility is very difficult to maintain among
such pressures on routinisation, and can easily become frozen,
ossified, or inaccessibly submerged, leaving only a schedule of
routines. When teachers profess to believe in some method they
have been following—perhaps to the point of swearing by it—they
may well be merely demonstrating how frozen their sense of plausibility
is and, as a result, how insecure they feel against a threat to
their teaching routines. When a teacher’s sense of plausibility is
active and engaged in the teaching, it is necessarily open to change,
however slowly or imperceptibly, in the process of the ongoing
activity of teaching. Such teaching can perhaps be regarded as
being “real,” in contrast to teaching that is mechanical. We can then
say that a distinction between “real” and mechanical teaching is
more significant for pedagogy than any distinction between good
and bad methods. The enemy of good teaching is not a bad method,
but overroutinisation.
If it is important for a teacher’s sense of plausibility to remain
alive and therefore open to change—not frozen but fluid in some
degree—then an important goal for the pedagogic profession is to
seek ways in which the sense of plausibility in as many teachers as
possible can be helped to remain as alive as possible, though
necessarily in varied forms. It is true that the ongoing activity of
teaching is itself a source of continual influence on a teacher’s sense
of plausibility, thus helping to keep it alive, but we have noted how
the ongoing activity of teaching is, at the same time, subject to
varied pressures of routinisation, which can have a deadening effect
on the sense of plausibility. A second source of influence on the
sense of plausibility—perhaps the most important one outside the
classroom—is interaction between different senses of plausibility.
This interaction can arise from an articulation and discussion among
teachers of one another’s pedagogic perceptions, from professional
reading or writing, and in other, more or less formal, ways.
A specialist-level debate between different methods is, in fact, an
interaction between different senses of plausibility, seeking to exert
an influence on all those who participate in it (more or less overtly)
through a process of sharing, sharpening, strengthening, weakening,
changing, or helping to develop further the different forms of
understanding involved. A specialist who advocates a method is on
the same footing as a teacher who operates with a sense of plausibility,
except that the specialist can be said to have achieved fuller and
more communicable articulation of a particular sense of plausibility,
perhaps in the course of wider (or longer or more intensive)
interaction with other similarly well-articulated perceptions. If
ossification is less likely to occur at the specialist’s level, it is only to
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15. the extent that the specialist has more of a commitment to
professional interaction and is more continually engaged in
exploring and articulating some sense of plausibility. The resulting
well-developed and well-articulated senses of plausibility (that is to
say, methods) have value not as desirable replacements for many
teachers’ senses of plausibility but for what may be called their
power to influence—to invoke, activate, interact with, alter in some
way, and generally keep alive—different teachers’ differing senses
of plausibility, thus helping to promote and enlarge the occurrence
of “real” teaching. A method, from this point of view, is not good or
bad in any objective sense, but has more or less pedagogic power to
influence teachers’ subjective understanding of teaching; and
debates between different methods are important for the profession
because they help to give expression and opportunity to the
pedagogic power of different methods.
CONCLUSION
To summarise, if we regard our professional effort as a search for
the best method which, when found, will replace all other methods,
we may not only be working toward an unrealizable goal but, in the
process, be misconstruing the nature of teaching as a set of
procedures that can by themselves carry a guarantee of learning
outcomes. To say that the best method, in this sense, varies from
one teaching context to another does not help because it still leaves
us with a search for the best method for any specific teaching
context. To say that there is some truth to every method does not
help either, because it still does not tell us which part of which
method is true. Objective method evaluation has either to assume
that methods have value for learning independent of teachers’ and
students’ subjective understanding of them, thus perpetuating an
unrealizable goal and reinforcing the misconstruction of pedagogy,
or to try to take into account teachers’ subjective understanding of
teaching, thus ceasing to be objectively evaluative. If, on the other
hand, we view teaching as an activity whose value depends
centrally on whether it is informed or uninformed by the teacher’s
subjective sense of plausibility—on the degree to which it is “real”
or mechanical—it becomes a worthwhile goal for our professional
effort to help activate and develop teachers’ varied senses of plausibility.
A method is seen simply as a highly developed and highly
articulated sense of plausibility, with a certain power to influence
other specialists’ or teachers’ perceptions. Perhaps the best method
varies from one teacher to another, but only in the sense that it
is best for each teacher to operate with his or her own sense of
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16. plausibility at any given time. There may be some truth to each
method, but only in so far as each method may operate as one or
another teacher’s sense of plausibility, promoting the most learning
that can be promoted by that teacher. The search for an inherently
best method should perhaps give way to a search for ways in which
teachers’ and specialists’ pedagogic perceptions can most widely
interact with one another, so that teaching can become most widely
and maximally real.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
A version of this paper was presented as a plenary address to the 23rd annual
meeting of the International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language
(IATEFL) held in Coventry, England, April 1989.
THE AUTHOR
N. S. Prabhu teaches applied linguistics at the National University of Singapore.
His earlier work in India included the development of task-based language
teaching and the concept of a procedural syllabus, in the context of what is
generally known as the Bangalore Project.
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