This document summarizes three methods of scientific study: 1) The method of the ruling theory, where a single theory comes to dominate investigation and interpretation due to the affection of its creator. 2) The method of the working hypothesis, an improvement but still prone to becoming a controlling idea. 3) The method of multiple working hypotheses, which aims to consider multiple explanations for phenomena to avoid partiality towards any single hypothesis. Developing a "family" of hypotheses circumvents the dangers of parental affection for a favorite theory.

1. #
As metho<js of stucly constitt¡te the
leading thenle of our session, I have
chosen as a subject in measurable con-
sonance the nrethod of nrultiple work-
ing hypotheses in its application to
invesügation, instruction, and citizen-
ship.
'llhere are two fundanrental classes
of study. The one consists in attemPt.
ing to follow by close imitation the
processes of previous thinkers, or to
acquire by memorizing the results of
their investigations. It is merely sec-
ondary, imitative, or acquisitive study.
The other class is prinrary or creative
study. In it the effort is to think in-
depcndently, or at teast individually, in
the endeavor to discover new truth,
or to make new conrbinations of truth,
or at least to develop an individualized
aggregation of truth. The endeavor is
to think for one's self, whether the
thinking lies wholly in the fields of
previous thought or not. It is not neces-
sary to this habit of study that the sub-
ject-material should be new; but the
process of thought and its results must
be individual and independent,.not the
merq following of previous lines of
thought ending in predetermined re-
sults; The demonslration' of a problem
ru prcsldcnt of tho Unlvcrslty of Wlsconsln rt
tlo tlmo thls lccturo weg wrlttcn. L¡tcr hc was
ptofcssor'.nd dlrcctor of tho Wrtkcr Muscum of
tho Unlvcnlty ol Chlcego. In 1893 ho foundcd
lho tou¡nal ol C¿ologlt, whlcÍ hc cd¡tcd un¡ll
hlr da¡th. In 1908 hc w¡3 prcaldc¡¡t ol tho áAAS.
Tho rrtlclo k rcprlntcd from Jcl¿¡ca (old ¡crlcs),
15, 92 (1890).
. Rcprlr¡tr of thls ¡rtlclc ¡ro rvoll¡btc.
Pflér¡ (cd!r¡ vlth ordcr),
,1
2to9
50 ccnt¡ (o¡ 25 ccnt¡ rnd rtrmpcd,
.¡clf-edd¡ctscd cnvclopc )
,15 ccnt¡ c¡ch
in Euclid precisely as laid down is an
illustration of the fornrer; the demon-
str¡rtion of the sanle proposition by a
method of one's own or in a manner
distinctively individual is an illustration
of the latter; both lying entirely within
the realnr of the known and the old.
Creative study, however, finds its
largest application in those subjects in
which, while nruch is known, nlore re-
nrains to be known. Such are the fields
which we, as naturalists, cultivate; and
we are gathered for the purpose of
developing inrproved nrethods lying
largely in the creative phase of study,
though not wholly so.
Intellectual nlethods have taken three
phases in the history of progress thus
far. What rnay be the evolutions of
the future it may not be prudent to
forecast. Naturally the nrethods we now
urge seem the highest attainable. These
three nrethods may be designated, first,
the nrethod of the rul,ing theory; sec-
ond, the nrethod of the working hypoth-
esis; and, third, rhe method of rnul-
tiple workin g hypotheses.
In the earlier days of intellectual de-
velopment the sphere bf knowledge
was linrited, and was more nearly with.
in the compass of a single individual;
and those who assumed to be wise
rnen,. or aspired to be thought so, felt
the need of knowing, or at least seem-
ing to koow, allrthat was known.as a
justiñcation of their claims. So, also,
there grew up an expectancy oo the
part of the multitude that the wise and
the Iearned would explain whatever
new thing'presentcd itself. Thus pride
and ambition on the pne hand, and
expectancy on the other, developed the
putative w¡se man whose knowledge
boxed the compass, and whose acumen
f-,1(At
^J
found gn explaoat¡on for eve¡y new
puzzle which presented itself. This dis-
position has propagated itself, and has
come down to our time as an intellec-
tual predilection, though the compass-
ing of the entire horizon of knowledge
has long since been an abandoned af-
fectation. As in the earlier days, so
still, it is the habit of some to hastily
conjure up an explanation for every
new phenomenon that presents itself.
Interpretation rushes to the forefront
as the chief obligation pressing upon
the putative wise man. Laudable as the
cffort at explanation is in itself,' it is
to be condemned when it runs. before
a ser¡ous inquiry into the phenomenon
its¿lf. A dominant disposition to, find
out ir¡hat is, should precede and crowd
aside the question, commendable at a
¡ater stage, "How came this so?" Firsr
full facts, then interpretations.
Prcmature Theorics
The habit of precipitate explanat¡oo
leads rapidly on to the development of
tentative theories. The explanation of-
fered for a given phenonrenon is nat-
urally, under the impulse of self-con-
sistency,, offered for like phenornena as
they present themselves, and there is
soon developed a general theory ex-
planatory of a large class of phenom-
ena sinrilar to the ori!inal one' This
general theory may not be supported
by any further considerations than
those which were involved in the first
hasty inspection. For a tirne it is likely
to be held in a tentative way with a
measure of candor. With this tentative
spirit ond measurable candor, the mind
satisfies its moral'sense, and deceives
itself'with the thought that it is pro-
ceeding caut¡ously and irnparüally to-
ward the goal of ultiniate truth. It
fails to recognize that no amount of
provisional holding of a theory' so long
as the view is limited 8nd the investi-
gation partial, justiEes an ultimate con-
viction. It is not the slowness with
which conclusions are arrived at that
should give satisfaction to th¿ moral
sense, but the thoroughness' the com-
pleteness, the all-sidedness' the ,imPar-
tiality, of the invcstigation.
It is in this tentaüve stage that the
sffections cnter with their blinding in-
fluebce. Lovc was long since reprcsent'
ed as blind, and what is true in thc
penonal realm is measurably tn¡e in
the intel¡cctual real¡ñ. Important a,s
il¡¡
ll
The Method of Multiple
Working Hypotheses
With this method the dangers of parental
affection for a favorite'theorv can be circumveirted.
T. C. Chamberlin
l0 to 24 30 cc¡B crch
25 or morc .20 ccnt¡ cach
Addrc¡¡ ordcr¡ to AAAS, Ch¡mbcrlln Reprlntr,
1515 Mr¡¡rchr¡scttr Avc.. NW, Werhlngton, D.C.
20005.
