Vladimir Propp identified 31 narrative functions that are commonly found across fairy tales and other narratives. These functions involve character types like the hero, villain, donor, and princess. Propp also analyzed the typical sequence of events, such as the hero leaving home, receiving help, engaging in combat with the villain, and being rewarded at the end. His work established that certain character types and plot structures tend to recur across different stories.

1. Narrative Theory
Tzvetan Todorov
Todorov’s narrativetheory basically states that moststory's or plot lines
follow the same pattern or path. There are 5 steps in this pattern:
Equilibrium
The firstpart of the story will display a happy start, where the majority of
characters are content and everything is as it should be. So in the Simpsons
Movie, in the firstpart, everything is normal and Homer is justdoing chores
Disequilibrium
The second partof the story will feature a problem or something will
disruptthe happiness. In theSimpsons, it begins when Homer saves a pig.
Realisation
This partof the plot is when everyonerealises the problemand it is chaos.
So, the Simpsons arekicked out of Springfield and forced to move to Alaska
RestoredOrder
This partof the plot is when the characters attempt to repair the damage
and restorethe problem. So, the Simpsons go back and saveSpringfield
New Equilibrium
This is the final part of the plot wherethe problem is resolved and
normality can resume again. So, the dome is blown up and everyoneis free

2. Levi Strauss
Strauss believed that the way we understand certain words depends not so
much on any meaning they themselves directly contain, but much more by
our understanding of the difference between the word and its 'opposite'or,
as he called it 'binary opposites'
Examples
Our understanding of the word "villain" depends on the difference between
that word and the opposing word "hero". Within the media field, binary
oppositions are used very frequently in films, especially in the horror genre.
Many horror films include sets of binary oppositions in their plots.
Particularly good and evil, saneand insane, rational and irrational and
human and supernatural
History of binary opposites
Binary opposites used to be very simple and easy to spotin films, such as
good VS bad in traditional fighting films. However in recent years they have
become more complex and unusual. For example, the recent twilight films
have had a complicated plot in slowly revealing vampires VS werewolves,
and this binary oppositeis difficult to spotin the firstfilm.
Another example
Harry is constantly seen as the ‘good’ guy in the films Harry Potter and he
has always been wanted dead by Voldemort who is seen as the ‘evil’ guy
throughoutthe film. The image to the right is very effective as it expresses
the binary oppositeclearly to the audience. Voldemort also looks very scary
which helps disguisethat he is the bad guy. This split image is also effective
in the Twilight picture on the recent slide. Itcould also be innocence VS
corrupted and young VS old

3. Roland Barthes
Linguist Roland Barthes described Five Codes which are woven into
any narrative:
The Hermeneutic Code
The Hermeneutic Code refers to any element of the story that is not fully
explained and hence becomes a mystery to the reader.
The purposeof the author in this is typically to keep the audience guessing,
arresting the enigma, until the final scenes when all is revealed and all
loose ends are tied off and closure is achieved.
The Proairetic Code /Actioncode
The Proairetic Code also builds tension, referring to any other action or
event that indicates something else is going to happen, and which hence
gets the reader guessing as to what will happen next.
The Hermeneutic and Proairetic Codes work as a pair to develop the story's
tensions and keep the reader interested. Barthes described them as:
"...dependenton ... two sequential codes: the revelation of truth and the
coordination of the actions represented: there is the same constraintin the
gradualorder of melody and in the equally gradualorder of the narrative
sequence."
The Semantic Code
This code refers to connotation within the story that gives additional
meaning over the basic denotative meaning of the word.
Itis by the use of extended meaning that can be applied to words that
authors can paint rich pictures with relatively limited text and the way they
do this is a common indication of their writing skills.
The Symbolic Code
This is very similar to the Semantic Code, but acts at a wider level,
organizing semantic meanings into broader and deeper sets of meaning.

