1. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT & COMPUTING SCIENCE, 2014, 4(1), 81-88*
Which Factor of Schooling is the Most Affecting the Development of Cultural Values in
Bangladeshi Teenagers?
Oxana Rosca
Department of Educational Psychology, Institute of Education and Research
University of Dhaka, Bangladesh
E-mail: o.rosca@hotmail.com
Paper presented at the 12th International Conference of Management and Behavioural
Sciences organized by Society of Management and Behavioural Sciences India and Canada
Jaipur, India, 2-3 August, 2014
Abstract
This paper is focused on cultural differences between worldview perspectives of Bangladeshi
eight- and nine-graders studying in different types of secondary schools and on potential
factors causing those differences. Three sorts of quantitative data simultaneously collected
within four months from 11 schools of both rural and urban contexts have contributed to the
given results. A quantitative survey was conducted for 960 eight- and nine-graders (420
females and 540 males) via attitude questionnaire based on Geert Hofstede’s Values Survey
Module (VSM 94 and VSM 08) with minimal modifications due to the age and occupation of
targeted population. Demographic data were collected by short questionnaire from 80
teachers (36 females and 44 males) of aforementioned students. 70 class observations were
performed and resulted in observation protocols of detailed record of teaching strategies and
techniques applied by teacher-respondents teaching student- respondents. Analysis of those
data indicates that: (a) the embodiment of traditional cultural values does progress with quite
different intensity and to different degree in teenagers of the same nation (i.e. Bangladeshi)
but from diverse sociocultural and learning environments; (b) neither medium of instruction
(Bengali or English) nor a type of curriculum (national or foreign) plays as decisive role in
students’ cultural values’ formation as teaching methods applied.
Keywords: acculturation, adolescents, attitudes, cultural norms, MoI policy, non-
native MoI, traditional cultural values
*
ISSN: 2231-3303

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Objective. Attitudes shift is a vital issue for educational research: learner’s perceptions of
real social situations through specific aspects of his/her national culture can be compared
with a lens that filters and inflects all his/her new knowledge and skills. When comparisons
are made between students of secondary-level, not only medium of instruction differs
between various schools, but so do curricula, correlated to each other urban-rural context and
socio-economic status (as well as associated with them parents’ level of education, personal
access to the Internet, and parental approval of Western lifestyle), let alone other small but
culturally significant covariates, for instance, gender-orientation of every individual school
(co-education vs. gender-segregated institutions). Thus, Shaila Sultana admonished
Bangladeshi scientific society to avoid “simplistic assumptions” and to apply “a deeper
understanding of the multifaceted factors that influence their [Bangladeshi students’] …
cultural flows” (2013, p. 49).
In essence, the purpose of the thesis-research, which resulted in this paper, was to test
widely spread belief that foreign medium of instruction and foreign curriculum undoubtedly
inflict evolving native cultural values and beliefs of teenagers. Moreover, the entire idea of
the survey is rested on the assumption that secondary-level students from different types of
schools practically are taught in distinct sociocultural milieus and, subsequently, are
developing from slightly- to moderately different perceptions of real social context and
cultural values.
Literature Review. Bangladesh is not an exception in a vigorous searching for an effective
system to educate her young citizens. Many a post-colonial country is in overwhelming
enthusiasm for English-medium schools, when “demand for English leaves vernacular
schools empty” (Pednekar, 2011, the title).
By Geert Hofstede, the culture of a society is a mental programming, which starts
within the family; it continues within the neighborhood, at school, in youth groups, at the
work place, and in the living community (Hofstede et al., 2010).
Levinson (2007) outlines the term acculturation as a “kind of one-way supplanting of
one set of cultural values and orientations for another. It is a phenomenon that occurs most
strongly under situations of classical colonialism”. Furthermore, M. Pratt (1991) explains
acculturation by the circumstance when becoming more and more fluent in foreign language