751
':'
sc¡ENCE vof- l1E

2. the intellectual affections are as stimuli
and as rewards, they are nevertheless
dangerous factors, which menace the
integrity of the intellectual processes.
The moment one has offered an origi-
nal explanation for a phenomenon
which seents satisfactory, that nlonlent
affection for his intellectual child
springs into existence; and as the ex-
planation grows into a definite theory,
his parental aflections cluster about his
intellectual offspring, and it grows nrore
and nrore dear to him, so that, while
he holds it seenringly tentative, it- is
still lovingly tentative, and not inr-
partially tentative. So soon as this pa-
rental affection takes possession of the
rirínd, there is a rapitJ passagc ro the
adoption of the theory. Tlere is an
unconscious selection and nragnifying
of the phenonrena thar fall into har-
mony with the theory and support it,
and an unconscious neglecr of those
that fail of coincidence.' The nrind
.lingers with pleasure upon the facts
that fall happily into the erlbrace of
the theory, and feels a natural cold-
ness toward those that scenr refractory.
Instinctively there is a spccial search-
ing-out of phenomena that support it,
for thc nlind is led by its dcsíccs.
There springs rrp, also, an unconscious
pressing of the theory to nlake it fit
the facts, and a pressíng of thc facts
lo nrake thenr fit thc theory. Whcn
these biasing tendencies set ín, the nlincl
rapídly degcnerates into rhc partiality
of paternalisnl. The search for facts,
the observation of phenontcna ancl
their interpretation, are all donrinatecl
by affcction'for the favored rhcory un-
lil it appears to i(s author or its actvo-
cate to have been overwhelnringly es-
t¡blished. The theory then rapidly rises
to the ruling position, and.investiga-
tion, observation, an<J interpretation nre
controlled and .directed by it. Fronr
an unduly favorcd child, it readily be-
comes master, and leads its nu-
thor whithersoever it will. The subse-
.
quent history-/óf that nrind in respect
to that thenre. is but the prog¡essive
donrinance of a ruling irJea.
Briefly sumnled up, the evolution is
this:. a premature explanation passes
into a teniative théory, then into an
adopted theory, and'then into a ruling
theory.
When the last stage has been
rerched, unless the theory happens,
perchance, to be the true one, all hope
of the best results is gone. To bc sure,
truth nray be brought forth by an in-
? MAY t96'
Thomas Chrowdcr Chambcrlin was no(cd
for his contribtr(ions to glaciology and for
his part in formr¡latíng thc Chamberlin-
Moulton (planetcsinral) hypothesis of thc
origin of thc c¡rth.
vestigator donrinated by a false ruling
iden. His very errors nray indeed stinru-
late investigation on the part of oth-
crs. But the condition is an unfortu-
nate one. Dust and chaff are nringle<J
with thc grain ¡n what shot¡ld be a
winnowíng process.
Ruling Thcorics Lingcr
As previously inrplied, the n¡ethod of '
thc ruling theory occupied a chief
placc during the infancy of investign-
tion. It is an exprcssion of the natural
infantile tendencies of the nrind, though
in'this casc applicd to its highcr ac-
tivitíes, for in the earlier stages of dc-
vctopnrent the fcelings are relativcly
Srcater than in later stages.
Unfor(unately ¡t did not wholly pass
arlvay with Íhe infuncy of investigrtion,
but has lingercd along in individuat in-
stances to the present day, and ñnds
illustration in universully learnéd nrcn '
.ancl pseudo-scientists of our tinré,
The defects of the methocl are obvi-
ous, and its errors great. If I were to
nanie the centr¡l psychological fault, I'
should say that it was the admission
of intellectual aflection to the placc
that should be'dominated by impartial
intellectual rectitude..
So long as intellectual intcrcst dealt'
chiefly with the intangible, so long it
was lrossiblc for this habit of thought
to survive, and to nraintain its domi-
nance, because the phenomena tirem-
selvcs, being largely subjective, were
plastic in the hands of the ruling idea;
but so soon as investigation turned it-
self earnestly to an inquiry into nat-
ural phenonrena, whose nranifestationi
are tangíble, whose properties are
rigid, whose laws are rigorous, the de-
fccts of the nlethod became nranifest,
and an effort at reformation ensuecl.
The first great eodeavor was repres-
sive. The advocates of reform insisted
that theorizing should be restrained,
and efforts directed to the simple de-
tcrnrination of facts. The effort was to
nrake scientific study factitious instead
of causal. Because theorizing in narrow
Iines had ied to manifest evils, theorizing
was to be condenrned. The refornlation
urged was not the proper control and
utilization of theoretical effort, but its
suppression. We do not need to go
backward nrore than twenty years to
find ourselves in the nridst of this at-
tenlpted reformation. Its weakness lay
ín its narrowness and its restrictive-
ness. There ís no nobler aspiration
of the human intellect than desire to
conrpass the cause of things. The dis-
positíon to find explanations and to
develop theories is laudable in itself.
It is only its ill use that is reprehensi-
blc. The vitality of study quickly dis-
appcars when the object sought is a
nrere collocation of dead unnreaning.
facts.
The inefficicncy of this sir':rply re-
pressive refornlation becomíng . appar'
cnt, improven¡ent was sought in the
n¡e(hod of the working hypothesis.
.Thi! is affirnrerj to ,be tlte sc¡entific
nrcthod of the day, but to thís I take
cxception. The working hypothesis dif-
fcrs from the ruling theory in that it
is used ?s a .means of , detcrnlin¡ng
facts, and has for its chief function
the suggestíon of lines of inquiry; the
inquiry being nrade, not for the sake
of thc hypothesis, but for 'the
sake of
facts. Under the method' of the rul-
ing theory, the stimulus was directed
Lo the finding of facts for the support
of the theory. Vnder the working
hypothesis, the facts are sought for
thc purpose of ultirnate inducüon and
demonstration, the .hypothesis being
but a rneans for ihc more readY de-
velopnrent of facts and of thcir rcla-
tions, and the arrangement and Prcscr- .'
'vat¡on of matcrial for thc 6nal in-
duction.
' It will bc observcd that thc distinc-
' 755

3. 'tioa is not a sharP one, and that a
working hypothesis may with the ut'
most ease degenerate into a ruling
theory. Affection n¡ay as easily cling
about an hypothesis as about a the-
ory, and the demonstration of the
one may become a ruling Passion as
nruch as of the other.
A Family of Hypotheses
Cooscientiously followed, the meth-
od of the working hYpothesis is a
marked improvement upon the nrethod
of the ruling theory; but it has its de'
fects--defects Vhich are perhaps best
expressed by the ease with which the
hypothesis becomes a controlling idea'
To guard against this, the method of
multiple working hypotheses is urged.
