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11.relationship between intrinsic motivation and goal orientation among colle...Alexander Decker
This study examined the relationship between intrinsic motivation and goal orientation among college students in Pakistan. Surveys were administered to 300 male and 300 female students measuring their intrinsic motivation and goal orientation. The results showed:
1) There was no significant difference in intrinsic motivation between male and female students.
2) There was no significant difference in goal orientation between male and female students.
3) A significant positive correlation was found between students' intrinsic motivation scores and their goal orientation scores. Students with higher intrinsic motivation tended to have higher goal orientation as well.
Relationship between intrinsic motivation and goal orientation among college ...Alexander Decker
This study examined the relationship between intrinsic motivation and goal orientation among college students in Pakistan. Surveys were administered to 300 male and 300 female students measuring their intrinsic motivation and goal orientation. The results showed:
1) There was no significant difference in intrinsic motivation between male and female students.
2) There was no significant difference in goal orientation between male and female students.
3) There was a significant positive correlation between students' intrinsic motivation scores and their goal orientation scores. Students with higher intrinsic motivation tended to have higher goal orientation as well.
This document summarizes a study that investigated the achievement motivation of 480 secondary school students in Sikkim, India and how it relates to their academic achievement. The study found no significant differences in achievement motivation based on gender or location but found private school students had significantly higher achievement motivation than government school students. It also found significant differences in academic achievement based on location and type of school management. Additionally, the study found a significant relationship between students' achievement motivation and their academic achievement.
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considered Educational Aspiration as an important variable to study and considered the problem titled
“Category (Tribe and Non-tribe) as a Factor in Educational Aspiration: An Investigation”. For this purpose,
researchers selected 680 (N =680) Secondary School going students from different sections studying in schools
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(MEAI) has been used to measure the selected variable. Descriptive statistics along with t-test have been
employed to analyze the data. The category i.e. tribe and non-tribe was found an important factor in setting
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International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
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This document outlines a research paper that examines the relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and academic performance among international students. The paper will have three sections: an introduction outlining the topic and significance of the research, a body reviewing previous studies on factors related to academic motivation, and a conclusion discussing the interactions between motivation and academic performance. Specifically, the paper aims to investigate whether motivation influences academic performance differently for students studying abroad compared to students studying in their home country.
Achievement Motivation Across Gender And Different Academic MajorsKelly Lipiec
This document summarizes a study that investigated differences in achievement motivation across gender and academic majors among college students. The study found that female students had significantly higher achievement motivation than male students. It also found that students majoring in science had significantly higher achievement motivation than students majoring in arts. These results indicate that gender and choice of major play a role in students' levels of achievement motivation.
11.relationship between intrinsic motivation and goal orientation among colle...Alexander Decker
This study examined the relationship between intrinsic motivation and goal orientation among college students in Pakistan. Surveys were administered to 300 male and 300 female students measuring their intrinsic motivation and goal orientation. The results showed:
1) There was no significant difference in intrinsic motivation between male and female students.
2) There was no significant difference in goal orientation between male and female students.
3) A significant positive correlation was found between students' intrinsic motivation scores and their goal orientation scores. Students with higher intrinsic motivation tended to have higher goal orientation as well.
Relationship between intrinsic motivation and goal orientation among college ...Alexander Decker
This study examined the relationship between intrinsic motivation and goal orientation among college students in Pakistan. Surveys were administered to 300 male and 300 female students measuring their intrinsic motivation and goal orientation. The results showed:
1) There was no significant difference in intrinsic motivation between male and female students.
2) There was no significant difference in goal orientation between male and female students.
3) There was a significant positive correlation between students' intrinsic motivation scores and their goal orientation scores. Students with higher intrinsic motivation tended to have higher goal orientation as well.
This document summarizes a study that investigated the achievement motivation of 480 secondary school students in Sikkim, India and how it relates to their academic achievement. The study found no significant differences in achievement motivation based on gender or location but found private school students had significantly higher achievement motivation than government school students. It also found significant differences in academic achievement based on location and type of school management. Additionally, the study found a significant relationship between students' achievement motivation and their academic achievement.
Category (Tribe and Non-Tribe) As a Factor in Educational Aspiration of Secon...iosrjce
Out of various problems faced by the students, the problem of setting the proper level of Educational
Aspiration is the most important. Not only Psychological factors but also various societal factors like culture,
opportunities, family background of the students, their socio-economic status, task oriented attitude, educational
system, school curricula, school environment and performance influence the formation of nature and fulfillment
of educational aspirations. The entry of tribal students of Odisha into the higher education and their
representation in various elite groups is very poor. The researcher assumed it is due to the improper level of
educational and career aspiration of the people of tribal community. Keeping these in view, the researchers
considered Educational Aspiration as an important variable to study and considered the problem titled
“Category (Tribe and Non-tribe) as a Factor in Educational Aspiration: An Investigation”. For this purpose,
researchers selected 680 (N =680) Secondary School going students from different sections studying in schools
running under the Board of Secondary Education Odisha. The Mazumder Educational Aspiration Inventory
(MEAI) has been used to measure the selected variable. Descriptive statistics along with t-test have been
employed to analyze the data. The category i.e. tribe and non-tribe was found an important factor in setting
Educational Aspiration.
A comprehensive review of research on the effect that birth order has on academic success in children. Within the CFLE matrix, this literature review falls under the substance areas of families in society and internal dynamics of families. It falls under the competency area of assessment and evaluation skills.
Creativity and Academic Achievement of Higher Secondary School Students in Ta...inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
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3) When analyzed by gender and school location, the study also found significant low positive relationships between emotional intelligence and mathematics achievement for male students, female students, urban school students, and rural school students.
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This document summarizes a study that examines the influence of attitudes of female students on mathematics performance in secondary schools in Teso District, Kenya. It provides background on the importance of education in Kenya and defines key concepts of academic performance and attitude. The literature review discusses research that found females generally have more negative attitudes towards mathematics internationally and in Kenya, where females are underrepresented in STEM fields. The study aims to explore the psychological factors of attitude and ability that influence secondary school female students' mathematics performance in Teso District.
Academic Achievement of X Class Adolescents of Chandigarh In Relation to thei...QUESTJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: Academic Achievement is the first and importance in the context of an education system aimed at progressive scholastic development of the students success in any academic task has always been of special interest to educators, parents and society at large (Ajayi, 2006). In fact, complete education system revolves around the sole objective of academic achievement of students. Today mental health issues in adolescents are considered as a growing concern in the School and for the community counsellors and educators. The present era of educational scene is changing very rapidly due to increasing competition in every sphere of life. This stress is reflected in their academic performance. The sample was comprised of 100 students including 50 girls and 50 boys of Private schools of Chandigarh. In order to see the Academic achievement of X class adolescents of Chandigarh in relation to their Mental Health. The study was an attempt to find out the relationship between the academic achievement and their mental health. For analyzing the data correlation and t-test was used. The results revealed there is positive correlation between Academic Achievement and mental health, which means if Mental Health is high the academic score will be high and vice versa and there is no significant difference between boys and girls on the variable Academic achievement and mental health
A study on social maturity, school adjustment and academic achievement among ...Alexander Decker
This study examined the relationship between social maturity, school adjustment, and academic achievement among 347 girls attending a private residential school in North India. Measures of social maturity and school adjustment were administered and students' end-of-year academic scores were obtained. Results showed a significant positive correlation between social maturity and school adjustment. Significant differences were also found in social maturity and school adjustment between groups with low, average, and high academic achievement. Specifically, students with lower achievement had poorer social maturity and adjustment than those with higher achievement. The findings suggest that greater social maturity is related to better adjustment at school, which may positively impact academic performance.
A study on low performing indian students in secondary schoolsjayapratha9
This document summarizes research on factors that influence the academic achievement of students, particularly low-performing students. It discusses that academic achievement is influenced by family factors like socioeconomic status and parents' education level, school factors like facilities, type of school and teacher relationships, and student factors like self-regulation, personality and peer influences. The research indicates that an integrated approach is needed to address the academic achievement of low-performing students that involves students, parents, and schools.
This document summarizes a study that investigated the relationships between mathematics attitude, academic motivation, intelligence quotient, and mathematics achievement. The study involved 1670 high school students in Iran. It found that mathematics attitude, academic motivation, and intelligence quotient were all positively correlated with mathematics achievement. A multiple regression analysis determined that mathematics attitude and intelligence quotient significantly predicted mathematics achievement, but academic motivation was not a significant predictor when the other variables were accounted for. The study also found that while there were no significant gender differences in the other variables, males scored higher than females in mathematics achievement.
This document outlines a research plan to investigate disparities in student achievement in Portland public high schools. The group aims to examine how school demographics like racial composition and socioeconomic class vary between districts. They will analyze data on graduation rates, test scores, class sizes, free lunch eligibility and other factors. Based on literature showing racial gaps in achievement elsewhere, the group hypothesizes that minority students in Portland schools graduate at lower rates than white students. Variables of interest are race as the independent variable and graduation as the dependent variable, accounting for gender and socioeconomic status.
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This document investigates the relationship between scientific attitudes and achievement in science among 8th class Urdu medium minority students in India. It aims to study how personal and demographic factors influence scientific attitudes and science achievement. The study measures the scientific attitudes and science achievement of 441 students using validated scales. Statistical analysis is conducted to determine the impact of variables like gender, locality, family background, and school type. The findings could help identify factors affecting science education standards and suggest ways to improve achievement for all students.
This document summarizes a study that examined which factors of schooling most affect the development of cultural values in Bangladeshi teenagers. The study surveyed 960 students ages 13-15 from 11 different types of schools in Bangladesh, both rural and urban. It analyzed their responses on a questionnaire measuring cultural tendencies based on Geert Hofstede's cultural dimensions. The study found that neither the medium of instruction (Bengali or English) nor the type of curriculum (national or foreign) had as strong an influence on students' cultural values as the teaching methods used. Teaching methods appeared to have a more decisive role than other school factors in shaping students' cultural perspectives.
A Study Of Socio Economic Status And Academic MotivationTina Gabel
This study examines the relationship between socio-economic status and academic motivation among college students in Our Lady of Fatima University. The researchers aimed to investigate how socio-economic status, as one factor, impacts students' motivation levels. They hypothesized that there is no significant relationship between socio-economic status and academic motivation, and that there is no difference in motivation between male and female students. A survey was conducted using scales to measure socio-economic status and academic motivation. The data collected was then analyzed to determine if there is a correlation between the two variables and differences between genders. The findings could help students, researchers, and parents understand how socio-economic background may influence academic performance and motivation.
The Influence of Family Background on the Academic Performance of Students Ec...ijtsrd
This document summarizes a research study that examined the influence of family background on the academic performance of economics students in Port Harcourt Metropolis, Nigeria. The study used a survey design and questionnaires to collect data from 80 students and 20 teachers. The results showed that family background, including parental education level, income, and motivation, had a significant positive influence on students' academic performance in economics. Specifically, higher parental education and income levels, and greater parental motivation, were linked to better student performance. The study recommends social and economic policies to support children from low-income families, and encourages parents to provide home environments that motivate learning.
Thesis for Final Defense(The Level of Influence of Family-Related Factors on ...Elton John Embodo
1) The document discusses a study that aims to determine the level of influence of family-related factors on academic performance of students in Tangub City National High School. It provides background information on the importance of parental involvement and discusses the theoretical framework and methodology used in the study.
2) The study will survey students from the Sports curriculum and Science curriculum to understand the influence of factors like parental expectations, monitoring, and encouragement. It will analyze differences between male and female students and the two curricula.
3) Preliminary results show that family-related factors have mostly high levels of influence on students in the Sports curriculum, establishing routines and modeling behaviors being most influential. The study provides context and plan for analyzing the
This study examined academic stress and exam anxiety among 400 Indian secondary private school students in grades 10 and 12. The researchers found that 35% reported high academic stress and 37% reported high exam anxiety. All students reported some academic stress. Students with lower grades reported higher stress than higher-achieving students. Students engaged in extracurricular activities were more likely to experience exam anxiety than those not engaged in such activities. The study aimed to identify factors associated with academic stress and exam anxiety in this population.
