Karl Marx developed Marxism, which views society as based on conflict rather than consensus. Marx argued that economic factors are most important, and that inequality inevitably develops once a society moves beyond subsistence and produces a surplus. This leads to the formation of two main social classes - the bourgeoisie who control production, and the proletariat who must work for wages. Ideological state apparatuses like education and religion socialize people into accepting inequality as normal through a false consciousness, masking the true conflict between classes. Marx predicted this would lead to revolution and communism, but this has not occurred as predicted. Marxism faces criticisms including that revolution did not happen as predicted.

1. MARXISM
Marxism is a structural, conflict theory.
Background
Marxism is a theory about society that has developed from the work of Karl Marx.
He lived from 1818 to 1883, so he was writing before Durkheim, but his ideas only
started to seriously challenge functionalism after the 1950s, when people started
to think that he had a better explanation for what was happening in society than
the functionalists.
Marx was also influenced by developments in the natural sciences and believed it
was possible to create a science of society. He shared some functionalist ideas. He
agreed that there were social forces that structured behaviour and that people
were socialised into norms and values.
Where he differed was in his belief that society was based on conflict not
consensus, and that the socialisation process worked to make inequality seem
normal and acceptable.
Conflict Theory
Read the following story:
Imagine the following scenario. It is early morning in a Latin American country. A group of
agricultural labourers, both men and women, are waiting by a roadside for a bus to arrive
to drive them to work. Suddenly two vans draw up and four hooded men jump out. At
gunpoint they order the labourers into the backs of the vans which then race away deep
into the surrounding countryside. At nightfall they are abandoned and the labourers
transferred into a large covered lorry. This is driven through the night deep into the
mountains. Before day-break it reaches its destination-a huge underground mine, built
deep into the heart of a mountain. Here the labourers are horrified to find a vast army of
slaves toiling away, under constant surveillance by brutal guards. After being given a
meagre meal, the labourers are forced to join this workforce.
As they live out their desperate lives within this mountain world, some of the slaves try to
escape. When caught they are publicly punished as a deterrent to the others. Two
attempts to escape result in public execution. As the labourers get older, they rely on
each other for companionship and their memories for comfort. They keep sane by
recounting stories of their former lives. In the fullness of time, children are born to them.
Their parents are careful to tell these children all about their past. As these children
grow up and have children of their own, they, too, are told these tales of their
grandparents’ land of lost content. But for them these are handed-down historical
stories, not tales based on experience.
As the years go by, though the facts of life within the mountain remain the same, the
perception of life in it by the participants alters. By the time five or six generations of
slaves have been born their knowledge of the world of their ancestors’ past lives has
become considerably dimmed. It is still talked about, sometimes. But by now it is a
misted world of fairy stories. All they know from experience is slavery. So far as any of
them can remember, they have always been slaves. In their world, slavery is ‘normal’. In
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2. effect, to be a slave has come to mean something very different for them from what it
had meant for their original ancestors.
A similar process occurs with the guards. As the view of themselves held by the slaves has
become altered over time, the necessity for naked force has become less and less. As,
through socialisation, the slaves have begun to see their subordination as normal, the
guards no longer brandish their guns and clubs. Because of this, they no longer see
themselves as the original guards had done. Both dominant and subordinate groups,
knowing nothing else, have, through socialisation, come to see the facts of the inequality
in their world in a very different light from its original inhabitants.
Though this story is rather larger than life, its telling does allow us to see the role of
socialisation into cultural rules as conflict theorists see it. Their argument is that we
must be careful not to dismiss the presence of conflict in societies just because a
consensus seems to prevail. Naked force is only necessary so long as people see
themselves as oppressed. If they can be persuaded that they are not oppressed or if they
fail to see that they are, then they can be willing architects in the design of their own
subordination. The easiest way to exercise power, and gain advantage as a result, is for
the dominated to be unaware of the fact of its existence.
This story shows us how Marxists see society. They see a lot of inequality that
people seem to accept because they see it as normal. Marx argued that people
had a false consciousness, a false sense of what was going on, and that this was
due to being socialised into thinking inequality was normal.
Marxist theory
For Marx the most important human activity is economic; the production of
material goods. Humans first have to produce food, drink, shelter before they do
anything else.
A simple society in which humans just produce enough to survive is called a
subsistence economy. Marx argues there is no inequality in a subsistence
economy because people are only just surviving. When people get themselves
organised and produce more efficiently, they find they can produce more than the
things they need for survival. They produce a surplus. Once they have a surplus,
decisions have to be made about what to do with it. Marx argues that at this point
inequality will, inevitably, start to develop.
Marx argued that in any economic system some people would gain control of
economic production so that they could keep the surplus for themselves. This
would result in the formation of two social classes. The dominant class who
controlled the economy he called the bourgeoisie (ruling class), and the
subordinate class who had to work for wages he called the proletariat (working
class). The relationship between the two classes would always be one of conflict.