It differs fronr the fornrer nrethod in
the multiple character of its ,genetic
conceptions aod of its tentative inter-
pretations. It is directed against the
radical defect of the two other nreth-
ods; namely, the partiality of intellec-
tual parentage. The eftort is to bring
up into view every rational explana-
tion of new phenomena, and to de-
velop every tenable hypothesís respect-
ing their cause and history. The in-
vestigator thus becomes the parent of
a family of hypotheses: and, by his
parental relation to all, he is forbidden
to fasten his affections uoduly upon
aoy ooe. In the nature of the case, the
danger that springs from affection is
counteracted, and therein is a radical
differenée betweeo this nrethod and the
two preceding. The investigator at the
outset puts himself in .cordial sympathy
and in parental relations (of adoption,
if not of authorship) with' every hy-
pothesis that is at all applicable to the
cajse under investigation. Having thus
neut¡alized the partialities of his emo-
tional nature, he proceeds with a cer-
tain natural and enforced erectness of
mental attitude tg the investigation,
knowing well thát some of his in-
tellectu¡l children will die before ma-
turity, yet feeling that several of them
may survive the results of final in-
vestigation, since it is .often the out-
corne of inquiry that several. causes
arc fouod to be involved instead of a
single one. In following a aingle hy-
pothesis, the mind is presumably led
to a single explanatory conception. But
aa adequate explanation often involves
the co-ordination of several agencies,
which enter into the combined result
756
in varying proportionS. The true ex'
ptanation is therefore necessarily com-
plex. Such complex explanations of
phenomena are specially encouraged by
the method of ntultiple hypotheses'
and constitute one of its chief merits.
We are so Prone to attribute a Phe'
nornenon to a single cause, that, when
we find an Bgency Present' we are lia-
ble to rest satisfied therewith, and fail
to r""ogni"" that it is but one factor,
and perchance a minor factor, in the
accomplishment of the total result.
Take for illustration the nlooted ques'
tion of the origin of the Creat I¡ke
basins. We have this, that, and the
other hypothesis urged by different stu'
dents as the cause of these great ex'
cavations; and all of these are urged
with force and with fact, urged justly
to a certain degree. It is practically
denronstrable that these basins were
river-valleys antecedent to the glacial
incursion, and that they owe their ori-
gin in part to the pre-existence of those
valleys and to the blocking-up of their
outlets. And so this view of their origin
is' urged with a certain truthfulness.
So, again, it is denronstrable that lhey
were occupied by great lobes of ice,
which excavated thenr to a nrarked
degree, and therefore the theorY of
glacial excavation finds support in fact,
I think it is furthernrore demonstrable
that the earth's crust beneath these
basins was flexed downward, and that
they owe a part of their origin to
crust deformation. But to mY judg-
ment neither the one nor the other,
nor the thir<J, constitutes an adequate
explanation of the phenonrena. All
these nrust be taken together, and pos-
sibly they nrust be supplenrented by
other agcncies. The problem, there-
fore, is the determination not only of
the pnrticipation, but of the measure
and 'the extent, of cach of these agen-
cies in the production of the complex
result. This is not. likely to be ac-
complished by one whose working hy-
pothesis is pre-glacial erosion, or gla-'
cial erosion, or cruit deformation, but
by one whose staff of iworking hY-
potheses embraces all of these and auy
other agency which can be rationally
conceived to have taken part i¡ the
phenomena.
A special merit of the rnethod is'
that by its very nature it Promotes
thoroughness. The value of a working
hypothesis lies largely in its suggestive-
ness of lines of inquiry that might
otherwise be overlooked. Facts that are
trivial in themselves are brought into
significance by their bearings upon
the hypothesis, and by their causal in-
dications. As an illustration, it is only
necessary to cite the phenomenal in-
fluence which the Darwinian hypothe-
sis has exerted upon the investigations
of the past two decades. But a single
working hypothesis may lead investiga-
tion along a givcn line to the neglect of
others equallY imPortant; and thus,
while inquiry is promoted in certain
quarters, the iovestigation lacks in
completeness. But if all rational hy-
potheses relating to a subject. are
worked co-equally, thoroughness is the
presuntptive result, in the very nature
of the case.
In the use of the multiPle method,
the re-action of one hypothesis upon
another tends to amplify the recog-
nized scope of each, and their mutual
conflicts whet the discrimisative edge
of each. The analytic process' the de'
velopntent and demonstration of crite-
ria, and the sharpening of discrimina-
tion, receive powerful impulse fronr
the co-ordinate working of several
hypotheses.
Fertility in processes is also the natu-
ral outcome of the method. Each
hypothesis suggests its own cr¡teria,
its own means of proof, its own meth-
ods of developing the truth; and if a
group of hYpotheses encomPass the
subject on all sides, the total outcon'te
of means and of methods is full and
rich.
The use of the method leads to cer-
taio peculiar habits of mind which
deservc passing notice, since as a fac-
tor of education its disciplinary value
is one of importance. When faithfully
pursued for a period of Years, ¡t de-
velops a habit of thought analogous to
the method itself,.wbich may be des-
ignated a habit of paratlel or complex
thought. Iqstead of a simple succes-
sion of thoughts in linear order,. the
procedure is complex, and the mind
appears to become posiessed of the
power of si¡nultaneous vision from dif-
ferent standpoints. Phenomena appear
to become capable of being. viewed
analytically aud cynthetically at once.
It is not altogether unlike the etudy
of a 'landscape, from which there
comes into üc mind myriads of lines
of intelligencg which are re¡¡ived and
co-ordi¡ated simultsneor¡sly, producing
a complei lmpression which ¡s re-
corded and studied direcüy in lts com-
plcxity. My description of this Process
.:... . SC¡ENCE, VOL f¿|8

4. T. C. Chamberlin published two papers under the title of "The nrethod of multiple working
hypotheses." One of these papers, first published in the Journol of Geology in L897, was quoted
by John R. Platt in his recent article "Strong inference" (Science, ló Oct. L964). Platt wrote:
"This charmingi paper deserves to be reprinted." Several readers, having had difficulry obtain-
ing copies of Chamberlin's paper, expressed agi reernent with Platt. One wrote that the article
had been reprinted in the Journal of Geology in 1931 and in the Scieúifrc Monthly in Novem-
ber 1944. Anothei sent us a photocopy. Several pronths later still another wrote that the fnsti-
tute for Ffurnane Studies (Stanford, Calif.) had reprinted the article in pamphlet forrn this year.