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982 (www.nationalforum.com) is a group of national and international refereed journals. NFJ publishes articles on colleges, universities and schools; management, business and administration; academic scholarship, multicultural issues; schooling; special education; teaching and learning; counseling and addiction; alcohol and drugs; crime and criminology; disparities in health; risk behaviors; international issues; education; organizational theory and behavior; educational leadership and supervision; action and applied research; teacher education; race, gender, society; public school law; philosophy and history; psychology, sociology, and much more. Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief.
How Youth Get Engaged Grounded-Theory Research on Motivationa.docxpooleavelina
This document summarizes a study on how youth become psychologically engaged in organized youth programs. Through interviews with 100 youth in 10 programs, researchers identified 44 youth who reported a positive turning point in their motivation or engagement. For 38 of these youth, this change involved forming a personal connection to program goals and activities. Youth reported connecting to goals of learning, developing competence, and pursuing a purpose. The study suggests engagement can develop as youth integrate program goals into their own goals and identities.
Do dreams come true? Aspirations and educational attainments of Ethiopian boys and girls
Marta Favara
University of Oxford
Presented to the 30th Annual Conference of the European Society of Population Economics, Berlin
June 16, 2016
A Study on Attitude towards Educational Research among B.Ed Students Teachersijtsrd
This paper describes the development of a new measure of attitude towards Educational Research for use among B.Ed. Student Teachers which operationalizes the affective attitudinal domain. Item selection, the internal structure and reliability of the scale, content validity and construct validity were established on a sample of 250 B.Ed. Student Teachers in the Educational Colleges in Coimbatore. A study of level of Attitude towards Educational Research among B.Ed. Student Teachers between the groups that there is a significant with respect to medium of instruction and educational qualification and no significant with respect to gender, locality and marital status. Ms. J. Morin | Mrs. D. Geetha ""A Study on Attitude towards Educational Research among B.Ed Students Teachers"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-4 , June 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd25111.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/25111/a-study-on-attitude-towards-educational-research-among-bed-students-teachers/ms-j-morin
The Law of Healthcare AdministrationAuthorsShowalter,.docxjmindy
The Law of Healthcare Administration
Authors:
Showalter, J. Stuart
Publication Information:
Ed.:
Eighth edition. Chicago, Illinois : Health Administration Press. 2017
Resource Type:
eBook.
Description:
The Law of Healthcare Administration offers a thorough examination of health law in the United States from a management perspective. Using plain language accessible to nonlawyers, the book moves from broadbrush treatments of the US legal system and the history of medicine to specific issues that affect healthcare leaders daily, including contracts, torts, taxation, antitrust laws, regulatory compliance, and, most pressing, health insurance reform and the important changes that have taken place since the Affordable Care Act (ACA) became law in 2010. The legal concepts discussed in the book are amply supported by reallife examples, detailed explanations, and excerpts from decisions of federal and state courts.
Subjects:
Medical laws and legislation--United States
Medical care--Law and legislation--United States
Hospitals--Law and legislation--United States
we reviewed informed consent in the case of competent adults. There are many “gray” areas of consent in cases of children or incompetent adults; however, the law has sought to provide clear guidance for health care providers and legal guardians.
Review pages 393-411 in the Showalter textbook and choose at least one of the subtopics in this section regarding consent. Provide an explanation of the “gray area” of your choosing, including any relevant legal cases discussed, and how this is handled under the law.
Showalter, J. S. (2017) Consent. In
The Law of Healthcare Administration
(pp. 393-411). Chicago, IL: Health Administration Press. Retrieved from the Trident Online Library.
Related
rrent User Level:
Unlimited User
Hide Table of ContentsTable of Contents
Brief Contents
·
Detailed Contents
·
Preface
·
Chapter 1 The Anglo-American Legal System
·
Chapter 2 A Brief History of Medicine
·
Chapter 3 Health Reform, Access to Care, and Admission and Discharge
·
Chapter 4 Contracts and Intentional Torts
·
Chapter 5 Negligence
·
Chapter 6 The Organization and Management of a Corporate Healthcare Institution
·
Chapter 7 Liability of the Healthcare Institution
·
Chapter 8 Medical Staff Privileges and Peer Review
·
Chapter 9 Health Information Management
·
Chapter 10 Emergency Care
·
Chapter 11 Consent for Treatment and Withholding Consent
·
Chapter 12 Taxation of Healthcare Institutions
·
Chapter 13 Competition and Antitrust Law
·
Chapter 14 Issues of Reproduction and Birth
·
Chapter 15 Fraud Laws and Corporate Compliance
·
Glossary
·
Case Index
·
Index
·
About the Author
.
The law that legalized medical marijuana in Florida in 2016Wri.docxjmindy
The law that legalized medical marijuana in Florida in 2016
Write TWO paragraphs describing the law or policy
First paragraph: clearly define the law or policy, date when it took effect, and identify what problem it is trying to solve (why was it enacted?)
Second paragraph: identify the agency or organization responsible for its implementation or oversight and explain whether or not the law or policy seems to be effective in its implementation.
Sources: 2-4 sources are required for the proposal. A reference page with proper Chicago Style format required.
.
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June 16, 2016
A Study on Attitude towards Educational Research among B.Ed Students Teachersijtsrd
This paper describes the development of a new measure of attitude towards Educational Research for use among B.Ed. Student Teachers which operationalizes the affective attitudinal domain. Item selection, the internal structure and reliability of the scale, content validity and construct validity were established on a sample of 250 B.Ed. Student Teachers in the Educational Colleges in Coimbatore. A study of level of Attitude towards Educational Research among B.Ed. Student Teachers between the groups that there is a significant with respect to medium of instruction and educational qualification and no significant with respect to gender, locality and marital status. Ms. J. Morin | Mrs. D. Geetha ""A Study on Attitude towards Educational Research among B.Ed Students Teachers"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-4 , June 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd25111.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/25111/a-study-on-attitude-towards-educational-research-among-bed-students-teachers/ms-j-morin
The Law of Healthcare AdministrationAuthorsShowalter,.docxjmindy
The Law of Healthcare Administration
Authors:
Showalter, J. Stuart
Publication Information:
Ed.:
Eighth edition. Chicago, Illinois : Health Administration Press. 2017
Resource Type:
eBook.
Description:
The Law of Healthcare Administration offers a thorough examination of health law in the United States from a management perspective. Using plain language accessible to nonlawyers, the book moves from broadbrush treatments of the US legal system and the history of medicine to specific issues that affect healthcare leaders daily, including contracts, torts, taxation, antitrust laws, regulatory compliance, and, most pressing, health insurance reform and the important changes that have taken place since the Affordable Care Act (ACA) became law in 2010. The legal concepts discussed in the book are amply supported by reallife examples, detailed explanations, and excerpts from decisions of federal and state courts.
Subjects:
Medical laws and legislation--United States
Medical care--Law and legislation--United States
Hospitals--Law and legislation--United States
we reviewed informed consent in the case of competent adults. There are many “gray” areas of consent in cases of children or incompetent adults; however, the law has sought to provide clear guidance for health care providers and legal guardians.
Review pages 393-411 in the Showalter textbook and choose at least one of the subtopics in this section regarding consent. Provide an explanation of the “gray area” of your choosing, including any relevant legal cases discussed, and how this is handled under the law.
Showalter, J. S. (2017) Consent. In
The Law of Healthcare Administration
(pp. 393-411). Chicago, IL: Health Administration Press. Retrieved from the Trident Online Library.
Related
rrent User Level:
Unlimited User
Hide Table of ContentsTable of Contents
Brief Contents
·
Detailed Contents
·
Preface
·
Chapter 1 The Anglo-American Legal System
·
Chapter 2 A Brief History of Medicine
·
Chapter 3 Health Reform, Access to Care, and Admission and Discharge
·
Chapter 4 Contracts and Intentional Torts
·
Chapter 5 Negligence
·
Chapter 6 The Organization and Management of a Corporate Healthcare Institution
·
Chapter 7 Liability of the Healthcare Institution
·
Chapter 8 Medical Staff Privileges and Peer Review
·
Chapter 9 Health Information Management
·
Chapter 10 Emergency Care
·
Chapter 11 Consent for Treatment and Withholding Consent
·
Chapter 12 Taxation of Healthcare Institutions
·
Chapter 13 Competition and Antitrust Law
·
Chapter 14 Issues of Reproduction and Birth
·
Chapter 15 Fraud Laws and Corporate Compliance
·
Glossary
·
Case Index
·
Index
·
About the Author
.
The law that legalized medical marijuana in Florida in 2016Wri.docxjmindy
The law that legalized medical marijuana in Florida in 2016
Write TWO paragraphs describing the law or policy
First paragraph: clearly define the law or policy, date when it took effect, and identify what problem it is trying to solve (why was it enacted?)
Second paragraph: identify the agency or organization responsible for its implementation or oversight and explain whether or not the law or policy seems to be effective in its implementation.
Sources: 2-4 sources are required for the proposal. A reference page with proper Chicago Style format required.
.
The latter half of the twentieth century witnessed the rise of the i.docxjmindy
The latter half of the twentieth century witnessed the rise of the international development sector, bringing with it new government agencies and international organizations (see Appendix – International Education and Development Timeline). Education played a pivotal role in the new development sector: Rostow’s (1960) modernization theory stipulated that investments in education would put Third World countries on the path to development, eventually transforming them into industrialized societies similar to those in Western Europe and North America.
However, the experiences of Zambia and Nepal show that the relationship between education and development is not straightforward or deterministic. Zambia initially concentrated on secondary and technical education, but was later hard-hit by structural adjustment programmes and burdened with debt. Nepal’s history shows not only that primary education can be rapidly expanded in just a few generations, but also that this expansion can marginalize many groups within a society.
The most important outcome of the post-war period was a set of ideas about what development is and what it means to be developed. These were articulated by development theorists such as Rostow (1960) as well as through international development organizations (e.g. UNDP, World Bank, USAID). The notions that former colonies should develop into industrial nations, that international aid could facilitate the economic growth required, and that investments in education were one way they could do so, all emerged during this period. More than 60 years later, these ideas still underlie much of the work within the field of international development as well as the ways in which development is constructed in popular media and the press. However, the next chapter examines how challenges to these underlying ideas have redefined development work and the role of education within it.
In your own words, define development. What does it mean for a society to be developed? Is education necessary for development, and is it sufficient to ensure development?
.
The larger the mass of a star, the higher the internal pressures. Hi.docxjmindy
The larger the mass of a star, the higher the internal pressures. Higher internal pressures causes higher temperatures and it is temperature that determines the types of fusion that can occur deep in a stars interior. Discuss all of the types of fusion that can occur in stars, the temperatures at which each begins, and the mass required to produce each temperature.
we need two different versions of the discussion posts. 200 words each one.
.
The Latin term meaning father of his country” which is implied as m.docxjmindy
The Latin term meaning “father of his country” which is implied as meaning the government is the true guardian of the needy and infirmed children.
2.
__________________ were a sixteenth century English set of laws which vagrants and abandoned and neglected children were bound to masters as indentured servants.
3.
Early English courts established to protect the property rights and welfare of the minor children of affluent families.
4.
Civic leaders who focused their attention on the misdeeds of poor children to control their behavior were called:
5.
In 1816, The Society for the Prevention of Pauperism was established to:
6.
When the first House of Refuge opened in New York the Society for the Prevention of Pauperism and the __________________ were influential in establishing such positive steps for juveniles.
7.
In 1853, New York philanthropist Charles Loring Brace helped developed the _______________________ as an alternative for dealing with neglected and delinquent youths.
8.
The first juvenile court was established in this state in 1899.
9.
The Juvenile Court Act of 1899 set up an independent court to handle criminal law violations by children under 16 years of age as well as created:
10.
The case of the
Kent v. United States (1966)
ruled that:
11.
The ___________________________ established the a federal office on delinquency prevention and was enacted to identify the needs of youth and to fund programs aimed at deterring juvenile crime.
12.
A noncriminal youth who falls under the jurisdiction of the courts by reason of having engaged in behavior prohibited to minors, such as truancy.
13.
The Court case of ________________ ruled that a minor has basic due process rights at trial.
14.