4. This is typically done in the useof antithesis, where new meaning arises
out of opposing and conflict ideas.
The Cultural Code
This code refers to anything that is founded on somekind of canonical
works thatcannot be challenged and is assumed to be a foundation for
truth.
In terms of Music Video
Barthes’ Enigma Hermeneutic Code can be found in a majority of music
videos.
The narrative will establish enigmas (puzzling imagery or occurrences) or
mysteries as it goes along.
Essentially the narrativefunctions to firstestablish then solve.
Vladimir Propp: Character theory and narrative structure
Who was Vladimir Propp?
Vladimir Propp was a literary critic and a scholar who founded the idea that
a certain type of character was to be used in every narrativestructure. His
theory has influenced many filmmakers to writing and producing successful
narratives. Propp also suggested that all fairy tales follow a specific
narrativestructure.
Propp's Narrative Functions
These 31 functions are as follows:
1. A member of a family leaves home (the hero is introduced as a
unique person within the tribe, whoseneeds may not be met by
remaining)
2. An interdiction (a command NOTto do something e.g.'don't go
there', 'go to this place'), is addressed to the hero;

5. 3. The hero ignores the interdiction
4. The villain appears and (either villain tries to find the children/jewels
etc; or intended victim encounters the villain)
5. The villain gains information about the victim;
6. The villain attempts to deceive the victim to take possession of victim
or victim's belongings (trickery; villain disguised, tries to win
confidence of victim);
7. The victim is fooled by the villain, unwittingly helps the enemy;
8. Villain causes harm/injury to family/tribe member (by abduction,
theft of magical agent, spoiling crops, plunders in other forms, causes
a disappearance, expels someone, casts spell on someone,
substitutes child etc, commits murder, imprisons/detains someone,
threatens forced marriage, provides nightly torments); Alternatively,
a member of family lacks something or desires something (magical
potion etc);
9. Misfortuneor lack is made known, (hero is dispatched, hears call for
help etc/ alternative is that victimised hero is sent away, freed from
imprisonment);
10. Seeker agrees to, or decides upon counter-action;
11. Hero leaves home;
12. Hero is tested, interrogated, attacked etc, preparing the way
for his/her receiving magical agent or helper (donor)
13. Hero reacts to actions of futuredonor (withstands/fails the
test, frees captive, reconciles disputants, performs service, uses
adversary's powersagainstthem);
14. Hero acquires useof a magical agent (it's directly transferred,
located, purchased, prepared, spontaneously appears, is
eaten/drunk, or offered by other characters);

6. 15. Hero is transferred, delivered or led to whereabouts of an
object of the search;
16. Hero and villain join in direct combat;
17. Hero is branded (wounded/marked, receives ring or scarf)
18. Villain is defeated (killed in combat, defeated in contest, killed
while asleep, banished)
19. Initial misfortuneor lack is resolved (objectof search
distributed, spell broken, slain person revived, captive freed)
20. Hero returns
21. Hero is pursued (pursuer tries to kill, eat, underminethe hero)
22. Hero is rescued from pursuit(obstacles delay pursuer, hero
hides or is hidden, hero transforms unrecognisably, hero saved from
attempt on his/her life)
23. Hero unrecognised, arrives homeor in another country
24. False hero presents unfounded claims
25. Difficult task proposed to the hero (trial by ordeal, riddles, test
of strength/endurance, other tasks);
26. Task is resolved
27. Hero is recognised (by mark, brand, or thing given to him/her)
28. False hero or villain is exposed
29. Hero is given a new appearance(is made whole, handsome,
new garments etc)
30. Villain is punished
31. Hero marries and ascends the throne (is rewarded/promoted).

7. Although the plot is driven by the actions and choices of the hero (the
protagonist), thesenarrative functions are spread between the main
characters. Propp also defined these character categories:
● the villain, who struggles with the hero (formally known as the
antagonist)
● the donor,
● the helper,
● the Princess, a sought-for person (and/or her father), who exists as a
goal and often recognizes and marries hero and/or punishes villain
● the dispatcher,
● the hero, who departs on a search (seeker-hero), reacts to the donor
and weds
● the falsehero (or antihero or usurper), who claims to be the hero,
often seeking and reacting like a real hero (ie by trying to marry the
princess)
sources
https://www.slideshare.net/Katrinabrookes/todorovs-narrative-theory-24244633
https://www.slideshare.net/laurenminns/strauss-binary-opposites
https://www.slideshare.net/07anghwilk/barthes-enigma-code-26664459
http://www.mediaknowall.com/as_alevel/alevkeyconcepts/alevelkeycon.php?page
ID=propp