On consultin( the 1897 version, we found a footnote in which Chanrberlin had written: "A paper
on this subject i¡¡as read before the Society of 'Western Naturalists in 1892, and was published in
a scientific peribdical." Library research revealed that "a scientific periodical" was Science it-
self, .for 7 February 1890, and that Cha¡rrberlin had actually read the paper before the Society
of 'Western Naturalists on 25 October 1889. The chief difference between the 1890 text and the
1897 text is that, as Cha¡¡rberlin'rvrote in lB97: "Tl'¡e article has been freely altered and abbrevi-
ated so as to limit it to aspects related to geologiical study." The 1890 text, rvhioh seems to be
the ñrst and rnost gerreral version of "The nrethod of nrultiple rvorking hypotheses," is reprinted
here. Typo¿iraphical errors have beeu corrected, and subheadinls have been added.
is confessedly inadcquatc, and the af-
firnration of it as a fact rvould doubt-
less challenge dispute at the hands of
psychologists of the olcl school; but I
address myself to naturalisrs who I
think can respond to its verify fronr
their own experience.
Drarvbacks of tl¡e Method
The nrethod has, howevcr, its dis-
advantages. No good thing is without
its drawbacks; and this 'vcry habit of
nrind, while an invaluable acquisition
for purposes of investigation, intro-
duces difficulties in exprcssion. It is
obvious, upon considerat¡on, that this
nrethod of thought . is inrpossiblc of
vcrbal expression. We cannot put into
words more than a single line of
thought at the same lime; and evcn in
that tbe order of expression ntust be
confoimed to the idiosyncrasíe! 'of the
language, and the raté nluit be rela-
tively slow. When the habit of eómplex
thought is not highly developed, there
is usually a leaüng line to which bthers
are subordinafi and the 'difficulty of
expression does not rise to serious pro-
portions; but when the method of
simultaneous vision along different
Iines is developed so .that the thoughts
nrnning in differenf channels are
ncarly cquiúalent, there is an obvious
embarrassment in selection and a dis-.
lnclination to make the attempt. Fur-
thcrmore, the impossibility of cxpres-
'ing thc mcntal opcration ln.words'lcads
to thcir disuso in thc ¡ilent proccss of
? MiY te65
thought, ancl hcncc words and thoughts
losc that close association which they
are accustonred to nraintain with those
rvhose silent as rvell as spoken thoughts
n¡n in linear verbal courscs. There is
therefore a certa¡n predisposition on
the part of thc practitioner of this
nlethod to tacíturnity.
We encounter an analogous dim-
culty in the use of the method with
young students. It is far easíer, and I
think in general more interesting, for
thenr to argue a theory or accept a
simple intérpretation than to rccognize
and evaluate the several factors which
the true elucidation may require. To
illustrate: it is n¡ore to their taste to
be taught lhat the Great Lake basíns
were scoopcd out by glaciers .th¡o to
be urged to conceive of thrce or nlore
great agencies working successively or
sinrullaneously, and to est¡mate how
nruch was occonrplished by each of
these agencies. The complcx and the
quantitative do not fascinate the young
student as they do the veternn invcsti-
gator.
Multiple Hypothescs ond
Practic¡l Affairs
affairs thenlselves. I refer especinlly to
those inquiries and inspections that pre-
cede the conring-out of an enterprise
ra(her than to its actual execution. The
nrethods that are superior in scientific
investigation should likewise be su-
pcrior in those invcstigatiQns that are
the necessary antecedents to an in-
telligent conduct of affairs. But f can
drvell only briefiy. on this phase of
the subjsct.
In education, as in investigation, it
has bcen nruch the practice to work
a theory. The search for instructional
nrethods has often proceeded on the
presurnption that there is a definite
patent process through which all stu-
dents nright be put and conre out with
rcsutts of nraxímum exccllence; and
hence pedagogical inquiry in the past
has very largely concerned itself with
the inquiry, "What is the best nrethd?"
rather than with the inquiry, "V/hat
'are the spccial values of different
methods, snd what are their 'several
advantageous applicabilities in the var-
ied work of instruction?" The P85t
doctrine has bee'n largely the doctrine
of pedagogical . uniformitarianism. But
the facultieS hnd'functions of the mind
are almost, if not quite, as varied a¡
the proporties and fuuctions of nat-
It has not been ourrcustom to think ter: and it is pcrhaps not less absu¡d
of tl¡e method of working hypotheses to assume that any cpectffc method
as applicable to instruction or to tl¡e of instn¡ctional proccdure is more ef-
'practical affain of life. We have uzu-. fective tban all others, under any and
ally rcgarded it as but a method of . all circumstanccs, than to assumc that
scicncc. But I believc its application one principle of interprctation ls
to practlcal affalrs has a value co- equally applica.blc to all tho phenom-
ordinatc with thc importancc of thc cna of naturc. As thcrc ls an endless
1:,':

5. var¡ety of mental processes and combi-
natioos and an indefioite number of
orders o{ procedure, the advantage of
dlfferent methods under different con'
ditions is almost axiornatic. This being
granted, there is Presented to the
teacher the problem of selection and
of adaptation to meet the needs of
any specific issue that rnay present
itself. It is inrportan!, therefore, that
the teacher shall have in mind a full
array of possible conditions and states
of mind which maY be Presented, in
order that, when anY one of these
shall become an actual case, he maY
recognize it, and be readY for the
ernergency.
Just as the investigator arnred with
many working hYPotheses is nrore
likely to see the true nature and sig-
nificance of phenonrena when theY
' present thenrselves, so the instrttctor
equipped with a full panoPlY of hY-
potheses ready for application nlore
readily recognizes the actuality'of the
situatioo, more accurately nreasures its
significance, and more appropriately
applies the methods which the case
calls for.
