After the era of the "good emperors", the Roman Empire began to decline in the 2nd century CE under Emperor Marcus Aurelius. The empire had overextended itself and struggled to defend its borders from invaders. Emperors like Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius spent much of their reigns on the frontier trying to protect Rome. Constantine converted to Christianity in the 4th century CE and made it the official religion of the empire, marking a shift from pagan Roman rule, though he and subsequent emperors continued to portray themselves as divine rulers.

1. The Later Roman Empire

2. After Augustus, Rome prospered under the so-called “good emperors” (Trajan, Nerva,
Hadrian, Antoninus Pius)
Trajan Nerva
Hadrian Antoninus Pius

3. Marcus Aurelius
But the Pax Romana came to an end under the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, who reigned
from 161-180 CE

4. The empire was over-extended, and it became impossible to protect the borders from
foreign invaders

5. In 122 AD Hadrian tried to stem the tide of barbarian invasions by building a massive
wall that stretched for 73 miles across Britain

6. Marcus Aurelius spent much of his career on the frontier, trying to protect Rome’s
border, while composing his meditations on war and leadership, and other philosophical
themes

7. The emperor in the movie Gladiator (played by Richard Harris) was based on Marcus
Aurelius, and his son Commodus (played by Joaquim Phoenix) was based on a real
Roman Emperor
Richard Harris as Marcus Aurelius in the
movie Gladiator
Joaquin Phoenix Commodusin the movie
Gladiator

8. Sarcophagus with battle of Romans and barbarians, c. 250-260 CE, Museio
This sarcophagus from the later Roman Empire reflects the turmoil of the period
Sarcophagus with battle of Romans and barbarians (Ludovisi
Sarcophagus), c. 250-260 CE, Museo Nazionale Romano

9. In a crowded composition filled with violent detail, Roman soldiers battle with barbarians
Sarcophagus with battle of Romans and barbarians (Ludovisi
Sarcophagus), c. 250-260 CE, Museo Nazionale Romano

10. Equestrian Portrait of Marcus Aurelius, bronze, 11’
6” h c. 175 CE
This statue, of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, also reflects the troubles of the age

11. Equestrian Portrait of Marcus Aurelius, bronze, 11’
6” h c. 175 CE
It is called an “equestrian” statue because it portrays the emperor on horseback

12. Equestrian Portrait of Marcus Aurelius, bronze, 11’
6” h c. 175 CE
Bronze equestrian portraits of Roman emperors were popular, but few originals have
survived -- this image shows a fragment of an equestrian portrait of Augustus

13. Equestrian Portrait of Marcus Aurelius, bronze, 11’
6” h c. 175 CE
This one did survive because in the Middle Ages it was mistakenly believed to represent
Constantine, the first Christian Roman emperor – so it didn’t get melted down like the
others

14. Equestrian Portrait of Marcus Aurelius, copy in
the Campidoglio, Rome
Image source:
http://www.flickr.com/photos/profzucker/4489932
929/in/photostream/
Equestrian portraits were popular because they conveyed the supreme power of the
emperor by showing him in command of a powerful beast

15. In this statue, the artist altered the size of the horse to make the emperor appear larger

16. The Emperor raises his arm in a gesture of clemency

17. A barbarian enemy once cowered beneath the horse’s raised hoof – a motif of conquest
that is ancient

18. The other hand held an orb – symbol of his power over the universe

19. This means, by the way, that he is riding with no hands – anybody who rides horse
knows that this is no easy feat!
Look, ma, no
hands!

20. The emperor is bearded — a style that was introduced by Hadrian in emulation of Greek
philosophers

21. Yet his face expresses a look of weariness and concern

22. Art historians refer to this new style of portraiture as “introspective verism”

23. The style is a departure from both the veristic style of portraiture and Augustan idealism

24. It is characterized by a new emphasis on the ruler’s deep concern for the empire,
expressed through the features of the face

25. Bust of Trajan (Traianus) Decius
Capitloline Museum
The next half century was one of almost constant civil war and political assassinations

26. Marble Head of Emperor Diocletian
The emperor Diocletian introduced a number of changes designed to bring security to
the troubled empire

27. He adopted the Persian tradition of the poskynesis, demanding that his subjects
prostrate themselves before him

28. Meanwhile, Christianity was spreading rapidly through the Empire

29. The Christian Martyrs' Last Prayer, by Jean-Léon Gérôme (1883)
And when Christians refused to do worship him as a god, he began the
systematic persecution of Christians because of the threat they posed to his authority