3. 3
in formative years, students start to adapt and get absorbed into the foreign culture that entails
distortion of the perspective of a native culture.
Based on multivariate studies in more than 50 countries worldwide, Hofstede’s team
identified six major dimensions (Hofstede et al., 2010), which served as dependent variables
of the current study:
• Individualism vs. Collectivism (IDV hereinafter) – the relationship between the
individual and the group;
• Power Distance (PD) – social inequality, including the relationship with authority;
• Masculinity vs. Femininity (MAS) – the social implications of having been born
as a boy or a girl;
• Uncertainty Avoidance (UA) – ways of dealing with uncertainty, relating to the
control of aggression and the expression of emotions;
• Long-term Orientation (LTO) – the inclination for prompt reward as contrasted
with postponed reward; and
• Indulgence vs. Restraint (IVR) – indicating to which degree a society allows
satisfaction of basic and natural human drives associated with enjoying life and
having fun.
PD dimension appears to be most correlated with traditional teaching approaches and patterns
of teacher-student communication. To clarify, male-dominated, hierarchical and power-
oriented societies still maintain “culture of silence” in their traditional educational settings
(Freire, 1972). Accordingly, Rama Mathew (2012) illustrated learning attitudes of the
students of Indian rural school: “They have apparently not learned to break out the culture of
silence to engage in a dialogue especially with teachers”.
Nasrin Pervin specifies that those perceptions are contextually influenced by location,
community, culture, mother tongue, nature, and religion:
Because of my cultural background I conceptualized the role of the teacher as an
authority figure that is ―someone who acts as authority on the target language learning, as
well as directing and controlling all learning in the classroom. … Culturally we [the
Bangladeshi] are accustomed to teacher-centered teaching method not student-centered
approach. (2011, p. 138)

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Hofstede and Hofstede declared that “Long-term orientation is correlated with school
results in international comparisons” (2013, para. 12). In this regard, the past several decades
have witnessed a significant advance in cross-cultural research, comparing learning processes
and achievements of Western and Asian learners (Chan & Rao, 2009). Asian students are
often documented to have higher achievements than their Western counterparts (PISA
lessons, 2013, para. 1).
Methodology and Discussion of Findings. A quantitative survey method was chosen for
this study, namely attitude questionnaire survey for 960 secondary level students, eight- and
nine-graders (420 females and 540 males) from 11 Bangladeshi schools of both urban and
rural context. To avoid any confusion the emphasis should be placed on the fact that it is not
a cross-cultural study but a comparative analysis of four groups of Bangladeshi students
growing in distinct sociocultural milieus and studying in distinct educational settings.
The institutions-participants were: international school per se (some teachers are
foreigners, native English speakers) – IS in the course of given paper; quasi-international
schools (all teachers are the Bangladeshi) – QS; English-medium sections in private schools
teaching national curriculum – Es; Bengali-medium sections in aforementioned schools – Bs;
Government school – GS; rural registered schools – RS; rural madrasah (teaching religiously
inclined national curriculum) – RM; and urban madrasah – UM.
The mean scores of the present paper were obtained via altered version of Values
Survey Module,V SM 94 and VSM 08 with minimal but indispensable changes (Hofstede,
2001; Hofstede & Hofstede, 2008; Hofstede, Hofstede, Minkov, & Vinken, 2008). Since the
initial structure of VSM was wholly changed, the author employs term cultural tendencies
when discussing current survey outcomes but continues with an original term cultural
dimensions when referring to statistics secured by Hofstede’s team.
To start with, graphic check identified almost normal distribution of students’ answers
on Cultural Tendencies testing entire population sample, across categories of MoI and
curricula, and across eight types of schools alike (Figure 1).

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Figure 1. Examples of histograms with satisfactory normal distribution of students’ answers
Irrespective of the facts that (a) data were recognized normally distributed and (b) the
mean-scores of Tendencies obtained by averaging across mean-scores of items can be
considered an ordinal and even ratio data – nonparametric testing was chosen because initial
data were ordinal and categorical (measured by Likert scale). On the same grounds Mann-
Whitney U Test for independent samples was always verified by Median Test for
independent samples when running Hypothesis Statistical Significance Testing (Significance
Test hereinafter): hence all results of Significance Test claimed in this paper were equally
expressed by both tests. Even though, unstandardized measure of mean/median difference is
supposed to be complemented by a standardized measure of effect-size. Cohen’s d was
therefore calculated for all statistically significant differences.
Spearman rank correlation coefficient and Pearson’s R haven’t found significant
association between Cultural Tendencies; that is consistent with G. Hofstede: “the