The application of the nrethod of
multiple hypotheses to the va¡ied a f-
fairs of life is almost as Protean as
the phases of that life itself' but cer-
tain general aspects may be' taken as
typical of the whole' What I have just
said respecting the application of the
method to instruction may apply, with
a simple change of ternrs, to alnlost
any other endeavor which we are
called uPon to undertake' We enter
upon an enterprise in nrost cases with-
out futl knowledge of all the factors
that will enter into it, or all of the
possible phases which it nray develop'
It is therefore of the utmost impor-
tance to be prepared to rightly conlPre-
hend the nature, bearings, and influ-
' ence of such unforeseen elements when
they shall definitely Present thenrselves
as actualities. If our vision is nat-
rowed bY a Preconceived theory as to
what will happe¡/ we are alnrost cer-
' tain to misinterpret the facts and to
misjudge the issue. If, on' the other
hand, we have in mind hYPothetical
forecasts of the various contingencies
that maY arise, we shall be the more
likelY to recognize the true facts
when they do present themselves. In'
stesd of being biased by the anticipa-
üon of .a given phase, the mind is
rendered open and alert by the anti-
cipation .of any one of manY Phases,
and is free not only, but is predisposed,
to recognize correctly the one which
does appear. The method has a further
good effect. The mind, having antici-
pated the possible phases which may
arise, has prepared itself for action
under any one that rnay come uP, and
it is therefore ready-armed, and is pre'
disposed to act in the line appropriate
to the event. It has not set itself rigidly
in a fixed purPose, which it is Pre-
disposed to follow without regard to
contingencies. It has not nailed down
the helm and predeternrined to run a
specific course, whether rocks lie in
the path or not; but, with the helm
in hand, it is readY to veer the shiP
according as danger or advantage tlis-
covers itself,
It is true, there are often advantages
in pursuing a fixed Predetermined
course rvithout regard lo obstacles or
adverse conditions. Simple dogged res'
olution is sonretinres. the salvation of
an enterprise; but, while glorious sttc'
cesses have been thus snatched fronl
the very brink of disaster, overwhelm-
ing calamity has in other cases fol-
lowecl upon tltis course, when a rea-
sonable regard for the unanticiPated
elenrents would have led to success.
So there is (o be set over against the
great achievements that follow on
dogged adherence great disasters which
are equally its result,
Dangcr of Yacillalion
The tenclencY of the nrind, accus'
tonred to work through nlultiple hy-
potheses, is to sway to one line of pot-
i"y or another, according as the
balance of evidence shall incline' This
is the soul and essence of the method'
It is in general the true method. Never'
theless thbre is a danger that this yield'
ing to evidence may degenerate into
unwarranted vacillation. It is not al-
ways possible for the mind to balance
evidencc with exact equipoise, and to
determine, in the rnidst of the execu-
tion of an enterPrise, what is the
measure of probability on the one side
or.the other: and as difficulties Present
thenrsetves, there:is a danger of being
biased by them and of swerving from
the course that was reallY the true
one. Certain Iimitations are therefore
to be placed upon the application of
.the method, for it must be remembered
that a poorer line of policy consistcntly
adhered .to may bring better 'results
than a vacillation between better poli'
cies.
There is another and closely allied
danger in the aPPlication of the
method. In its highest development it
presumes a rnind supremely sensitive
to every grain of evidence. Like a pair
of delicately poised scales, every added
particle on the one side or the other
próduces its' effect in oscillation. But
such a pair of scales may be altogether
too sensi(ive to be .of practical value
in the rough affairs of life. The balances
of the exact chemist are too delicate
for the weighing-out of coarse com-
modities. Despatch maY be more im-
portant than accuracy. So it is possible
for the mind to be too much con-
cerned with the nice balancings of evi-
dence, and to oscillate too much and
too long in th9 endeavor to reach
exact results. It may be better, in the
gross affaírs of life, to be less precise
and more prompt. Quick decisions,
though they maY contain a grain of
error, are oftentimes better than pre-
cise decisions at the expense of time.
The method has a sPecial beneficent
application to our social and civic re-
lations. Into these relations there enter,
as great factors, our judgment of oth-
ers, our discernment of the nature of
their acts, and our interpretation of
their motives and purposes. The meth-'
od of nlultiple hypotheses, in its ap-
plication here, stands is decided con-.
trast to the method of the ruling
theory or of the simPle working
hypothesis. The prinritive habit is to
interpret the acts of others on the
basis of a theory' Childhood's uncon-
scious theory is that the good are good,
and the bad are bad. From the good
the child exPects nothing but good;
from the bad, nothing but bad' To ex-
pect a good act from the bad, or a
bad act fronr the good, is radically at
variance with childhood's rnental meth-
ods. Unfortunately in our 'social and
civic aftairs too many of our fellow-
citizens have never outgrown the rul-
ing theory of their childhood.
ManY have advanced a steP farther,
and emploY a . method analagous to
that of the working hypothesis' A cer-
tain presumption is made to attach to
the acts of their fellow-beings, and that
which they see is seen in the light of
that presumption, and that which they
construe is construed in the light of
that presumPtion. TheY do not go to
the lengths of childhood's method by
assuming positively that the good are
wholly good, and the bad wholly bad;
but there is a strong presumption in
their minds that he concerning whom
SCTENCS VoL 1,18

6. they have an ill opinion will act from
corresponding nrotivcs. It requires pos-
itive evidence to overthrow the influ.
cnce of thc working hypothesis.
The method of multiple hypotheses
assumes broadly that the acts of a
fellow-being may be diverse in their
nature, tbeir moves, their purposes,
and hence in their whole moral char-
acter; that they may be good though
the dominant character be bad; that
they may be bad though the dominant
character be good; that they may be
partly good and partly bad, as is the
fact in the greater nunrber of the
complex activities of a human being.
Under the method of multiple hypothe-
ses, it is the first effort of the mind to
see.truly what the act is, unbeclouded
by the presumption that this or that
has been done because it accords with
our ruling theory or our working
hypothesis. Assunring that acts of sinr-
ilar general aspect nray rcadily take
any one of sevcral differcnt phases,
the nrind is freer to see accurately
what has actually been done. So, again,
in our interpretations of nrotives ancl
purposes, the nlethod nssunres that
these nray have been any one of nrany,
and the ñrst duty is to ascertain which
of possible motives and purposes ac-
tually prompted this individual action.
Coing with this effort there is a pre-
disposition to balance all evidence
fairly, and to accept that intcrpreta-
tion to which the weight of cvidence
inclines, not that rvhich sinrply fits our
working hypothesis or ot¡r dominant
theory. The outconre, thcrcfore, is
better and truer obscrvation ond juster
and nrore righteous interpre(alion.
fmperfections of Knowlcdge
There is a third rcsult of great im-
portaDce. The imperfections of our
knowledge are n'¡ore likely to be de-
tected, for there will be less confidence
in its conrpleteness in proportion as
theie is a broad comprehension of the
possibilities of varied action, under
similar circumstances and with sinlilar
appearances. So, also, the imperfec-
tions of evidence as to the nlotives
and purposes inspiring thc action will
beconre nrore discernible in proportion
to thc fulness of our concep(ion of
what the evidence should be to dis-
tinguish between action fronr the one
or the other of possible nrotives. The
necessary result will be a less disposi-
tion to reach conclusions upon inr-
perfect grounds. So, also, there rvill
be a less inclination to nrisapply evi-
dence; for, several constructions be-
ing definitely in nrind, the indices of
the one nrotive are less liable to be
místaken for the indices of nnother.