The Court case of ________________ ruled that the level of evidence for the finding of juvenile delinquency is proof beyond a reasonable doubt.
15.
Held that the Fourth Amendment guarantee against unreasonable searches is not violated by drug testing all students who choose to participate in interscholastic athletics.
16.
In 1974, Congress passed the ______________________, which provides funds to states to bolster their services for maltreated children and their parents.
17.
According to the shifting philosophies of juvenile justice outlined in your text, the time from 1950-1970 recognized that:
18.
There are more than 450 juvenile ________________ who focus on providing treatment for youth accused of substance abuse offenses.
19.
A program developed in Arizona in an effort to reduce adolescent involvement in criminal behavior that has since been added to school curricula in all 50 states is known as:
20.
The Supreme Court held that the _______________ protections against unreasonable search and seizures apply to students but that the need to maintain an orderly educational environment modifies the needs for warrants and probable cause.
21.
Which of the following is not a Supreme Court case dealing with searching for drugs in associatio.
THE LASTING IMPACT OF MENDEZ V. WESTMINSTER IN THE STRUGGLE .docxjmindy
This document summarizes the 1947 Mendez v. Westminster Supreme Court case, which ruled that segregating Mexican American students into separate schools violated the 14th Amendment. It discusses how this case paved the way for the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education decision banning racial segregation in schools. The case involved Mexican American parents in California suing to allow their children to attend white schools rather than segregated Mexican schools with inferior conditions. Thurgood Marshall participated in this case and it influenced his strategy in Brown v. Board.
The late 1920s and 1930s were a time when many Americans endured the.docxjmindy
The late 1920s and 1930s were a time when many Americans endured the humiliation of rampant racism as well as crushing poverty. Yet most mainstream popular music (exemplified by the Tin Pan Alley style) avoided these issues and focused instead on escapist themes of privacy and romance.
Why might this have been the case? Do you feel that contemporary popular music also focuses on escapist themes like the 1920s and 1930s or do you feel that it tackles the relevant issues of the day? Do you feel that popular music works best as an escape from the problems of the world or as a forum to explore and engage in such issues? Please be as specific as possible in citing examples
.
The last term you attended at Waldorf you dropped a course while on .docxjmindy
The last term you attended at Waldorf you dropped a course while on Satisfactory Academic Progress Warning which caused your dismissal. If you would like to appeal this dismissal and reinstate yourself into the program you’ll need to complete the attached form and write a statement.
1. Provide a typed and signed statement describing the circumstances that led to your lack of academic progress while on Satisfactory Academic Progress. Be specific and concise in your explanation as to why you were unable to make successful progress.
(My mother became ill in July 2017, I had to care for her. She passed away in October 2017) .
2. Provide a plan of action that you will use to ensure your future academic success. Include information on how much time a day/week you will dedicate to your coursework.
3. Develop a plan with your advisor to repeat courses as needed and include this with your appeal.
In your appeal statement, you may include that we’ve discussed if your return is accepted you’ll retake your failed course and dropped course first. EDU 5102 Student-Centered Differentiated Learning and EDU 5100 Personal Leadership Skills and Team Building are the two you’ll need to have done.
.
The last topic to be covered in this course is Chapter 14, Social .docxjmindy
The last topic to be covered in this course is Chapter 14, Social Movements.
Choose to view one of the movies in this Unit, either
The Garden
(in English and somein Spanish with English subtitles) or
Holding Ground Parts 1 and 2.
Then consider the following social justice issues listed below that have impacted physiological, social, psychological and spiritual human behavior and development on the macro (societal) and mezzo (family and community) person and environmental dimensions of human functioning. These issues could serve as the foundation to the creation of a social movement in your local (city, small town), state, or federal level. Choose a topic that you have some passion for that you or others known to you have experienced. If you have your own topic, not on the list, check with the Instructor.
Some examples are:
Medical health care costs
Disability accessibility
Housing conditions (lack of or segregated sub-standard housing and rent)
Environmental air/ground conditions (e.g. sinkholes in a neighborhood, ground pollution causing birth defects, etc.)
Nutrition needs (e.g. hunger, poverty, etc.)
Political representation (e.g. lack of access to voter registration, municipal representation, or suppression)
Safety measures - (e.g. police profiling, lack of police patrols, neighborhood violence, racial violence)
Unemployment – e.g. layoffs, segregated workplaces by gender/race/age
Poverty – low income, lack of health insurance, lack of access to payment for medications.
High property taxes
Neglected or segregated schools
Banking and regulatory practices that may profile or discriminate against specified populations
Discriminatory practices involving vulnerable minority populations
Toxic air/water pollution
Conduct a literature review of 10 peer-reviewed sources to research the social justice aspects of your chosen issue and its consequences - e.g. physiological, political, social, psychological, and spiritual consequences on the macro (societal, community) and mezzo (family and community) personal and environmental dimensions. Integrate by way of in-text cited content the research findings into your paper’s content from the Hutchison text - e.g. Chapters 13 on Communities and Chapter 14 on Social Movement and from the supplemental sources. Instructions on how to write a literature review is posted under Assignments. (See above.)
Respond to the following:Explain historically how this issue came to be and the current conditions that are impacting on what specific population/s of people. Discuss the importance of your issue. “What are the two or three cultural frames that would motivate people to engage in collective action on this issue….How important do you think emotions are in motivating people to participate in [this] social movement activity (Hutchison, 2019, 450)?” Explain and support your rationale by way of in-text cited content.
What “Elite Allies” (p. 436) could be recruited as influential forces to a.
The last quarter of the 19th century saw a shift within the art worl.docxjmindy
The last quarter of the 19th century saw a shift within the art world from male-dominated history and genre scenes to female-dominated interiors and landscapes, along with a shift in artistic discourse from the theories of John Ruskin to those of James Abbott McNeill Whistler. Describe the theories of each of these figures and why this shift occurred. Then discuss the differences between the two types of art associated with these theories, using specific examples.
200-300 Words, work sited
.
The last answer didnt actually help, so I am reposting this.P.docxjmindy
*The last answer didn't actually help, so I am reposting this.*
Performance Management Process Phases
Using the internet
, research the employee performance management process. There is a wealth of articles and resources for each phase of the process
The phases:
Establishing Performance Goals
Developing Performance Plans
Giving and Receiving Feedback
Evaluating Performance
Identify and explain each phase, then discuss the best practice for that phase.
2-3 pages;
Double spaced, APA formatted.
Provide links to all resources used for this paper - no need to include citations or a full reference page just the links will do. Please use free web sources.
.
The Lab assignment will be graded out of 100 points. There are .docxjmindy
The Lab assignment will be graded out of 100 points. There are multiple parts or tasks that make up each Lab.
This document can be downloaded here :
Lab4CFall20v1.docx
The code you need to start with :
Lab4Part1.c
The data file you need :
Lab4giftList.txt
(Note that this file name doesn't match the code so you'll need to adjust that.)
Some tasks ask you to write code, and specify what name to use for the file in NetBeans. You need to use exactly the name that is given (do not change the case, or make any other modification). Remember, the name of the main class must match the filename.
There are further instructions at the bottom (after the questions) about how to save the file from NetBeans in order to be able to turn it in.
For every lab assignment you need to create an answers file. In this answers file you will put in answer any questions that are asked, you will show the output of code that you write and you will reference any code files that you create for a given question. See below for more details about what goes in the answers file.
Your answers document needs to be named with your initials and the last four digits of your ID number and then Lab#answers. So if my initials are JCMT and the last four digits of my ID are 1234, then the answers file for my Lab 4 would be
JCMT1234Lab3answers
.
The ONLY acceptable file formats are Word document, OpenOffice document, and PDF.
Put your last name, first name and UTA ID in the file on the first line.
[-5 deduction if not**]
Label the answers for each question with the number/letter of the question.
Separate each answer from the next answer by at least two blank lines
.
[-5 deduction if not**]
Include EVERY question number/letter combination from the assignment in your answers document. If the question is a coding question telling you to save a file, for example some question numbered 17.b), then in your answers document you should have a line like the following for question 17.b):
17.b) Please see file Lab1Part3.c for this question.”
Put all your question answers the answer document.
If the lab question asks you to show the output of a doing some particular thing with the code, then you must also put a screenshot of the output in the answer document. For output that takes up more than one screen, make multiple pictures so that every screen is recorded. If you do not include the screenshots in your answer document, then the questions that should have had screenshots will be considered “Not answered” and will be awarded ZERO 0 points.
Each task below will instruct you where to put your answers. If the task says to “Save your program as file
XYZ1234Lab1Task1.c
” then this .c file should be turned in as part of the assignment along with the answers file.
Every lab assignment has a given due date. No late labs will be accepted. (Five minutes late is still late.) Lab assignments will be posted on Canvas. If you are unable to turn in your .
The knowledge of your Learning Patterns provides you with an .docxjmindy
“The knowledge of your Learning Patterns provides you with an explanation
of how you learn, not an excuse for failing to put forth the effort to learn.”
—Christine A. Johnston (2010, p. 107)
4Developing an Adept Mind
keithpix/iStock/Thinkstock
Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
• Define the term adept mind.
• Explain the role critical thinking plays in becoming a successful student.
• Demonstrate critical reading within the college learning context.
• Describe how your Patterns affect your critical-reading skills.
• Demonstrate critical writing within the college learning context.
• Describe how your Patterns affect your critical-writing skills.
• Explain how critical-thinking skills contribute to academic integrity.
“In order to thrive in the 21st Century, intentional learners should be
empowered through a mastery of intellectual and practical skills, informed
about forms of inquiry, and responsible for their personal actions.”
—J. Doherty and K. Ketchner (2005, p. 1)
Section 4.2Becoming a Critical Thinker
4.1 The Adept Mind
Chapter 3 was devoted to helping you understand how to use metacognition, the learning
techniques known as decoding and FITing, and personalized strategies to become a more
intentional learner. This chapter builds on that knowledge by framing how to use your Learn-
ing Patterns to develop an adept mind.
The adept mind helps you succeed in all areas of life. It is one that makes good decisions and
can discern the difference between fact and fiction. It studies a situation’s complexity, weighs
the facts, examines the logic behind a choice, and determines whether a choice is appropriate.
The adept mind is intentional, stable, and often methodical and always seeks to improve its
efficiency and effectiveness. The adept mind is vital not only to the work of a student, but also
to the experience of being a parent, employee, or volunteer. No matter what you are called
on to do in life, you will need an adept mind to navigate the change you encounter and the
growth you seek.
The adept mind uses the critical skills of thinking, reading, and writing—skills this chap-
ter explores in depth—and uses them with integrity. The word critical is not one students
embrace easily. It has a negative connotation and suggests that someone has found fault with
something you have done. It conjures up images of a scolding voice, red pen marks, or nega-
tive comments. When applied to thinking, reading, and writing, however, the word critical
takes on a different meaning. To be critical means to delve deeper into a topic to better under-
stand, evaluate, and take a position on it. As you will see at the end of the chapter, being criti-
cal also means becoming able to use your research with honesty and originality.
4.2 Becoming a Critical Thinker
When you engage in critical think-
ing, you embark on an ongoing quest
to improve how you think. Thinking
critically requires you to b.
The Kite Runner contains many families that suffer in their own uniq.docxjmindy
The Kite Runner contains many families that suffer in their own unique way. Two different fathers in the novel both are overbearing in their own way, which leads to their families falling apart. The author uses these families to dimistrait the theme of how overbearing parents will cause their kids to resent their family. The main character Amir's family's major source of unhappiness was Baba's decision to father an illegitimate child with the servant’s son. This created an unhealthy dynamic between The legitimate and illegitimate son where the legitimate son constantly had to fight for and earn his father's affection from the illegitimate son. It got so bad that Amir, the legitimate child, forced the two families to separate. Ironically, Baba showing his son too much affection is what separated them in the end. Amir’s wife Soraya has a broken family of her own. Her father was a famous General back in Afghanistan, but now does nothing but run a resale store as a hobby and cash in welfare checks. He sees himself as above the rest of his countrymen and too important to work labor. While he does nothing to improve his standard of living, he expects his daughter to not only be successful in school but pursue a high-paying job to his specification. This pressure makes Soray act out and rebel, leading her to compromise her Purity Within The Afghani community. This sacrifices her chance at marrying, one of the major ways his family could have moved up socially and economically. Both of these fathers put unrealistic expectations on their children leading to broken families in a different way. Baba’s unrealistic expectations led Amir into destroying the family he loved while Sayora’s father's overbearingness led her to ruin his family’s pride which he valued over everything.