30. Diocletian also divided the empire into east and west, and formed the tetrarchy, four co-
rulers who ruled together as one

31. The Tetrarchy, c. 305 CE
This porphyry statue is a representation of the four tetrarchs

32. The Tetrarchy, c. 305 CE
While the costumes recall the military attire of the Augustus of Prima Porta, the style
marks a radical departure from Roman naturalism

33. The Tetrarchy, c. 305 CE
Stiff and puppet-like, the figures are reminiscent of the formulaic conventions used in
ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia

34. The Tetrarchy, c. 305 CE
The period of the Tetrarchy was followed by civil war

35. The Tetrarchy, c. 305 CE
Constantine, son of one of the Tetrarchs, took control of Rome after the battle at the
Milvian Bridge
Portrait head of Emperor Constantine I, ca. 324–337
Metropolitan Museum

36. Raphael, Constantine’s Vision (detail)
Before the battle, Constantine had a vision of the Christian cross, and an angel who told
him “conquer by this.”

37. Raphael, Constantine’s Vision (detail)
The next morning he had the symbol of the “chi rho” emblazoned on his soldiers shields,
and he attributed his victory to the Christian god

38. Portrait head of Emperor
Constantine I, ca. 324–337
Metropolitan Museum
Recognizing the popularity of Christianity throughout the empire, Constantine reversed
Diocletian’s persecution of Christians

39. Portrait head of Emperor
Constantine I, ca. 324–337
Metropolitan Museum
In 313 CE he issued the Edict of Milan, granting religious toleration to Christianity, and at
the Council of Nicaea n 325 CE, Christianity became the official religion of the Roman
Empire

40. Cameo depicting Constantine
crowned by Constantinople
Hermitage Museum
Constantine continued Diocletian’s tradition of divine kingship, only now he derived his
power from the Christian god

41. Portrait head of Emperor
Constantine I, ca. 324–337
Metropolitan Museum
Portraits depict the emperor with his eyes gazing towards heaven – source of his divine
power

42. The most famous portrait of Constantine is this colossal head that measures 8’ 6” tall

43. Only fragments of the original statue survive

44. Phidias’ colossal statue of Zeus at Olympia was renowned in
antiquity as one of the wonders of the ancient world
The statue was based on Phidias’ statue of Zeus at Olympia – renowned as one of the
wonders of the ancient world.

45. Phidias’ colossal statue of Zeus at Olympia was renowned in
antiquity as one of the wonders of the ancient world
Seated on a throne, with his hand painting to the heavens (the source of his authority),
he is presented as a god rather than a man

46. The facial features convey the emperor’s supernatural qualities as well

47. The face has a mask-like quality that makes him appear more god-like than human

48. The facial features convey the
emperor’s supernatural qualities as
well.
Youthful and strong, the face has a
mask-like quality that makes him
appear more god-like than human
It is almost cartoonish in the way it exaggerates his “manly” jaw, and his unnaturally
enlarged eyes

49. Reconstruction of the Basilica Nova (Basilica of Constantine), with the
colossal statue of Constantine
Constantine’s statue was originally placed in his new basilica in Rome

50. The Basilica Nova is notable because it is one of the first times that vaulted construction
was used in a basilica (which had traditionally adhered to the post and lintel system)

51. Arches
Barrel
vaults
In the ruins that remain today you can see the use of Roman barrel vaults and arches

52. Constantine had to leave such an imposing effigy of himself in Rome, because he had
moved the capital of the Empire to Constantinople (modern Istanbul)

53. Yeah, I’m
still the boss
of you!
He was basically letting the Romans know that he was still in charge

54. Thanks for listening!

55. Arch of Constantine, Rome, 312-315 BCE
Most Roman emperors erected triumphal arches, but Constantine’s was the largest

56. Arch of Constantine, Rome, 312-315 BCE
It commemorated Constantine’s victory against his rival Maxentius, and its purpose was
to proclaim a return to order, stability, and prosperity

57. Many of the decorations were taken from pre-existing monuments

58. Decorations taken from pre-existing monuments erected by Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus
Aurelius – widely revered as great leaders

71. Plebian style: language of “the people”

72. Miracle of the loaves and fishes, mosaic from Sant’ Apollinare
Nuovo, Ravenna, c. 504
Foreshadows Christian art