The total outcome is greater care in
ascertain¡ng the facts, and greater dis-
crimination and caut¡on in drawing
conclusions. I am confident, thereforé,
rhat the general application of this
nrethod to the afiairs of social and civic
life would go far. to remove those
misuncJerstandings, misjudgments, and
misrepresentations which constitute so
pervasive an evil in our social snd our
political atmospheres, the source of im-
nreasurable suffering to. the best and
most sensit¡ve souls. The misobserva-
tions, the rnisstatements, the misinter-
pretat¡ons, of life may cause less gross
suffering than some other evils; but
they, being nrore universal and more
subtle, pain. The remedy lies, indeed,
partly in charity, but more largely in
correct intellectual habits, in a pre-
donrinnnt, ever-present disposition to
see things as they are, and to judge
rhcnr in the full light of an unbiased
rvcighing of evidencc applied to all
possible constructions, accompanied by
a withholding of judgnrent when the
evidence is insufficient to justify con-
clusions.
I bclieve that one of the greatest
moral refornrs that lies inrntediately
before us consists in the generaI in-
troduction ínto social and civic life of
that habit of mental Procedure which
is known in investigation as thc method
of. multiple working hypotheses.
young
to do.
people who have nothing else
They _
are ill su¡ted to men
Education as Way of Life
Traditional arrangements for education
supplemented by a system designed for Ii
John W. Cardner
Nothing is rno ete than the
and o must fit their learn-
ing i busy life.
years a small nu¡nber of devoted
educators have sought to . meet the
nceds of this latter grouP, but they
hnve not reccivecl much cooperation
'from the.rest of the academic world.
That statc of affairs appeirs to be
changing.
In the making now are some highlY
ffexible arrangements to make educa-
availabli to anyone able and will-
lcarn; under circurnstances suit-
cd to)¡it needs. To indicate in con-
crcte termlnr[at such a systerir rnight
not¡on that ed is something that
takes place in a solid block of. years
between, roughly, ages 6 ancl ZZ.
From now. on, the individual is go-
ing to have to seek formal instruction
at many points throughout his career.
Undcr such a systen't, nruch of the
prcsent anxiety ovcr young people who
? MAY t965
quit school prematurely will disappear.
The anxiety stenrs from the fact that
today leaving school signi6es the cnd
of cducation. Undcr the nerv system
there will be no en<l to cducation.
Unfortun¡tely, our institutional ar-
rangements for lifefong education are
rirliculously inadequate. Most educa-
tion¡l institutions are still dcsigncd for
took like, I arn-going to describe cer-
tain activitics of an'imaginary univer-
sity:¡", us.call it M¡dland State Uni-
. versity. (It is not nccéssary that all
'these activitics be sponsored by a uni-
versity-a point which I discuss later.)
Thc ruthor b. prc¡ldent of C¡mcglc Corpon'
t¡on of Ncv Yórk. 5S9 F¡fth AYcnuc, Ncw
York t@t7.
?J9

7. Xcl.lrtc¿ lrcn
Ec66k Gctlo.a
vol. ó¡. t9ór, lí. tzt<zt
422 SC I ENTI F I C CO M M U N I CA?'IOil.'
.
E].IPHASIS
I'HOIíAS W. MITCHAM
, ,D.uríng
the tast 1S.years,.i'creas.ing emphasis has bee, placed on laborarory
legniqt¡es- of geologic study át the expense of fun<tamental research into
he¡-d- relationships which the nerr techniques .are supposedly serving. So
much talent is tangentially oriented tbat basic problemi of the eartlr nri b"ing
seriously neglected.
.'This paper on scientihc philosophy is piesented in tr.re belief that a science
witlou¡ its philosophy is without áiiection. The purpose is to pror.oke the
geologist to a éritical revielv of pcrspective and to inciti him to a n.r" .."liro-
tion of the-ütal importance of
-his
icience, per se. The paper ¡t áir..t"¿ to
colleagues in industry, in government, and in the universities, to ne. rnen in
the field, and to students.
E¡IPHASIS ON T,EASON¡NG AND WORKING IIYPOTTTESES
In secking concise mectranical solutio¡rs and procedures, our attcntions
are easily focused. away fronr reasoning toward meihodology. For soure pur-
¡roses, thismay bc a healthy trait for the scientist, contributlng to his efficiency,
but it can become a serious problen of emfhasis. The creatfve scientist must
be- probtcm-oricnted. This-appties not o.nly to the geotogist who i, " p,r."
scientist but átsó directly to the exptoraticin geologisl beciuse exploration is
iesea-rch (l), not a routine sequence of steps. llr.oll-.uor.en (4) 'lras
.urrned
u¡ of the futility of nrisusing jnstmments as mechanical crutcirós. Inragina-
tion and creative thinking arc dcmandcd.
|IP-the¡cs are exptanaticjns or correlations of groups of facts. After the
testing of a hypothesis proves it to be useful in making-prediitions, it can be
r¿ised to the level of a theory. As. soo¡'¡ as the ñrsf imall group of facts
is accumulated, constnrction of hypotheses should be initirted, rr"refciablv nrr¡l-
.
tiplc w.orking hypo!hcscs-(2)-. flü nccd for fornruration ot rrypotrici.r áppri.,
' as well to- each region, district, or próspect undei. study as ít'does to funda-
nrentals of geolory.
we perhapf nlace too mui:h stresi on techniq'ue. Techniqrres, of course,
are im¡rc_rtant in data-g'athering, but wé shoutd not bcconre captives of tech-
n¡qu9.- Instead, we should'aggresslvcly use techniques tó serve us i¡r con-
struction and.testing of liy¡rotheles. rnitiál periods óf ainrtess ctata gathering
.are olten'necessary, but otherwise the. aimless gathering of data is neithei
421
g:j.,::*1::l:J l:. sood science. Have we forgotten thc concept of nruttipte
wor¡.ng lrypotheses introdu.ld in lg90 by T. c. chamberlin f Too *"r,ymodern scientists have,.accordingto pratt (z)- chamberün',,"i.r,tinl insightis enrplrasized by reptrblication oi Iri. articli y'j years later (Z) .
- "-
. .A*gng-l!. many ttrousht?:gugkils points-made ty püti (Z) is his quo_
tation.of a 1958 statenrent in rvñich Szira-rá pleads with ;g;;;; oi úioitryri.iltr,"But if y.or¡ stop doing oiperiments for o rrtir.