This is because the bourgeoisie would want to keep wages low to maximise their
surplus, and the proletariat would want wages as high as possible.
This analysis applies to any economic system that has developed beyond
subsistence. The economic system that dominates today is capitalism. Capitalism
allows private individuals to make, and keep, as much surplus (profit) as they can.
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3. Marxists argue that this involves the exploitation of the work force, who have
little power to affect their wages and conditions of work.
So, why do the working class put up with it? This is where the story of the
‘slaves in the mountain’ fits in. Marx argues people are socialised into see
inequality as normal, and this really benefits the dominant class who are able to
maintain their advantages without being challenged.
How are people socialised into accepting inequality?
Marx sees the economy as the basis of society and calls it the infrastructure. He
sees all the other institutions of society, the political system, the education
system, the mass media, the family, religion, as developing out of the economic
system, and he calls these the superstructure.
It is the institutions of the superstructure that socialise people into accepting
inequality as normal.
The family teaches children to not expect to be equal. Children are subordinate
to their parents and learn this is normal.
The education system teaches pupils that some are better than others, and that if
they do not do well it is their fault; they are not very clever or they do not work
hard.
The mass media divert peoples’ attention away from inequality by making people
think that celebrities, football matches, sex, diets, music, are more important,
and what they should spend their time thinking and talking about.
Religion teaches people to accept their place in society and look forward to
rewards after death.
The political system encourages people to think they take part in the governing of
society when in fact they have no influence on the economically powerful.
All the ideas presented above that contribute to the belief that inequality is
normal and acceptable, are described as the ‘ideology of capitalism’. They are
ideas that justify and support capitalism. The institutions that produce these ideas
are known as ideological state apparatuses.
Marx did not believe this situation would go on forever.
He predicted that those people who controlled the economy would get richer and
richer. The working class, by comparison, would get poorer and poorer. At some
point the working class would realise what was happening. They would change
from a false consciousness to a class consciousness. Conscious of their exploited
class position they would start a revolution. They would over throw the dominant
class and set up a communist society, in which no private individual could control
economic production and keep the profits. Under communism all production is
owned and controlled by the government.
The weakest part of Marx’s theory is that the revolution has never happening, and
currently private enterprise and capitalism are going from strength to strength.
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4. CRITICISMS OF MARXISM
1. ‘No revolution’ criticism
The main criticism of Marx is mentioned above, and is the point that his
predicted revolution has not happened. Although those who control the
economy have become richer and richer, most of the working class in Western
industrial societies have become richer too. The class divisions that were clear
in Marx’s time are much less clear today, and a large middle class has now
developed between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Those societies that
have tried to follow communism have also not been successful., and have not
removed inequality.
2. Interactionist criticism
Marxism presents people as passive receivers of media messages.
Interactionists would argue that people reflect on the world that is presented
to them, and are aware of media manipulation. Secularisation (the decline of
religion) is also evidence that people make their own choices and do not
necessarily accept what they are told.
3. Feminist criticism
Like the functionalists, Marxists also ignore gender differences, and present
social class as the most important social division, not gender. Feminists
disagree with this.
4. Functionalist criticism
Functionalists disagree with Marxists because they see society as based on
consensus. They have a more optimistic and positive view of human society.
They focus on the good things that institutions provide for society as a whole.
5. Postmodern criticism
Postmodernists believe that Marxist analysis no longer describes society as a
whole. It may be useful for understanding parts of society, at certain times,
but it is not the general theory of how a society works, that Marx wanted it to
be.
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5. NOW fill in the answers to the following questions.
1. Who was the originator of Marxism
2. What did he think that society was based on?
3. What human activity has to come first before all others?
4. What is meant by a subsistence economy?
5. What is a surplus?
6. Who are the bourgeoisie?
7. Who are the proletariat?
8. Explain why these two social classes are in conflict with each other.
9. What is capitalism?
10.Why do Marxists think the working class are exploited?
11.According to Marxists what does the family teach people?
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6. 12.What does education teach people?
13.What does religion teach people?
14.Explain how the mass media supports inequality.
15.Explain how the political system encourages people to think they have
influence in society.
16.What is the ideology of capitalism?
17. What is false consciousness?
18. What is class consciousness?
19. What is communism?
20.Identify 5 criticisms of Marxism
A
B
C
D
E
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7. 12.What does education teach people?
13.What does religion teach people?
14.Explain how the mass media supports inequality.
15.Explain how the political system encourages people to think they have
influence in society.
16.What is the ideology of capitalism?
17. What is false consciousness?
18. What is class consciousness?
19. What is communism?
20.Identify 5 criticisms of Marxism
A
B
C
D
E
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