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dimensions [tendencies herein] are statistically distinct and do occur in all possible
combinations, although some combinations are more frequent than others” (2011, p.8).
While significance test indicated only two out of six tendencies (i.e., MAS and UA)
as affected by Type of Curriculum, it showed four tendencies statistically significant across
categories of MoI (i.e., PD, MAS, UA, and IVR). Effect-size test, however, while approving
curriculum effect on MAS (p = .000; Cohen’s d = 0.39) and UA (p = .002; d = 0.3),
confirmed MoI effect only on Masculinity (p = .000; d = 0.55). These outcomes seem
strikingly comprehensible when demonstrated by line graphs in Figures 2 and 3.
Thus Figure 2 (left) portrays perceptible shifts in Masculinity, where two types of curriculum
outline significantly distinct means and medians of cultural views: very similar patterns of
distribution are literally shifted along the measuring scale placing opinions of foreign-
curricula students closer to a lower- and opinions of national curricula students towards a
higher level of MAS tendency. An analogous implication of MoI is pictured in right part of
Figure 2.
Figure 2. Visible shift of Masculinity as an implication of curriculum type (left) and MoI
(right)
Table 1 summarizes all six cases when educational factors other than teaching
methods show an impact on students’ cultural perspectives. Uncertainty Avoidance
undergoes an effect of curriculum type reporting opinions of foreign-curricula students closer
to a higher level of UA tendency (Table 1).

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Table1.
Influence of educational factors on cultural tendencies
Urban-rural context exposed wider impact on students’ cultural values with three
tendencies (out of six) manifesting cultural shift: PD (p = .001; Cohen’s d = 0.41), MAS (p =
.037; d = 0.38), and IVR (p = .001; d = 0.44). Left part of line graph in Figure 3 exemplifies
dissimilar survey data across urban-rural categories of context (left): shifted slopes of PD
cultural tendency in urban students are at lower levels of the scale. Coinciding slopes of
Individualism patterns, on contrary, provide an example of non-influenced distribution –
when each of two categories (English vs. Bengali here) replicates distribution of entire
population sample.
Figure 3. Statistically different distribution of students’ answers on PD across categories of
context (visible shift) and statistically equal distribution of students’ answers on
Individualism across categories of Medium of Instruction (English and Bengali).
Cultural
Tendency
Educational factors and direction of cultural shift
with statistical significance (p) and effect-size (Cohen’s d)
Medium of instruction (English
vs. Bengali)
Curriculum type
(foreign vs. national) Urban-Rural context
Power
Distance
Lower PD for urban context
p ** = .001
d = 0.41 (medium)
Masculinity
Lower MAS for English medium
p *** = .000
d = 0.55 (medium)
Lower MAS for foreign
curricula
p *** = .000
d = 0.39 (medium)
Lower MAS for urban context
p * = .037
d = 0.38 (medium)
Uncertainty
Avoidance
Higher UA for foreign
curricula
p ** = .002
d = 0.3 (medium)
Indulgence
Lower IVR for urban context
p ** = .001
d = 0.44 (medium)

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It is noteworthy that cultural tendency of Masculinity is influenced by English MoI, foreign
curricula, and urban context in same fashion: MAS values are tangibly decreased by each of
those variables. Consistent with this trend IS and QS mean scores are supposed to be at the
lowest position on Masculinity followed by Es mean scores. In reality, though, while IS did
appear at the lowest value of on MAS ranking scale (upper charts in Figure 4), Es is
obviously influenced by another variable and has moved in between schools of foreign
curricula. Overall, the sequence of schools’ cultural mean-scores doesn’t follow the order
conditioned by variables of MoI, curriculum type and urban-rural context (Table 1 and Figure
4): e.g., rural madrasah scored on PD lower then urban Government school despite the trend
of rural context to score higher than urban context. On all Cultural Tendencies the order
prescribed by those three factors is constantly disrupted (see upper charts in Figure 4). This
inconsequence can be explained by juxtaposing ranking order of students’ cultural values
(upper bar-charts) and relative teaching strategies (lower bar-charts) across different types of
schools and school-sections. Their likeness is obvious.
The lower charts in Figure 4 were obtained by counting teaching strategies applied by
teachers during 70 class observations. Thus, cooperative and joking teachers were designated
as negatively influencing Power Distance; those reminding about possible errors and linking
new material to the known one – positively influencing Long-term Orientation; providing
individual approach – positively influencing Individualism, etc. Overall, 98 characteristics of
teacher’s behavior were used as variables to calculate the mean-scores across five cultural
tendencies in teaching (except Indulgence).