.
The Key cross-cultural themes of the project are country values and .docxjmindy
The Key cross-cultural themes of the project are country values and hofstede dimensions. Projects should be 23 pages long.
Project framework: Title page, table of contents, introduction, various chapters, conclusion, bibliography, appendics
project guidelines
Example: different leadership styles - USA, Vietnam and Singapore compared
Format of the project:
1. Discuss and analyse the determinants of culture in the country chosed: History, Religion, Social Structure, Political Philosophy, Economy, Language and education
2. Look at Hofstede Dimensions and World Values Survey to find background info
3. Other theoretical Perspectives
4. Conclusion must be about the cultural environment for business in the given country
5. Project Resources:
a. Hofstede Home page: http://www.geert-hofstede.com
b. World Values Survey: http://www.worldvaluessurvey.com
c. CIA World Fact Book: http://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html
d. Background information: Country statistical organization, the wall street journal, business week, the economist
6. Key Outcomes:
a. The demonstration of an ability to discuss and analyse the contents of this module
b. The exploration of the different dimensions of the global cultural environment
c. The identification of the main issues and challenges relating to culture and its impact on facing businesses today
d. Comprehensive business report on the application of the course concept within your own work place or one which you are familiar with
7. Using Harvard Referencing
.
The kind of relationships that society expects from its citizens an.docxjmindy
“The kind of relationships that society expects from its citizens and the way it organizes its important institutions – the family, the system of governance and control – can either nurture or stunt people’s impulses to give help to relatives, friends, and needy strangers” (Mandell and Schram, 2012, p. 28).
After watching the
Meaning of Human Services
video, and reflecting on the quote above, use the outline below to describe the history of human services in western society.
History of Human Services
. Discuss the history of helping behavior and human services in western culture. What factors have influenced our ability and willingness to help society members?
Changing Nature of Helping
. Describe how societal circumstances shape helping behavior. Explain the principle of reciprocity and its relation to western cycles of giving and helping. Be sure to include such philosophies as means tested vs. universal programs, culture of poverty vs. opportunity theory, etc.
Cycles of Helping
. Discuss the cycles of helping in the American society as they relate to welfare, juvenile justice, mental illness, and criminal justice. In your opinion, are we doing enough in these areas? If not, why not?
Your assignment should be two- to three-pages in length (excluding title and reference pages), and must include a minimum of three scholarly sources to substantiate your argument. At least two of these must be scholarly, peer-reviewed sources that were published within the past five years. Your paper and all sources must be formatted according to the APA guidelines
.
THE KING COMPANY BACKGROUND The King Company experiences man.docxjmindy
THE KING COMPANY BACKGROUND The King Company experiences many of the difficulties common in today’s business climate. In response to declining sales, the company must transform itself from a strategy of expansion and high profit to one of cost containment and staff reductions.The case discusses the organization and provides details of the human resource department. Also presented are e-mails from various staff members. The e-mails identify specific problems that need to be addressed by the HR department and provides a look at King’s overall culture. You may find the tone of some e-mails to be unprofessional. This is a good lesson for us all--As much as we enjoy informality in the workplace, all documents and correspondence— including e-mails—can be retained and are discoverable in litigation. Managers must be cautious in their writing because inappropriate language may be impossible to defend in court.
Employees In the Case:
Amera, Argonta---Accounting employee
Andreas, Gary---employee on workers’ comp
Call, Jake---Compensation & Benefits Manager
Dean, Don---C.E.O.
Dugas, Karla---Benefits Coordinator
Folkner, Meg---Supervisor, CAD Design
Grant, Alan---Current HR Director
Honduras, Margo---Previous HR Director
Jones, Lyle---Production Employee
Madison, Charles---Senior V.P.
Petersen, Matt---Production Supervisor, Team 3
Planky, Burt---fishing buddy
Putt, Tonia---CAD Designer
Rey, Dave---Production Foreman
Sanders, Tomas---Design Manager
Scholl, Karmen---HRD Manager
Simms, Bertie---Designer
Smith, Mike---V.P.
Songun, Amy---Accounting Supervisor
Stone, Guy---Production Supervisor
Tu, Kevin---Staffing Manager
Varn, Juan---Safety & Security Manager
Warner, Salty---union promoter
White, Shaun---Employee Relations Manager
COMPANY BACKGROUND:
The King Company is a small manufacturing company located in a mid-sized city in the upper Midwest. King manufactures high-quality specialty components for the computer industry. The company was founded in 1994 by current CEO, Don Dean. Dean was a talented young engineer in Silicon Valley. When the industry hit the skids in the early 1990s, he found himself out the door with little more than an entrepreneurial spirit and a small severance. Dean left California, moved back to his home state and used his severance to finance The King Company, starting the company in small rented quarters in a nearly vacant strip mall. He brought in Cliff Madison early on as chief financial officer. Dean was smart enough to know that he had no head for figures, but Madison did. Madison was an old college buddy, a super accounting wiz, and somebody Dean could trust to squeeze as much mileage as possible out of his severance money. It was a good match. Madison managed the business, and Dean was the idea man and designer of the specialty components, patents of which were the backbone of King’s success. Today, the low-rent strip mall is a part of company history, and King employs 835 full-time workers.
The Kind of leader I want to beAbout 1 pageTell the type.docxjmindy
The Kind of leader I want to be
About 1 page
Tell the type of leader you want to be while at Tuskegee University and after graduation. Tell the type of leadership characteristics you want to possess and why Tell what type of leadership style you would use and why you would use it
.
The key issue is why its challenging to implement transformational .docxjmindy
The key issue is why it's challenging to implement transformational change to the organization and why the organizations resist change.
Transformational changes are the most difficult since they require radical and significant changes to organizational structures, strategies, culture, and ethics.
Describe how organizations develop strategies, routines and processes that make them reliable and accountable to transformational change.
Describe bureaucracies, institutionalization, cognitive scripts as factors making organizations more resistant to change.
.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
MATATAG CURRICULUM: ASSESSING THE READINESS OF ELEM. PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS I...NelTorrente
In this research, it concludes that while the readiness of teachers in Caloocan City to implement the MATATAG Curriculum is generally positive, targeted efforts in professional development, resource distribution, support networks, and comprehensive preparation can address the existing gaps and ensure successful curriculum implementation.
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
Thinking of getting a dog? Be aware that breeds like Pit Bulls, Rottweilers, and German Shepherds can be loyal and dangerous. Proper training and socialization are crucial to preventing aggressive behaviors. Ensure safety by understanding their needs and always supervising interactions. Stay safe, and enjoy your furry friends!
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
2. significant negative predictor
of mathematics achievement among Indian immigrant
adolescents in Canada. Amotivation
was not statistically significantly related to mathematics
achievement among Indian im-
migrant adolescents in Canada. Implications of the findings for
pedagogy and practice are
discussed.
Keywords: academic motivation, amotivation, extrinsic
motivation, Indian adolescents,
Indian immigrant adolescents, intrinsic motivation, mathematics
achievement
IN THE PAST TWO DECADES, UNPRECEDENTED WAVES
OF IMMI-
GRATION have changed the demographic composition of
Canada’s population
(Statistics Canada, 2010). According to the 2006 Census, one in
five of the recent
immigrants to Canada was aged 14 and under (approximately
223,200 children),
while about 167,600 recent immigrants were aged 15 to 24
(Statistics Canada,
2007). Further, according to Statistics Canada (2010), China
and India alone are
the birthplaces of more than 29% of all immigrants to Canada.
In 2009 alone, the
vast majority of immigrant students and their families came
from China (12%)
and India (10%) (Citizenship and Immigration Canada, 2010),
and it is projected
Address correspondence to Shaljan Areepattamannil;
[email protected] (e-mail).
3. 247
248 The Journal of General Psychology
that, among all the visible minority groups in Canada, South
Asians and Chinese
will still be the largest visible minority groups in 2031
(Statistics Canada, 2010).
The Indian community in Canada is highly concentrated in
Ontario (58%)
and British Columbia (26%), with the majority of Indian
immigrants living in or
near Toronto or Vancouver (68%; Statistics Canada, 2007). In
2001, 23% of the
Indian community were children under the age of 15 years,
while 16% of the Indian
community were aged 15 to 24 years (Statistics Canada, 2007).
The massive waves
of immigration have exacerbated gaps in academic achievement
among children
of varied racial and ethnic backgrounds in Canada (e.g., Anisef,
Brown, Phythian,
Sweet, & Walters, 2008). Although variations in children’s
cognitive abilities
and skills may explain gaps in academic achievement among
children of varied
racial and ethnic backgrounds (Hansen, Liu, & Kučera, 2010),
such abilities and
skills may not fully explain their academic achievement
(Schunk & Zimmerman,
2007), suggesting that noncognitive correlates of academic
achievement, such
as academic motivation, may also play a crucial role in
4. determining children’s
academic achievement (see Areepattamannil & Freeman, 2008;
Areepattamannil,
Freeman, & Klinger, 2011a, 2011b).
Nonetheless, contemporary theories of academic motivation are
primarily the
offspring of Western theorizing and research, and the research
participants are
predominantly Western, particularly North American and
European, school chil-
dren. Moreover, the burgeoning immigrant student population in
major immigrant
receiving societies across the globe necessitates the need to
broaden the purview
of motivation theories and research to account for the
experiences of these cultur-
ally diverse groups. However, McInerney (2007) posits that
“when motivational
and learning theories are transported to new cultural and social
settings to under-
stand and manage individual and group behaviour, there might
be a mismatch”
(p. 369). Therefore, more empirical research, examining the
relations of academic
motivation to student learning outcomes across cultures, is
warranted. As Gilman,
Huebner, and Furlong (2009) remark,
If the ultimate goal of schools is to educate young people to
become responsible
and critically thinking citizens who can succeed in life,
understanding factors
that stimulate them to become active agents in their own
learning is critical.
(p. 1)
5. Although there is a growing body of research on academic
motivation and
academic achievement of school children across East Asian
cultures (e.g., Liem &
Nie, 2008), no study to date has examined the relationships
between academic mo-
tivation and mathematics achievement for adolescents in South
Asia, particularly
for Indian adolescents in India in comparison to their Indian
immigrant coun-
terparts in Canada. Furthermore, the Indian adolescents belong
to a moderately
collectivist culture, India, and the Indian immigrant adolescents
have been living
Areepattamannil 249
in a highly individualist culture, Canada, for a while. As
Hofstede, Hofstede, and
Minkov (2010) state:
The purpose of education is perceived differently between the
individualist and
the collectivist societies. In the former, it aims at preparing the
individual for a
place in a society of other individuals. The purpose of learning
is less to know
how to do than to know how to learn. In a collectivist society,
there is a stress on
adaptation to the skills and virtues necessary to be an
acceptable group member.
Learning is more often seen as a onetime process, reserved for
young people, who
6. have to learn how to do things in order to participate in society.
(pp. 118–119)
Therefore, examining the academic trajectories of Indian
immigrant adolescents
in Canada in comparison to their counterparts in India may help
us to better un-
derstand the impact of travel and relocation from one culture to
another culture
on Indian immigrant adolescents’ academic motivation and
academic achieve-
ment. Given the dearth of research surrounding the academic
trajectories of Indian
adolescents in India and Indian immigrant adolescents in
Canada, the purpose of
the present study was to examine the relationship between
academic motivation
and mathematics achievement among Indian adolescents in India
and Indian im-
migrant adolescents in Canada. Specifically, the study examined
whether or not
academic motivation would predict mathematics achievement
differently among
Indian adolescents in India and Indian immigrant adolescents in
Canada.