"nd
rhfkir;;--"ií'oro,.¡n,can possrbly be syntrresized, there are only 5 wayl, not 50, an¿ it w¡lítake only
a.ferv experiments to distinguish these.'í Thi; i; ;n¿u.i¡u. ;ni.r..ü
""¿
;a
illustrates Plau's mai¡r thesñ. Expressed simpry, *h;;;il;;ti-^fiiy g*uthinking (strong infere'ce-) in-setting the courses for their investigations, dis-
covery rates increase. 1'lris poinf possibl¡r explains why some .*pll.otiorr.nr.r,
seem to have more of the mysterious "toúch óf dít.ou.fo" trt"" oit.ir.-
In a re¡l sense, each nerv orebody is ¿n original cóncept, a geo-economic
concept. orebodies are not Jiket¡r to be found d=irectry by Liy aita-g"¡ttr.r;ng
techniqtre. when data, *orking hypotheses, irductiá iír.áü-ln?'¿.¿u",tive analysis are in constant inter-pla)" ,ue should ñ;d
"; Jim.ffil, iii. .t
"i..of techniques
EIIPHASIS ON MAPPING .
$-allinr is a method of orderly recording of scientiñc data whictr is es-
sential to the science of geology.
-The
natuñ of geologic ¿ot" i, ,ii.l, t¡nt
their tabulation withor¡t coordinátion is usually meaninglei.
Good observation is the most basic
"rp."t
of science. As geologists, we
sometimes
lppgar to ignore this sirnplc fict, especially as it
"'ool-i.!__ot
.flplaces-to held observation. Some geologists, who aie ottrerwise exceilent
scientific observers, appear to rerax iheir icientific roles in tn. n.ta. r¡.yapp:ar reluctant to stay on an outcrop tong enough to make gooJ obsÁations.
-,.,!"1"
apparently fccl tl¡a.t most- of ttr. -"pping has ai.cady bccn donc.
rrrs, or course, ¡s rar from thc trrrtl¡ bccarrse only generalizations are offerccl
by nrapping o¡r various scares rvithin vast regions, o.,r. r,no*l.Jg.
"i -r,¡"r, i,
1o:: :i-jl".r to apologies for ignoranc. tÍ"n to enlightenm"ent. This is
Partrcutarty true rvlren o'e considers the critical, all-imporánt geologic features
rclated to ore scarch. Atso, as anyonc who activcly ui", g.oio?i"-;;;;i.o*,very rvell, a truly Fnished .1p i, rare even in cárefullfm"pi.A,rior. Allprogressive sciences have-vital issues, both great and .í."il. i'n fact, tlrese is-
stes are basic to scienti6c advance¡ and górogy is no exception.
-'Er.r,
",,
:"T:.^tt:::,*":toqic.map
is.not a static rhirrgl On-ihe *nt-.y,'ii;r'tiLJy to lc _arrve 'rth rocal issues, in paraltel to the great issues of
-tlre
sciencJ itself. -
Laboratory and instrurpentil studies may ireatly contribute to resotution of
the issues, bur urtimatery they can ¡e i.sál.,ed-onry by
"á¿iu"*i'g.ologic.mapping.
, ^'t:.ou
geologic map might be more scientific and originat, because of the
.:,".T,:Ir_"il- rnvestigations, and
-reason
ing áecessarily i nvolved in i ts produc-
r'on, tnan the machind output of éhenrical irnaryses or computer comDarisons
of ten tlrousánd saurples noi nreauingfuily rehtáto g.Jgiip"r¡t,*."-n.,,..
ih

8. F
SCT ENTI FIC CO M MUN ICATI O N S 423
geologic mapping is the' scientific and intellectual contribution. geologists can
make-in-learning more about ttre ccntr¿l tarlet of tl¡e science aná proiession.
- -Finatly, statemc-nts are heard today that some universities are deempha-
sizing rirapping. wherever tlris n be true, tl¡e writer respcctfully would
question whether or not the facultics are correctly advised, an{ ¡e wotrld
register concern that our progress in understanding the earth rvill be retarded.
B¡¿p'g.,fS¡S ON EXPLORATION pARAlf ETERS
In the fourth century r.c., Aristotle proposcd trreories of origi. for ore
(3). Tarly-philosophical speculatibns such as these had inrpact-on ttre de-
velopment ofinany of the sciences, and a surprising nunrber of the speculations
werelater proved correct when the scientiñc grethod developed.
- -Ou:t the years,.a number of
'genetic
theories have been developed to ex_
.plain.thc *l9uf tyaes of ore deposits, yet even today in nrost áses, these
theories are linrited in their usefnlness as exploratiori paraureters. In fact,
itntess a gerretic thcory is used with rescrvation in the full liglrt of lrltcr¡r:rtive
theories, its application can blur'observatiou and lead to costly nristakes.
The considerable discourse on ore genesis, wlrich is co,-rl,rro,lly gcncratcd
by exploration geologists, is heaithy bccause it slrarpens exploratián-ttrinking,
but it can be miileaáing to others outsicle this speciaiizecl fiel¿. Also, at times
we probably nrislead ourselves in tlrc llrocess,
Certairily, geologists at times arrive at sir¡rilar predictions as to t¡e loca-
tion of hidden orc when,they arc protagonists of radically diffcrent genetic
processcs: co"!*? to the inrpressiorr giverr by theii expressious of genetic
thcory, these geologists arc not using genetic theory to nrake predictions. They
arc-usingcrnpirical ore occurrence parameters, including wtrking hypotheses
and thcories, but usually- n^ot genetic thcories. This re-enrphasiies- ih.. pro-
foundness of two of Locke's statcments: ". . . no amount o[ reasoning ihat
,,r; , 9rc ought to.occry a! a given kind of intersection will take the place óf the
.!ir,I1ct that, in ttrat district, or in that nriuc, it habitually'does so" (6j an<t,
..It is
,"Í, thc apriorist who,-half. empiricist, will corrstaritly challenge his'thoughts and
measure thenr against ol¡served conditions that is adnrirable; he is tfie idcal
mining geologist" (5).
For eacli situation, the exploration geologist looks for geologic fcatures
that might be critical, l¡ased ón his knowledge of habits of the district, province,
and ore type involvctl. I-Ic shotrltl be flexiblc i¡r l¡is dccisiorrs on orcbo¿y '
tJP-.",
"-"-d
he sho.uld-recognize'the.linritations on classification of ore ¿eposiis
so that his powcr óf obseryátion is not blured.