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Power Distance Individualism
Masculinity Uncertainty Avoidance
Long-term Orientation Indulgence
Figure 4. A comparative view of similar ranking order of students’ cultural values (upper
bar-charts) and relative teaching strategies (lower bar-charts) across different types of schools
and school-sections.

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The difference in teaching methods seems to be linked to demographic data in Figure 5
representing teaching teams of English-medium sections as the most young from all types of
schools; 70% of Es teachers have less than 10 years of working experience. The researcher
observed class-periods in every individual school/section. As to those observations, across
all types of schooling, young generation of Bangladeshi teachers (below 35 years old) differ
dramatically from older professionals in terms of teacher-student relations. In other words,
majority of young educators widely apply student-centered approach allowing students a
great deal of freedom in all aspects: from lively negotiation of subject matter to collective
choice of class activities, to interactive and emotional teaching. Teachers of elder generation
(around 50 years old) generally maintain traditional teacher-centered methods and “culture of
silence”— a cultural way of teaching that is described in the works of Pervin (in Bangladesh,
2011) and Mathew (in India, 2012).
Figure 5. Teachers’ demographic data: the years of work experience
Conclusion. Statistically significant difference between all eight types of schooling on every
Cultural Tendency approved author’s assumption that division of secondary students by
different types of schools in effect represents distinct sociocultural milieus of Bangladeshi
students’ population.
1. In four Cultural Tendencies out of six, IS students (international school) showed
extreme results, while QS (quasi-international) followed them only once (on UA
tendency, Figure 4). This result supports the modest outcomes of only one tendency
affected by MoI and of two tendencies affected by curriculum type (Table 1), and

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undermines the belief about shifted cultural values of young graduates of international
schools. While they do appear alienated from material native culture and their social
attitudes do turn to the Western pattern, their core values remain similar to other
student’s perspectives. The fact of stable cultural continuance in terms of core values
contrary to ever-changing cultural practices was clearly emphasized by Hofstede in
his works (Hofstede et al., 2010).
2. The findings suggest teaching approach as a crucial factor of schooling in students’
cultural values formation. After all, it is people with whom students interact that is
primary source of new cultural perspectives: family, teachers and community
members, actual bearers of new attitudes and behavior as opposed to older
Bangladeshi teachers of quasi-international schools, natural bearers of traditional
culture but trying to impart Western/Eurocentric/progressive views; situation in
Pakistani elitist schools described by Dr. T. Rahman (2005) can serve as a case in
point likewise.
Limitations of the study. The main drawback undermining generalizability of the findings
of given research is the inability to make direct comparisons with published country scores
(Hofstede & Hofstede, 2010) on account of unavoidable alterations of on-ad-hoc-composed
questionnaire, which made it non-standardized.
The second inevitable limitation is difference between the target population and the accessed
sample (or context and subsamples bias) that happened on the grounds of highly
disproportionate factual distribution of different types of schools throughout the country: IS,
QS, GS, Es, and Bs schools and sections compose only 30% of secondary-level institutions
and operate only in urban context, while RS and madrasahs make up to 70 % and are
scattered all over the country though predominantly in rural context.
Recommendations. The key conclusion of the current paper that young teachers speed up
cultural transformation of Bangladeshi secondary students, may be (and should be)
considered as premature unless an identical survey is run among teachers of already surveyed
teenagers. Collected data would permit to compare cultural views of teachers across all types
of schooling and to draw teacher-student comparison within every unit of sample.

12. 12
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