Academic Motivation and Mathematics Achievement
Although researchers have propounded various theories to
explicate the re-
lationships between academic motivation and academic
achievement, one of the
well-delineated theories is Deci & Ryan’s (1985, 1991, 2000)
self-determination
theory (SDT). It is a “macro-theory of human motivation,
emotion, and develop-
7. ment that takes interest in factors that either facilitate or
forestall the assimilative
and growth-oriented processes in people” (Niemiec & Ryan,
2009, p. 134). SDT
postulates that academic motivation is multidimensional in
nature, and comprises
three types of global motivation: intrinsic motivation, extrinsic
motivation, and
amotivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000, 2008). When students
are intrinsically
motivated, they engage in learning activities freely for the
inherent satisfaction,
fun, and enjoyment that they derive from the participation itself
(Deci & Ryan,
2002). In contrast, when students are extrinsically motivated,
they engage in learn-
ing activities for instrumental reasons rather than for intrinsic
reasons (Vallerand
& Ratelle, 2002). Finally, amotivation refers to lack of either
intrinsic or extrinsic
motivation. SDT further posits that both intrinsic motivation
and extrinsic moti-
vation are multidimensional in nature as well (Deci & Ryan,
2002). The tripartite
taxonomy of intrinsic motivation include: intrinsic motivation
to know, intrinsic
motivation to accomplish things, and intrinsic motivation to
experience stimulation
(Vallerand & Ratelle, 2002); and the four types of extrinsic
behavioural regulation
250 The Journal of General Psychology
are external regulation, introjected regulation, identified
8. regulation, and integrated
regulation (Deci & Ryan, 2002).
Despite a large body of research on the links between academic
motiva-
tion and academic achievement, only a small body of research
has examined the
relations of academic motivation to academic achievement
employing an SDT
perspective. Moreover, very few studies have specifically
explored the relations
between academic motivation and mathematics achievement for
school children
from the stance of SDT. For example, Fortier, Vallerand, and
Guay (1995) in-
vestigated the effects of perceived academic self-determination
and perceived
academic competence on autonomous academic motivation and
the influence of
autonomous academic motivation on student performance in
mathematics among
a sample of 263 French-speaking secondary students in Canada.
The authors
found that students’ perceived academic self-determination and
perceived aca-
demic competence positively influenced their autonomous
academic motivation,
which, in turn, had a positive effect on French-Canadian
children’s performance
in mathematics. The latent construct of autonomous academic
motivation in
the study comprised of four separate autonomy indices based on
seven motiva-
tional constructs: amotivation, extrinsic motivation-external
regulation, extrinsic
motivation-introjected regulation, extrinsic motivation-
9. identified regulation, in-
trinsic motivation-knowlwdge, intrinsic motivation-
accomplishment, and intrin-
sic motivation-stimulation. Similarly, Miserandino (1996),
employing the SDT
framework, demonstrated the impact of perceived competence
and perceived au-
tonomy (i.e., perceived autonomous motivation versus external
motivation) on
mathematics performance among 77 above-average elementary
school children in
the United States. Children with higher perceived competence
and perceived au-
tonomous motivation were found to be more engaged in school
and academics than
did their peers with lower perceived competence and lower
perceived autonomous
motivation.
The findings of these studies generally suggest that intrinsically
or au-
tonomously motivated school children are more likely to
perform better than
their extrinsically motivated peers. Studies that used other
motivational perspec-
tives, such as achievement motivation, achievement goal, and
academic intrinsic
motivation, have also found that intrinsically motivated students
tend to have
higher academic achievement (e.g., Gottfried, Marcoulides,
Gottfried, Oliver, &
Guerin, 2007), higher intellectual performance (e.g., Gottfried
& Gottfried, 2004),
less academic anxiety (e.g., Gottfried, 1990), and mastery-
oriented coping with
failure (e.g., Dweck, 1975). Similarly, intrinsically motivated
10. students tend to
have enhanced deep or conceptual learning (e.g., Ames &
Archer, 1988), greater
creativity (e.g., Eisenberger & Shanock, 2003), enhanced
cognitive flexibility and
engagement (e.g., Walker, Greene, & Mansell, 2006), enhanced
subjective or psy-
chological well-being (e.g., Burton, Lydon, D’Alessandro, &
Koestner, 2006),
and less extrinsic motivation (e.g., Gottfried, Gottfried, Cook,
& Morris, 2005).
A large body of research has also demonstrated the effects of
extrinsic motivation
Areepattamannil 251
on student learning outcomes. For example, prior research
documents that extrin-
sically motivated students are more likely to have lower
academic achievement
(e.g., Becker et al., 2010), and to engage in surface learning
(e.g., Biggs, 1991).
However, these studies were predominantly conducted in North
America and
Europe, and the participants were primarily White children.
Moreover, no study to
date has examined whether or not the relations between
academic motivation and
academic achievement would change when children relocate
from a collectivist
society to an individualist society. Such an examination is
crucial, given the bur-
geoning immigrant children population in major immigrant-
receiving countries
11. such as Canada.
Method
Sample
Separate samples were drawn from secondary students in India
and Canada.
Students whose parents agreed for them to participate and who
themselves agreed
to participate in the study completed the research measures. No
incentives were
given for participation in the survey. Participants in the
Canadian sample comprised
of 355 Indian immigrant adolescents (male = 179; female = 176)
from secondary
schools in Central Canada. Participants in the Indian sample
consisted of 363
adolescents (male = 192; female = 171) from English medium
secondary schools
in India, which were more or less on par with secondary schools
in Canada in
terms of infrastructural facilities. The age of the participants in
the Indian sample
ranged from 13 to 18 years, with a mean age of 16.04 years (SD
= 1.16). The
age of the participants in the Canadian sample ranged from 16
to 19 years, with a
mean age of 16.88 years (SD = .89).
Instruments
Demographic Questionnaire
The demographic questionnaire asked respondents to report
their age, gender,
12. country of origin, and current grades in school.
Mathematics Achievement
The outcome measure in the present study was mathematics
achievement.
Participants were asked to report their mathematics GPA on a 5-
point scale,
ranging from 5 = A (Mostly 90s) to 1 = F (Mostly 50s).
Academic Motivation
Academic motivation was measured with the Academic
Motivation
Scale–high school version (AMS; Vallerand et al., 1992). The
AMS is the
English translation of the Echelle de Motivation en Education
(Vallerand et al.,
252 The Journal of General Psychology
1992, 1993). Based on SDT, this 28-item instrument is divided
into seven sub-
scales, reflecting one subscale of amotivation, three ordered
subscales of extrinsic
motivation (external, introjected, and identified regulation), and
three distinct,
unordered subscales of intrinsic motivation (intrinsic motivation
to know, to ac-
complish things, and to experience stimulation). The items were
rated on a scale
ranging from 1 = does not correspond at all to 7 = corresponds
exactly. Each
subscale consisted of four items; thus subscale scores could
13. range from 4 to 28. A
high score on a subscale indicates high endorsement of that
particular motivation.
Several empirical studies investigating issues related to
motivation have used
both the French (e.g., Guay, Marsh, & Boivin, 2003 ) and
English (e.g., Areepat-
tamannil & Freeman, 2008) versions of the AMS scale.
Furthermore, numerous
studies have explored the measurement properties of the AMS
(e.g., Vallerand
et al., 1992, 1993). Vallerand et al. (1992) reported that
Cronbach’s coefficient
α for the subscales ranged from .83 to .86, with the exception of
the identified
subscale of extrinsic motivation, which had an internal
consistency of .62. In ad-
dition, internal consistency for the subscales ranged from .60 to
.86 with another
English-speaking sample (Vallerand et al., 1993).
Confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) were conducted in the
present study to
test the fit of the seven-factor structure for the whole sample,
the Indian sample, and
the Indian immigrant sample. The CFA performed on the whole
sample indicated
that the seven-factor model did not fit the data well (χ 2 =
2918.80, df = 336,
p < .001; SRMR = .17; RMSEA = .11; CFI = .86; TLI = .85).
Each of these fit
indices implies poor fit. Similarly, the CFAs performed on the
Indian and the Indian
immigrant samples also revealed that the seven-factor model did
not fit the data
14. well. Given the poor fit of the seven-factor model, CFAs were
also conducted to
examine the fit of a three-factor model (intrinsic motivation,
extrinsic motivation,
and amotivation). The CFA performed on the whole sample
suggested that the
three-factor model fitted the data well (χ 2 = 7653.66, df = 378,
p < .001; SRMR
= .03; RMSEA = .04; CFI = .97; TLI = .95). The CFAs
performed on the Indian
and the Indian immigrant samples also revealed that the three-
factor model fitted
the data well. Hence, a three-factor model was used in the
current study.
Results
Descriptive statistics and partial correlations (controlling for
gender and age)
are presented in Table 1. Prior to running the main analyses,
independent sam-
ples t-tests were conducted to examine whether or not the
Indian adolescents in
India differed statistically significantly from their counterparts
in Canada with
respect to mathematics achievement, intrinsic motivation,
extrinsic motivation,
and amotivation. The results of independent samples t-tests
indicated that the
Indian immigrant adolescents in Canada had statistically
significantly higher in-
trinsic motivation than did their peers in India, t(716) = -3.48, p
< .001, d = .25;
whereas Indian adolescents in India had statistically
significantly higher extrinsic
25. 254 The Journal of General Psychology
motivation (t(716) = 1.95, p = .05, d = .15) and amotivation
(t(716) = 1.97,
p = .04, d = .15) than did their counterparts in Canada.
However, no statistically
significant differences were found between Indian adolescents
in India and Indian
immigrant adolescents in Canada with respect to their
mathematics achievement,
t(716) = −1.78, p = .07, d = .13.
To address the purpose of the study, separate hierarchical
multiple regres-
sion analyses were conducted for the Indian and Indian
immigrant samples
(see Table 2). Mathematics achievement was the dependent
variable. The con-
trol variables, age and gender, were entered into the equation in
step 1. The
predictor variables, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation,
and amotivation,
were entered into the equation in step 2. Age and gender entered
into the equation
in step 1 explained a statistically significant amount of the
variance in mathematics
achievement, Adjusted R2 = .11, F (2, 360) = 23.62, p = .000;
Adjusted R2 = .01,
F (2, 352) = 3.69, p = .026, Indian and Indian immigrant
adolescents respectively.
After step 2, with intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and
amotivation also
included in the equation, Adjusted R2 = .12, Fchange (3, 357) =
2.63, p = .050;
Adjusted R2 = .25, Fchange (3, 349) = 37.02, p = .000, Indian
26. and Indian immi-
grant adolescents respectively. Thus, the addition of these
variables resulted in 1%
(Indian adolescents) and 24% (Indian immigrant adolescents)
increments in the
variance accounted for.
The regression analyses, after accounting for age and gender,
revealed that
intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation were
not statistically
significant predictors of mathematics achievement for the
Indian adolescents in
India. Intrinsic motivation was a positive predictor of
mathematics achievement
for the Indian immigrant adolescents, whereas extrinsic
motivation was a negative
predictor of mathematics achievement for the Indian immigrant
adolescents. Amo-
tivation was not a statistically significant predictor of
mathematics achievement
for the Indian immigrant adolescents.
Discussion
The purpose of the present study was to examine the
relationship between
academic motivation and mathematics achievement among
Indian adolescents in
India and Indian immigrant adolescents in Canada. The findings
of the study
revealed that intrinsic motivation—an autonomous form of
motivation—was re-
lated positively to mathematics achievement among Indian
immigrant adolescents
in Canada. Reeve and colleagues (2007) posit that “students
27. learn better and feel
better when they pursue intrinsic rather than extrinsic goals and
when their teachers
facilitate learning associated with intrinsic goals” (p. 233).
The Indian immigrant adolescents in Canada emigrated from a
moderately
collectivist culture, India, to a highly individualist culture,
Canada. Hermans and
Kempen (1998) posit that travel and relocation from one culture
to another culture
may result in an interweaving of cultures—cultural practices of
the home culture
Areepattamannil 255
T
A
B
L
E
2.
H
ie
ra
rc
h
ic
37. ∗
p
<
.0
5.
∗ ∗
p
<
.0
1.
∗ ∗
∗ p
<
.0
01
.