To state that the giglogist rarety uses.generic theory certainly does not
imply-that hc is-not using thgor¿, The exirerienced exploration hlan directly
uses tl¡e scientific method,'and tfie parameters of his problem are the critical
geologic !.atur-.r relatcd.to niinqrat deposlts. He constnicts hypotheses as to
interrelationships of'observéd features, particularly the relatiónshir¡ of each
to orc, and these are tested.by furthei obserütion- Sonle of the liypotheses
may bc eterr¿ted to the rank of theories in the process, and others are áiscerded
or ieplaced. The survivinghypotheses or thebries form the basis of his evalu-
424 SCI EN TI F I C CO M M U N I C ATIOTV.S
ations and predictions.
'The.period
of testing, Irowever, should continue be-
1
cause each prediction is a new test.
T!r. geologist may betieve that a potential orebody is syngenetic or epi-
genetic, but his field observation, field experinrentátion,
-an-d
exploration
theories arc concerned with a range of critical geologic features
"n,l
th.it
interrelationships. Often when we say "syngenetic,, or ,.epigenetic,,,
we
really mean respectively that sedinrentary features or tectonic features bear
dominant relationships to ore.
The connotation of ore genesis goes beyond tlre "why" of ore rocarization;
I.t tends to go more into the unknown and unóbservable, into the ..why;,
of
tlre "rvhy," et cetera. citing of a property examination in which the writer
was recently involved for several days will serve to illustrate the point.
Clearl-r'. copper nrinerálization on this property is in close spatial rclationship
to the rvalls of dikes of a rather complex systenr. Equally clear, the distribu-
tion oi copper is mainly explained by the dike patlern. Thus, the coppcr
rs there bccause the dikes (or the structural openings they represent) arc
there. This is a scientifically satisfying "ühy." It is a useiul .bhy', on the
property and potentially in the district because the dikes .are more easily
found. rrore continuous, and nrore projectatrle than the copper mineralization.
EIÍPÍ{ASIS ON TIIE TARGET
. ustrally, assig'nrents given to scientists and engineers are approximaiely
in the area of their best competence and capacities. we are ofien tempteá,
howe'er, to at least slightly ieorient or ?nterfrret the assignment so that it is
morc preciscly br nrore comfortably aligned witl¡ either our best arca of
competence or highest area of interest. Fo.r this reason, the writer believes
that rte sometimes nrake'tangential approaches rvhen we aré assignecl to ex-
ploration probleurs. The result is likely to be a geological treatise that
¡rrisses tl¡c hcart of the ¡rroblcnr, i.e., whiclr is off tlre target.
Ob'iorrsly, the gcologist should stretch, broaclen, or adapt his conrpetence
or interest to ¡natch the problem at hand rather than vicc versa. For ex-
anrple, a geologist assigned an ore-finding problenr nray havc.trnusrral conr-
petenc€ and, understandably, ¡nterest in the detailed textures of the.igneotrs
rocks of the assigned.gcographic area, but his performance and reporting of
detailed textural studies are'only. justiñed i[ experience, theory, or some
aspect of his sensing (adequate creativity allouance) suggests that tlie stud-
ics :rrc applicable to the problcn, at h:rnd. Pcrhaps onty cursory study, al-
lowirrg him to segregate the various igncous rocks iu thc area, is entirely
srrfficient for the exploration problem involved. A petrographic treatise in
this case may be so tangential-t-o the exploration. problem as to efiectivety
block its solution, for reasons of focus and tinre.
rupn.rsrs' tN QU^NTIFTCATTON
- {athematics is of great,value to many sciences,'but vye can unwittingly
deceive ourselves in its application. At this .priint, reference is made again:
to Platt (7). He stat'es,'foday we preach thai science is not sciince unleis it

9. SC I ENTI FIC CO A{ MU N IC AT I O N S 425
is quantitative."
-IIowever, ';. . . -"ny-perhaps nrost--of the great issues of
scienc'e are qualit¡tive, not quantitative, even in physics and chenristry."
Platt.emphasizes logic by stating, ". .. you.can catch phengmena in a logical
box or a mathematical box. The logical box is coarse but strong. The mathe-
matical box is fine grained but ffimb). The mathematical box is a beautiful
yay oj rrrapping up a problem, but it will not hold the phenomena unless they
have been caught in a logical box to begin with." The rvriter concurs witir
Platt, and.this is not to oppose tlre furthcr quanti6cation of gcology wherc
applicable and useful in increasing our undeistanding of tlre eartl.r but rather
to place ihe emphasis on reasoning.
Quantification appeais to be treated by some geologists today as an end
in itself, to rnake geology 'more "scientific.'r Vhat they actually seenr to
mean is that geology should be more like physics or more like cheuristry.
Geology is a solid science in itself, and the writer rvould urge stronger focús
. on tlte great ttttsolved ¡rroblenrs invotlcd in overconling our ignorarrcc :tbout
tlrc earth on rvhiclr we live. . .
Extension of quantiñcation should be contir¡ued, of course, rvhere tfiis will
help to solve geological prolllems.' The point should be nrade, lrorvever, that
geology h4s'long.beeri mrire' qürrititative than inrplied by recent efr()rts. to
'quarrtif¡'^it.. For cxarrrplc;'a gcotogic nr;t¡r irr:rn:lrc;r of :rvcragc strrrctrrral
complexity is a very conr¡llicrted.<tata shect u'ith iuur¡urérablc ¡iióasurc¡rc¡rs
of ex¡rosed areas and. forms of rock bodies and alteratio' facics. It also is.a
coordinated record of spatial attitudes of.boundaries betu.een rock bodies
and of primary'and secohdary. structures. This kind of quantitative data is
¡rruch too scant for móst of the continental areas of the earth, and we rreed to
get out ancl find at least the very im¡rortant tiniecognized features
"nd
,,r."r-
ure them.. Heré is a truly signiñcant quántitative challenge.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
. .
The thoughtful revicws of this paper úy Mr. Paul I. Eimon, Dr. Jotrn C.
. Wilson, and D¡ C_. Malcolm . Wright of the Geologic Research Division,
Kennecott C.opper Co¡poátion are gratefulty acknowledged, btit this does noi
necessarily imply their cotrcurrence witlrthe vicu's exprcssed. Also, the
writer is grateful to the I(ennecott Copper Corporation for pcrnrission io
publish the papcr.
Gnolocrc R¡sr.*cr¡ Drvrsrou,.
K¡xxrcorr Có¡reR ConrourroN,
' Se¿r Lexr CrrY, Ur,tx,
. .
January j7,7967
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Doubledey, SlS p.; . .._
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;:i.
iii
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