256 The Journal of General Psychology
may blend with those of the host culture to form a “hybridized
culture.” Similarly,
Fuligni (1998) found among 998 first-, second-, and third-
generation immigrant
adolescents in the United States with Mexican, Chinese,
Filipino, and European
backgrounds that these adolescents’ ethnic labels, attitudes,
values, behaviours,
38. and their perceived subjective cultures varied as a function of
intercultural con-
tact. Furthermore, prior research demonstrates that immigrant
adolescents’ native
culture values may align more with host culture values with
each passing gener-
ation (e.g., Fuligni, Witkow, & Garcia, 2005). The Indian
immigrant adolescents
in Canada, after spending some years in Canada, may have
changed their collec-
tivist values and attitudes toward school and academics. This
finding is congruent
with the claims of previous research conducted among Indian
students in North
America. For example, Savani, Markus, Naidu, Kumar, and
Berlia (2010) found
that
Indians who had spent more time in the United States were more
likely to construe
mundane actions as choices, a result suggesting that choice
became an important
category of action after Indian students engaged with a cultural
context where
the disjoint model of agency was prevalent. (p. 396)
This may partially explain why academic motivation—intrinsic
motivation
and extrinsic motivation—was predictive of mathematics
achievement among
Indian immigrant adolescents in Canada.
Given the numerous benefits of autonomy-supportive classroom
contexts
in individualist cultures (see Reeve, 2006; Reeve, Ryan, Deci,
& Jang, 2007),
39. the Indian immigrant adolescents in Canada might benefit from
autonomy-
supportive mathematics teachers who facilitate their students’
autonomous aca-
demic motivation—intrinsic motivation. However, to help
mathematics teachers
become more autonomy-supportive “requires that teachers work
through the steps
of becoming less controlling, wanting to support autonomy, and
learning the
practical ‘how-to’ of classroom autonomy support” (Reeve
2009, p. 172). An
autonomy-supportive motivating style comprises five categories
of instructional
behaviour (Jang, Reeve, & Deci, 2010; Reeve, 2009, 2011;
Reeve & Assor, 2011):
nurturing students’ inner motivational resources; providing
explanatory rationales;
relying on non-controlling and informational language;
displaying patience to al-
low for self-paced learning and personal development to occur;
and acknowledging
the students’ perspectives and feelings.
Meta-analyses have demonstrated the effectiveness of
autonomy-supportive
training intervention programs in developing an autonomy-
supportive motivating
style among teachers (e.g., Su & Reeve, 2010). Hence, pre-
service and in-service
teacher training programs in Canada may need to design and
implement ap-
propriate autonomy-supportive intervention programs with a
view to developing
autonomy-supportive mathematics teachers, who are capable of
nurturing their
40. Areepattamannil 257
students’ inner motivational resources such as interests,
preferences, psychologi-
cal needs, and intrinsic motivation.
However, teacher autonomy support may not alone foster Indian
immi-
grant adolescents’ intrinsic motivation. Teacher autonomy
support may need to
be supplemented with parental autonomy support. Unlike
controlling parenting,
autonomy-supportive parenting—promotion of children’s
volitional functioning
(Soenens et al., 2007)—is associated with more positive
psychological, develop-
mental, and educational outcomes in adolescents, including
improved academic
achievement (Soenens & Vansteenkiste, 2005), greater academic
motivation, and
higher levels of subjective well-being (Chirkov & Ryan, 2001).
The benefits of parental autonomy support underscore the need
for develop-
ing and promoting autonomy-supportive behaviours toward their
children among
the Indian immigrant parents. Autonomy-supportive parenting
behaviours may
include, among others, taking children’s perspectives and
viewpoints, encourag-
ing and supporting children’s initiatives and autonomous
problem solving, and
offering children choices (Grolnick, 2009). Parent training
41. programs/parenting in-
terventions based on SDT may help parents to become more
autonomy-supportive
(Joussemet, Landry & Koestner, 2008). As well, prior research
demonstrates that
parenting interventions emphasizing autonomy support have led
to considerable
improvements in familial climate and parenting practices
(Fetsch & Gebeke, 1995).
Hence, it is imperative to design such parenting interventions
targeted at fostering
autonomy-supportive parenting, which, in turn, may enhance
students’ intrinsic
motivation.
The findings of the study also indicated that extrinsic
motivation was related
negatively to mathematics achievement among Indian immigrant
adolescents in
Canada. The negative association between extrinsic motivation
and academic
achievement is very well documented in the burgeoning
literature on extrinsic
motivation (e.g., Becker et al., 2010). The finding with regard
to the negative
association between extrinsic motivation and mathematics
achievement reiterates
the need for teachers and parents to support students’ autonomy.
As Reeve (2009)
contends,
When students learn out of curiosity and the desire for optimal
challenge, they are
more engaged in and satisfied with their learning. They further
better understand
the material they are trying to learn and are more likely to stay
42. in school. (p. 172)
Unlike the Indian immigrant adolescents in Canada, intrinsic
motivation and
extrinsic motivation were not predictive of mathematics
achievement for the Indian
adolescents in India. In other words, academic motivation—
intrinsic motivation
and extrinsic motivation—was not linked to mathematics
achievement among
Indian adolescents in India. This finding may challenge the
cross-cultural/national
generalizability of SDT. Although the proponents of SDT
propound the universal
role of motivational autonomy in human functioning and
academic learning (see
258 The Journal of General Psychology
Chirkov, 2009), the critics of SDT posit that SDT constructs
such as autonomy and
autonomy-support are the products of individualist cultures, but
are not important
in collectivist cultures (see Cross & Gore, 2003). Furthermore,
there is growing
evidence that “choice is nonessential to agency among
collectivist populations,
who place a strong emphasis on role obligations to family and
friends” (Miller,
Das, & Chakravarthy, 2011, p. 47). As Miller (2003) further
elaborates,
The tendency of members of collectivist cultures to act
consciously from a sense
43. of duty suggests that they have less fully internalized social
expectations than
have members of individualistic cultures. They then would be
anticipated to have
a less developed sense of agency and, in general, to experience
less satisfaction
than do members of individualistic cultures who view their
actions as more freely
chosen. (p. 66)
Vast bodies of research have also documented that Indians are
less likely than
North Americans to construe actions as choices (see Miller,
1994; Savani, Markus,
& Conner, 2008; Savani et al., 2010). Thus, the types of
academic motivation
embraced by SDT may not be valid in collectivist cultures, such
as India, where
preferences and choices are not tightly linked (Savani et al.,
2008, 2010).
Limitations
There are three limitations to the current study. First, the study
used self-
report measures to assess Indian immigrant and Indian
adolescents’ mathematics
achievement and academic motivation. There is no consensus
among researchers
as to the validity and reliability of self-report measures.
Second, the study did
not collect data with regard to Indian immigrant and Indian
adolescents’ family
income, parental education, parental occupational status, and
Indian immigrant
adolescents’ age on arrival in Canada. The exclusion of these
44. confounding vari-
ables may have inflated the parameter estimates. Finally, in
addition to differences
in student characteristics, secondary schools in India and
Canada may vary widely
in terms of classroom, teacher, and school characteristics. The
present study, how-
ever, did not take into account such variations in classroom,
teacher, and school
characteristics.
Despite these limitations, the conspicuous lack of knowledge on
the academic
trajectories of Indian immigrant adolescents in Canada and
Indian adolescents in
India makes it imperative to conduct studies similar to the
present one. Further-
more, in the era of globalization and multiculturalism, it is of
utmost importance
to examine the influence of psycho-educational constructs, such
as academic mo-
tivation, on academic achievement of children and youth across
cultures. A better
and deeper understanding of the academic trajectories of
children and youth across
cultures may enable educators to develop appropriate strategies
to properly engage
them in academic learning, which, in turn, may promote their
academic success.
Areepattamannil 259
AUTHOR NOTE
45. Shaljan Areepattamannil, PhD, is an assistant professor at the
National In-
stitute of Education, Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore. His research
interests primarily revolve around psychosocial correlates and
antecedents of stu-
dent engagement and achievement across cultures.
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Reciprocal relations between intrinsic
reading motivation and reading
competence: A comparison between
native and immigrant students in
Germany
Ai Miyamoto
Bamberg Graduate School of Social Sciences (BAGSS),
University of Bamberg,
Bamberg, Germany
Maximilian Pfost
Department of Educational Research, University of Bamberg,
Bamberg, Germany
Cordula Artelt
Department of Educational Research, University of Bamberg,
Bamberg, Germany
56. The present study compares native and immigrant students
regarding the direction and
the strength of the relation between intrinsic reading motivation
and reading
competence. Within the framework of the German National
Educational Panel Study,
4,619 secondary school students were included in the analyses.
The present study
confirmed the reciprocal cross-lagged effects between intrinsic
reading motivation
and reading competence from grades 5 to 7 for native students.
In addition, the effect
of grade 5 intrinsic reading motivation on grade 7 reading
competence was mediated
by grade 6 reading amount. However, for immigrant students,
although the cross-
lagged effect of grade 5 reading competence on grade 7 intrinsic
reading motivation
was significant, the reverse effect was not significant. The
present findings suggest
that intrinsic reading motivation seems to be essential for the
development of reading
achievement for native students whereas it seems to be of less
importance for
immigrant students.
Highlights
What is already known about this topic?
• Intrinsic reading motivation and reading competence are
significantly and
positively correlated with each other.
• The relation between intrinsic reading motivation and reading
58. • Increase in reading competence seems to lead to higher levels
of intrinsic
reading motivation regardless of students’ immigration
background.
• Promoting students’ intrinsic reading motivation seems to lead
to better
reading competence for native students but not for immigrant
students.
• Especially with regard to immigrant students, educators should
take the
availability of adequate reading opportunities into account.
Reading motivation has been defined as ‘the individual’s
personal goals, values, and
beliefs with regard to the topics, processes, and outcomes of
reading’ (Guthrie & Wigfield,
2000, p.405). Reading motivation is suggested to be a
multidimensional construct which is
composed of different aspects including intrinsic and extrinsic
reading motivation
(Wigfield, 1997). Intrinsic reading motivation is defined as
individuals’ disposition to read
because the process of reading is rewarding and satisfying in
itself (Schiefele, Schaffner,
Möller, & Wigfield, 2012). In comparison, extrinsic reading
motivation is created when
individuals read for incentives that are external to the reading
activity such as reading for
recognition or grades (Schiefele et al., 2012). Extrinsic reading
motivation also contains
instrumental motives for reading such as influences from
parents, schools, or peers
(Becker, McElvany, & Kortenbruck, 2010).
59. Previous research has consistently shown that students’ intrinsic
reading motivation is
positively related to reading competence. This is found to be
true even after taking into
account students’ reasoning ability, decoding speed, prior
reading achievement, gender,
and family background (Andreassen & Bråten, 2010; Guthrie et
al., 2007; Retelsdorf,
Köller, & Möller, 2011; Schaffner, Philipp, & Schiefele, 2014;
Wang & Guthrie, 2004).
Despite strong empirical evidence for the positive association
between intrinsic reading
motivation and reading competence, most of the evidence is
based on correlational studies.
Thus, the causal direction of the relation between intrinsic
reading motivation and reading
competence still remains a topic of discussion.
Moreover, previous studies have consistently shown that
immigrant students tend to
underachieve compared to native students in reading in
Germany (Kigel, McElvany, &
Becker, 2015; Stanat & Christensen, 2006). Thus, it is highly
relevant for current research
to better understand the nature of the relation between intrinsic
reading motivation and
reading competence especially for immigrant students. Taken
together, the purpose of
the present study is to investigate the relation between intrinsic
reading motivation and
reading competence from a longitudinal perspective in a sample
of native and immigrant
students in Germany.
READING MOTIVATION AND READING COMPETENCE 177
61. intrinsic reading motivation
(particularly reading for interest) significantly predicted reading
comprehension growth
from grades 5 to 8 even after controlling for cognitive skills,
family characteristics, and
demographic variables. However, Retelsdorf et al. (2011) did
not examine the reverse
effects of reading comprehension on reading motivation.
In contrast to the self-enhancement model, the skill-
development model (Calsyn &
Kenny, 1977; Guay et al., 2003) indicates that intrinsic reading
motivation is a
consequence of reading competence. Students with better
reading skills may experience
more positive emotions while reading (e.g., enjoyment) due to
better understanding of a
text, and this could increase their intrinsic reading motivation.
In contrast, students with
poor reading skills may feel more negative emotions (e.g.,
frustration), and this could
decrease their intrinsic reading motivation.
The skill development model is supported by Becker et al.
(2010) who showed that
although grade 3 reading competence significantly predicted
grade 4 intrinsic reading
motivation, grade 4 intrinsic reading motivation did not
significantly contribute to grade
6 reading competence. However, Becker et al. (2010) also
mentioned that due to the high
stability of reading competence from grades 3 to 6 in their
study, it cannot be strictly
concluded that intrinsic reading motivation has no effect on
reading competence.
Finally, in order to reconcile the self-enhancement model with
63. reading competence nor a significant effect of reading
competence on intrinsic reading
motivation. Furthermore, McElvany, Becker, and Lüdtke
(2009), who analysed the same
data set as McElvany et al. (2008), also did not find a
significant effect of grade 4 intrinsic
reading motivation on grade 6 reading comprehension even after
accounting for
vocabulary, reading amount, and various family background
characteristics. Finally,
Schaffner et al. (2014) observed reciprocal effects between
intrinsic reading motivation
and reading competence from grades 5 to 6 for students from
academic track schools,
but not for students from nonacademic track schools.
Reading amount as a mediator
In order to investigate the direction of the relation between
intrinsic reading motivation
and reading competence, it is also important to consider
possible mediating processes
of this relation. Reading amount, often measured by frequencies
of reading, is found to
explain the effect of intrinsic reading motivation on reading
competence (Schaffner,
Schiefele, & Ulferts, 2013; Stutz, Schaffner, & Schiefele,
2016). The mechanism of
how intrinsically motivated students tend to improve their
reading comprehension
through an increased amount of reading involves the following
steps. First, intrinsically
motivated readers tend to genuinely enjoy reading because it is
rewarding and satisfying
in itself (Schiefele et al., 2012). Second, readers’ positive
64. emotions experienced during
the reading processes may reinforce them to seek more reading
activities in the future.
This assumption is also empirically confirmed that readers with
higher intrinsic reading
motivation tend to read more often than readers with lower
intrinsic reading motivation
(Guthrie, Wigfield, Metsala, & Cox, 1999; Wigfield & Guthrie,
1997). Finally, students
who spend more time on reading for pleasure tend to become
more competent readers
(Pfost, Dörfler, & Artelt, 2010). This may be due to an increase
in readers’ prior
knowledge of text topics which is found to be a strong predictor
of reading competence
(Artelt, Schiefele, & Schneider, 2001; Guthrie et al., 1999), or
because of the
automatisation of basic reading skills (e.g., decoding speed,
comprehension strategies,
and metacognition) that are also shown to facilitate reading
comprehension (Andreassen
& Bråten, 2010; Artelt et al., 2001).
However, previous studies which have examined the mediating
role of reading amount
seem to show inconsistent results. In a sample of elementary
school children (grades 2
to 5), some studies have found mediation effects of reading
amount on the relation between
intrinsic reading motivation and reading comprehension
(Schaffner et al., 2013; Stutz et al.,
2016) while others have not (De Naeghel, Van Keer,
Vansteenkiste, & Rosseel, 2012;
Wang & Guthrie, 2004). In these studies, although intrinsic
reading motivation was related
to reading amount, the reading amount did not significantly
66. 6 reading comprehension
through grade 4 reading amount. However, this indirect effect
disappeared when extrinsic
reading motivation and grade 3 reading achievement were added
to the model. Although
grade 4 intrinsic reading motivation positively and substantially
predicted grade 4 reading
amount, this reading amount did not significantly contribute to
grade 6 reading
competence.
The results of Becker et al. (2010) may differ from that of
McElvany et al. (2008)
possibly because of the inclusion of extrinsic reading
motivation and the different measures
used for intrinsic reading motivation and reading competence.
In addition, although
McElvany et al. (2008) included all relevant variables in grades
3, 4, and 6, Becker et al.
(2010) included intrinsic reading motivation and reading
amount only in grade 4 and
reading competence in grades 3 and 6.
Theoretically, it is plausible to assume that intrinsically
motivated students tend to read
more often, and their frequent reading behaviour leads to better
reading competence.
However, the previous studies seem to show mixed results.
These inconsistent results
may be due to the mostly cross-sectional nature of the studies.
Moreover, the introduction
of potential moderators might help clarify these inconsistent
relationships.
The role of students’ immigration background as a moderator
67. In spite of the strong empirical support for the relation between
intrinsic reading motivation
and reading competence, a moderating role of various students’
background variables on
this relation is not well understood (Schaffner et al., 2014).
Specifically, in Germany,
students’ immigration background seems to play an important
role in predicting their
reading competence as immigrant students tend to show
significantly lower reading
achievement than their native peers (Kigel et al., 2015; Stanat &
Christensen, 2006).
According to the PISA framework (OECD, 2010), 15-year-old
immigrant students lag
more than 50 score points on average in reading achievement
behind native students in
Germany. Such native–immigrant achievement gap in Germany
can be largely explained
by socio-economic status, educational levels of parents, and
languages spoken at home
(Marx & Stanat, 2012). However, even when taking into account
socio-economic status
and cultural capital, the negative effect of students’ immigration
status on text
comprehension and vocabulary was found to remain significant
(Kigel et al., 2015).
Despite lower reading achievement, immigrant students in
Germany tend to have similar
or even higher intrinsic reading motivation than native students.
Kigel et al. (2015) showed
that native and immigrant students did not significantly differ in
the levels of intrinsic
reading motivation. In addition, students’ immigration status
positively predicted intrinsic
69. expectations often go along with children’s positive learning
attitudes such as high levels of
reading motivation (Villiger et al., 2014).
Although many studies have examined differences in reading
motivation and reading
achievement at mean-levels, no studies to authors’ knowledge
so far have directly
examined the differences in the relation of these variables
between native and immigrant
students in a German context. However, it is highly relevant for
current research to draw
attention to students’ immigration background when examining
the relation between
intrinsic reading motivation and reading competence due to its
high practical relevance
for curricula aiming to strengthen reading skills of immigrant
students.
The present study
The present study intends to answer the following research
questions: 1) Do intrinsic
reading motivation and reading competence have reciprocal
effects on each other? 2) Is
the effect of intrinsic reading motivation on reading competence
mediated by reading
amount? 3) Do native and immigrant students differ in the
direction and the strength of
the relation between intrinsic reading motivation and reading
competence? As a reciprocal
relation between intrinsic reading motivation and reading
competence is most likely
(Morgan & Fuchs, 2007), we hypothesised that intrinsic reading
motivation and reading
competence will significantly predict each other from grades 5
70. to 7. In addition, consistent
with previous research (e.g., Stutz et al., 2016), we also
hypothesised that the effect of
grade 5 intrinsic reading motivation on grade 7 reading
competence will be significantly
mediated by grade 6 reading amount.
Furthermore, we expect significant and positive reciprocal
effects between intrinsic
reading motivation and reading competence for both native and
immigrant students. We
also expect a significant positive indirect effect of intrinsic
reading motivation on reading
competence through reading amount for both native and
immigrant students. This is due
to the assumption that the psychological and behavioural
mechanisms of how intrinsic
reading motivation and reading competence influence each other
should not be different
for native and immigrant students.
The present study also takes into account the types of school
track as a control variable.
In Germany, school tracks can be largely divided into either an
academic track which
typically prepares students for higher education, or a
nonacademic track which emphasises
more on practical education and vocational training. Of
secondary school students in
Germany, 34.2% enroll in academic track schools whereas the
remaining students attend
nonacademic track schools (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2016).
In previous research, school tracks have been found to moderate
the relation between
intrinsic reading motivation and reading competence. Schaffner
72. Method
Data and sample
The analyses of the present study used data from the German
National Educational Panel
Study (NEPS), Starting Cohort Grade 5.1 The NEPS is a
framework with a multi-cohort
longitudinal design, and their goal is to examine educational
processes and outcomes in
different developmental stages of a life course (Blossfeld,
Roßbach, & von Maurice,
2011). The sampling procedure of the participants includes the
following steps. First,
regular schools at lower secondary level were randomly
sampled. Then, grade 5 classes
within the selected schools were randomly chosen. Finally, two
classes were selected per
school, and all students of selected classes were invited to
participate in the study. This
sampling procedure ensured that the sample is representative of
secondary regular school
children in Germany.
Participants were asked to fill out the questionnaires and take
various competence tests.
The main sample of students (n = 4,619) were tested at three
time points: in the beginning
of grade 5 in 2010 (T1), in the beginning of grade 6 in 2011
(T2), and in the beginning of
grade 7 in 2012 (T3). At T3, in addition to the main sample,
more than 2,000 participants
were newly recruited to participate in the study as a refreshment
sample. However, this
sample was not included in our analyses as students in this
sample did not participate in
74. achievement compared to students of native-born parents. Thus,
it was important to draw
attention to these groups of students in our study. In total, our
analyses focused on data
of 3,907 native students and 712 immigrant students. In our
sample, immigrant students
tend to have lower educated parents than native students as
immigrant parents had shorter
education years (M = 12.27, SD = 2.53) than native parents (M
= 14.19, SD = 2.22). Of
immigrant students, 46.3% spoke only or mostly non-German
languages at home.
Instruments
Intrinsic reading motivation. Intrinsic reading motivation was
measured with five items
taken from the reading enjoyment and reading for interest
subscales of the Habitual
Reading Motivation Questionnaire (Möller & Bonerad, 2007), a
German adaptation of
the Motivation for Reading Questionnaire (MRQ). The selection
of these items was based
on the decisions of experts in the NEPS core team. In the
selection processes, the experts
aimed to cover the breadth of the construct by eliminating the
items which share similar
aspects. Some items were also removed if they were location
specific (e.g., at school or
at home) in order to address the construct in a general context.
Furthermore, to measure
the construct across a wide range of age groups, the length and
the linguistic level of the
items were also taken into account.
The selected items include the following statements: 1) ‘I enjoy
reading books’, 2) ‘I
75. think that reading is interesting’, 3) ‘I like reading about new
things’, 4) ‘I am convinced
that I can learn a lot by reading’, and 5) ‘Reading is important
to understand things right’.
All items were answered on a four-point rating scale from 1 (do
not agree at all) to 4
(completely agree). The higher scores indicated higher intrinsic
reading motivation. One
item (‘If I had enough time, I would read even more’) was
removed from the scale as it
may confound with the measure of reading amount. Intrinsic
reading motivation was
measured at T1 (grade 5) and at T3 (grade 7). Reliabilities of
the scale were good for native
students (ω = .86, α = .88 at T1; ω = .88, α = .89 at T3) and for
immigrant students
(ω = .87, α = .89 at T1; ω = .88, α = .90 at T3).
Reading competence. The reading comprehension test
administered in the NEPS is intended
to measure the functional understanding of written texts in a
typical everyday situation. This
concept of reading competence is also in line with the reading
literacy concept of the PISA
framework, that is, ‘the capacity to understand, use and reflect
on written texts, in order to
achieve one’s goals, to develop one’s knowledge and potential,
and to participate in society’
(OECD, 2002). Various text comprehension theories (e.g.,
Kintsch, 1998) were taken into
account by the NEPS framework for assessing reading
comprehension (see Gehrer,
Zimmermann, Artelt, & Weinert, 2013, for more information on
theoretical considerations
for the test). The NEPS also meets the demand for constructing
77. of a text. The majority of tasks used a multiple-choice format
whereas some tasks used a
decision-making or a matching format. Decision-making tasks
required students to assess
whether each statement was correct or incorrect, whereas
matching tasks involved selecting
and assigning titles to different sections of a text (see Gehrer,
Zimmermann, Artelt, &
Weinert, 2012, for more detailed descriptions and sample items
of the test).
The test was administered at T1 (grade 5) and T3 (grade 7). It
consisted of 32 items at T1
and 40 items at T3. The measurement invariance of the
competence scores from two
occasions was supported, and the test was linked in order to
allow a direct comparison
of the competence scores across time (Fischer, Rohm, Gnambs,
& Carstensen, 2016). At
T3, respondents were administered different test versions
depending on their scores at
T1. Low-ability respondents received a test with less difficult
items, whereas high-ability
respondents received a test with more difficult items. Students’
reading comprehension
scores were provided in the form of weighted maximum
likelihood estimates (WLEs).
The use of WLE score over sum/average score is highly
recommended by the NEPS
psychometricians as it takes into account the difficulties of each
item. According to the
NEPS technical report (Pohl et al., 2012), reliabilities of the
test were satisfactory at T1
(WLE reliability = .77) and at T3 (WLE reliability = .78 for the
low-ability test, and .76
for the high-ability test).
78. Reading amount. Reading amount was measured with a single
item asking how much time
per day students normally read outside school. This self-
reported question was answered
with five options (1 = not at all, 2 = up to half an hour, 3 =
between half an hour and
1 h, 4 = 1 to 2 h, and 5 = more than 2 h). In the NEPS, reading
amount was measured
at three time points. The test–retest reliability of this single
item scale was sufficient
(.48 from T1 to T2, and .53 from grades T2 to T3).
Control variable: types of school track. Students were asked
whether they attended
academic track schools which prepare students for higher
education, or nonacademic track
schools which emphasise on vocational training. In total, 1,880
native and 284 immigrant
students attended academic track schools whereas 1,213 native
and 289 immigrant students
attended nonacademic track schools. The remaining students
who attended neither
academic nor nonacademic track schools (e.g., comprehensive
schools) were excluded
from the analyses.
Statistical analyses
Prior to the multi-group analyses of structural equation models,
measurement invariance
tests were conducted across time and groups for intrinsic
reading motivation. Then, we
estimated a multi-group cross-lagged panel model for testing
the reciprocal relations
80. and a model which constrained each effect to be equal between
groups. Then, we
conducted a chi-square different test to see whether these two
models were significantly
different from each other. If the initial model was significantly
better than the constrained
model, we concluded that the observed effect was significantly
different between groups.
All models were estimated with the maximum likelihood
estimation using the lavaan
package of program R 3.2.1 (Rosseel, 2012). The average rate
of missing values per
variable was 10.82%. All missing values were dealt with the
full information maximum
likelihood (FIML) method option in lavaan.
Results
Descriptive statistics
Table 1 represents means and standard deviations of all relevant
variables of native and
immigrant students. Both groups of students did not
significantly differ in the levels of
intrinsic reading motivation in grades 5 and 7. Native students
significantly outperformed
immigrant students in reading competence in grades 5 and 7.
There were moderate to large
effects of the differences in students’ immigration background
on reading competence.
Table 1. Mean values and standard deviations of all variables
for native and immigrant students.
Total (n = 4619) Native (n = 3907) Immigrant (n = 712) Effect
size
82. academically advanced school tracks
seem to have higher intrinsic reading motivation, reading
amount, and reading competence
than those in less advanced school tracks regardless of students’
immigration status.
Furthermore, intrinsic reading motivation, reading amount, and
reading competence were
significantly and positively correlated with each other for both
native and immigrant
students.
Measurement invariance testing
Prior to the analyses, we conducted measurement invariance
tests of intrinsic reading
motivation across time (grade 5 and grade 7) and groups (native
and immigrant students).
Given that the purpose of the present study is to directly
compare path coefficients across
groups, the assumption of the least restricted model (configural
invariance) and the
second least restricted model (metric invariance) have to be met
(Milfont & Fischer,
2010).
Fit indices of the configural invariance model were satisfactory
across time (χ2 = 135.81,
df = 8, p = .000, CFI = .997, RMSEA = .062) and groups (χ2 =
753.96, df = 60, p = .000,
CFI = .975, RMSEA = .071). Thus, the general factor structure
of intrinsic reading
motivation was considered to be the same across time and
groups. Fit indices of the metric
invariance model were also good across time (χ2 = 233.58, df =
12, p = .000, CFI = .994,
RMSEA = .066) and groups (χ2 = 764.27, df = 68, p = .000, CFI
84. Reciprocal relations between intrinsic reading motivation and
reading competence
The estimated multi-group cross-lagged panel model showed a
good fit ( χ2 = 1,075.25,
df = 100, p = .000, CFI = .967, RMSEA = .065, SRMR = .046).
The results of all
standardised path coefficients for the model can be found in
Figure 1. Consistent with
our hypothesis, we observed significant and positive cross-
lagged effects of grade 5
reading competence on grade 7 intrinsic reading motivation for
both native ( β = .19,
p < .01) and immigrant students ( β = .22, p < .01). As expected,
there was also a
significant positive cross-lagged effect of grade 5 intrinsic
reading motivation on grade 7
reading competence for native students ( β = .13, p < .01).
However, contrary to our
hypothesis, the effect of grade 5 intrinsic reading motivation on
grade 7 reading
competence was not significant for immigrant students ( β =
.02, p > .05). This effect
was also found to be significantly weaker for immigrant
students than for native students
(Δχ2 = 7.26, df = 1, p < .01).
A mediating role of reading amount
The specified mediation model showed a good fit ( χ2 = 374.14,
df = 36, p = .000,
CFI = .979, RMSEA = .064, SRMR = .039). The results of all
path coefficients for the
86. In order to exclude the influence of school tracks on the tested
models, we replicated and
compared the models among the following four groups: 1)
native students in nonacademic
track schools, 2) immigrant students in nonacademic track
schools, 3) native students in
academic track schools, and 4) immigrant students in academic
track schools. The multi-
group cross-lagged panel model showed a good fit ( χ2 =
980.34, df = 208, p = .000,
CFI = .966, RMSEA = .064, SRMR = .048). The results of all
path coefficients for this
model are presented in Figure 3.
The cross-lagged effects of grade 5 reading competence on
grade 7 intrinsic reading
motivation was significant and positive for native and
immigrant students in academic track
schools ( β = .16, p < .01; β = .21, p < .01, respectively) as well
as in nonacademic track
schools ( β = .16, p < .01; β = .15, p < .05, respectively).
However, the cross-lagged effect
of grade 5 intrinsic reading motivation on grade 7 reading
competence was found to be
significant only for the native group and not for the immigrant
group. This was true for
both academic track schools ( β = .10, p < .01 for native
students; β = �.03, p > .05 for
immigrant students) and nonacademic track schools ( β = .14, p
< .01 for native students;
β = .01, p > .05 for immigrant students). Furthermore, this
effect was found to be
significantly lower for immigrant students than for native
students in nonacademic track
schools (Δχ2 = 3.96, df = 1, p < .05).
89. academic tracks and
β = .07, p < .01 for nonacademic tracks). This indirect effect
was significant for immigrant
students in academic track schools ( β = .06, p < .01) but not in
nonacademic track schools
( β = .02, p > .05).
Supplementary analyses on the influence of the language use for
reading
Because the items for intrinsic reading motivation and reading
amount were not language
specific, it is unknown whether immigrant students answered
these questions with
reference to reading in their first language or in German. To
find this out, we conducted
supplementary analyses based on the item that addresses the
language use for reading
books. This question was asked only for students who learned
other languages than
German as a family language in their childhood. In fact, the
majority of these students
(88.2%) answered that they read only or mostly in German.
Nevertheless, we replicated
the mediation model with the students who read only or mostly
in German (n = 2,435)
and students who read only or mostly in other languages (n =
147) in order to see if the
language use for reading has any effects on the relations among
intrinsic reading
motivation, reading amount, and reading competence. Students
who answered that this
question did not apply to them (n = 180) were excluded from
the analyses.
The model showed a good fit ( χ2 = 171.89, df = 36, p = .000,
CFI = .980, RMSEA = .054,
90. SRMR = .043). The results showed that within a group of
students who read only or mostly
in German, intrinsic reading motivation positively predicted
reading amount ( β = .38,
p < .01), and reading amount positively predicted reading
competence ( β = .14,
p < .01). In addition, there was a significant and positive
indirect effect of intrinsic reading
motivation on reading competence through reading amount for
this group ( β = .05,
p < .01). However, within a group of students who read only or
mostly in non-German
languages, intrinsic reading motivation did not significantly
predict reading amount
( β = .06, p > .05), and reading amount also did not significantly
contribute to reading
competence ( β = �.06, p > .05). There was also no significant
indirect effect of intrinsic
reading motivation on reading competence through reading
amount ( β = �.00, p > .05).
Discussion
The aim of the present study was to investigate reciprocal
relations between intrinsic
reading motivation and reading competence from a longitudinal
perspective in a sample
of native and immigrant students in Germany. We hypothesised
reciprocal effects between
intrinsic reading motivation and reading competence for both
groups. We also expected
that the effect of intrinsic reading motivation on reading
competence would be mediated
by reading amount for both groups.
92. students’ intrinsic reading motivation on reading competence
growth, they did not find a
significant effect of reading competence on growth in reading
motivation. However, the
present study differs from their study in various ways which
may have led us to different
results. For instance, Guthrie et al. (2007)’s study had much
smaller sample size (n = 31)
and shorter time span (12 weeks) than our study. In addition,
intrinsic reading motivation
was measured based on interviews in their study. Finally,
Guthrie et al. (2007) mentioned
that all students participated in the reading intervention
program which was designed to
increase both intrinsic reading motivation and reading
comprehension.
The present study did not provide empirical evidence for
reciprocal effects between
intrinsic reading motivation and reading competence for
immigrant students. Our findings
indicate that for immigrant students, although greater reading
skills may lead to an increase
in intrinsic reading motivation, higher intrinsic reading
motivation does not seem to
contribute to the development of reading competence. This is in
line with the
skill-development model, which suggests that intrinsic reading
motivation is a consequence
of reading competence rather than a precursor (Calsyn & Kenny,
1977; Guay et al., 2003).
However, when we examined the mediating role of reading
amount, we found a small but
significant indirect effect of intrinsic reading motivation on
reading competence through
reading amount for immigrant students. Thus, it cannot be
94. achievement. In contrast, when immigrant students attend
nonacademic track schools,
intrinsically motivated readers tend to read more frequently, but
the frequency of reading
seems to be unassociated with reading competence.
The present findings are partly in line with Schaffner et al.
(2014) who found that the
effect of intrinsic reading motivation on reading competence
was significant only for
academic track students and not for nonacademic track students.
Carver and Leibert
(1995) suggest that the amount of reading tends to promote
reading competence only when
students read challenging materials. Schaffner et al. (2014)
assumed that in comparison to
nonacademic track students, academic track students may be
provided with more
challenging reading materials; thus, they should have a stronger
effect of intrinsic reading
motivation on reading competence.
In addition to the types of school track, the language use for
reading may also be relevant
for influencing the effect of intrinsic reading motivation on
reading competence for
immigrant students. In our supplementary analyses of the
language use for reading, we
found that when immigrant students read only or mostly in non-
German languages,
intrinsic reading motivation as well as reading amount were
found to be unrelated to
German reading competence. Thus, it may be important for
immigrant students, especially
those who attend nonacademic track schools, to have sufficient
reading opportunities in
95. German at home in order to benefit more from the effect of
intrinsic reading motivation
for the development of reading competence.
Limitations and future directions of the present study
The present study did not take into account the quality of
reading materials that contributed
to the amount of reading. Previous research has shown that
intrinsic reading motivation
tends to be strongly related to fiction and factual book reading
while it seems to be
unrelated to other forms of reading (e.g., school books,
magazines, and online-texts)
(McGeown, Osborne, Warhurst, Norgate, & Duncan, 2016). In
addition, reading
frequencies of certain types of texts (e.g., novels, stories, and
tales) tend to be more
strongly associated with reading competence than other types of
texts (e.g., magazines,
newspapers, nonfiction books, or emails, Pfost, Dörfler, &
Artelt, 2013). Thus, a further
look inside this processes may be obtained by using more
extensive measures of reading
amount such as time spent reading different types of texts (e.g.,
reading fiction books,
comics, newspapers, etc...) when investigating relations among
intrinsic reading
motivation, reading amount, and reading competence.
Moreover, the present study considered the amount of reading
as the only mediator of the
relation between intrinsic reading motivation and reading
competence. However, in addition
to the amount of reading, the use of reading strategies (e.g.,
self-questioning, integrating,