The document discusses sex differences in mathematics performance, anxiety, interest, and self-confidence based on previous studies. It notes that traditionally, studies have shown that boys generally outperform girls in mathematics and have higher levels of confidence and interest. However, more recent studies show that gender gaps may be decreasing, with some findings suggesting girls now equal or outperform boys in mathematics. The study aims to examine performance, anxiety, interest, and self-confidence among high school students based on sex, and investigate whether traditional stereotypes still hold true or if views have changed regarding girls' abilities in mathematics. It grounds this analysis in theories of gender schema, sociocultural learning, mindset, and stereotype threat to understand how societal and
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
Gender Differences in Learners’ Perceptions of an Ideal Primary School INFOGAIN PUBLICATION
Scholars have reached a consensus that students’ perceptions of learning environments have an important effect on their learning. The influence of physical attributes of educational space on students’ satisfaction has been studied extensively. However, our knowledge about students’ preferences for an ideal school is very limited. The current study is an attempt to address this gap. The sample in the current study consisted of 118students aged 8 -10 years old in the study. Participants were recruited from two public primary schools in Kerman, Iran. The data gathered through semi-structured interviews, and drawings. Quantitative data was analyzed using chi square tests. The findings from the quantitative data were further explored by qualitative data gathered from 14 (seven girls and seven boys) volunteer students. The study found a significant difference between boy’s and girl’s drawings. Boys portrayed more aerial views and the exterior of the school while girls depicted the frontal views and the interior of their ideal school. In addition, boys incorporated more natural elements, playground equipment and outdoor sport fields in their drawings. In contrast, girls were more likely than boys to use more decorative accessories in their drawings than boys. The result of this study suggests that children’s perceptions about ideal school are gender sensitive. The implications of the study for educational policy makers have been outlined.
Peer Attachment and Intention of Aggressive Behavior among School Childreniosrjce
This paper attempts to ascertain the relationship between peer attachment and intention of
aggressive behavior amongst school children. There are literatures related to peer attachment quality and its
effects on adjustment and development.However, relatively little attention has been paid to the relationship
between peer attachments and intention of aggressive behavior. Positive peer attachment, respectively, have
been viewed as protective factors, that prevent peers from engaging in intention of aggressive behaviors, like
violence, risky sexual behavior, and bullying.. While the negative aspect of peer insecure attachment from the
school which is associated with more problematic functioning including higher rates of emotional problems,
substance use, aggression and delinquency. In this study, respondentswere 426 school children (males 199 and
females 227) between 13-17 years old. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and Pearson correlation
and t-test for student’sage groups.Peer attachment was measured using inventory of parents and peer
attachment (IPPA) with respect to peer attachment and adolescent intention of aggressive behaviour. Findings
have revealed that over all respondents show that there is a significant positive relationship between peer
influences on intention of aggressive behaviour.And there is no significant difference in age group of the
respondents and intention of aggressive behaviour. Peer influence on intention of aggressive behaviour is high
which is peer to peer aggressive act within the school environment which the harm that is always intention to
cause injuries, and destroy.Thus, expressive support and attention should be extended not just to the victims of
intention of aggressive behaviour cases, but also to intimidators. Recommendation of the study centers on the
need to examine the reports from school counselors and peers that engage in intention of aggressive behaviour.
A Course-Based Qualitative Inquiry into the Potential Impact of the Bachelor ...inventionjournals
This course-based qualitative study aims to explore what 4th-year Child and Youth Care students and recent graduates of the Bachelor of Child and Youth Care program at MacEwan University think about their likely parenting styles as a direct result of their Child and Youth Care educational experience. A thematic analysis of the data revealed four major themes: (1) the desire to be an authoritative parent, (2) courses, (3) themes and concepts that were meaningful, and (4) a better understanding of theories relevant to parenting and the need for self-reflection
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
Gender Differences in Learners’ Perceptions of an Ideal Primary School INFOGAIN PUBLICATION
Scholars have reached a consensus that students’ perceptions of learning environments have an important effect on their learning. The influence of physical attributes of educational space on students’ satisfaction has been studied extensively. However, our knowledge about students’ preferences for an ideal school is very limited. The current study is an attempt to address this gap. The sample in the current study consisted of 118students aged 8 -10 years old in the study. Participants were recruited from two public primary schools in Kerman, Iran. The data gathered through semi-structured interviews, and drawings. Quantitative data was analyzed using chi square tests. The findings from the quantitative data were further explored by qualitative data gathered from 14 (seven girls and seven boys) volunteer students. The study found a significant difference between boy’s and girl’s drawings. Boys portrayed more aerial views and the exterior of the school while girls depicted the frontal views and the interior of their ideal school. In addition, boys incorporated more natural elements, playground equipment and outdoor sport fields in their drawings. In contrast, girls were more likely than boys to use more decorative accessories in their drawings than boys. The result of this study suggests that children’s perceptions about ideal school are gender sensitive. The implications of the study for educational policy makers have been outlined.
Peer Attachment and Intention of Aggressive Behavior among School Childreniosrjce
This paper attempts to ascertain the relationship between peer attachment and intention of
aggressive behavior amongst school children. There are literatures related to peer attachment quality and its
effects on adjustment and development.However, relatively little attention has been paid to the relationship
between peer attachments and intention of aggressive behavior. Positive peer attachment, respectively, have
been viewed as protective factors, that prevent peers from engaging in intention of aggressive behaviors, like
violence, risky sexual behavior, and bullying.. While the negative aspect of peer insecure attachment from the
school which is associated with more problematic functioning including higher rates of emotional problems,
substance use, aggression and delinquency. In this study, respondentswere 426 school children (males 199 and
females 227) between 13-17 years old. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and Pearson correlation
and t-test for student’sage groups.Peer attachment was measured using inventory of parents and peer
attachment (IPPA) with respect to peer attachment and adolescent intention of aggressive behaviour. Findings
have revealed that over all respondents show that there is a significant positive relationship between peer
influences on intention of aggressive behaviour.And there is no significant difference in age group of the
respondents and intention of aggressive behaviour. Peer influence on intention of aggressive behaviour is high
which is peer to peer aggressive act within the school environment which the harm that is always intention to
cause injuries, and destroy.Thus, expressive support and attention should be extended not just to the victims of
intention of aggressive behaviour cases, but also to intimidators. Recommendation of the study centers on the
need to examine the reports from school counselors and peers that engage in intention of aggressive behaviour.
A Course-Based Qualitative Inquiry into the Potential Impact of the Bachelor ...inventionjournals
This course-based qualitative study aims to explore what 4th-year Child and Youth Care students and recent graduates of the Bachelor of Child and Youth Care program at MacEwan University think about their likely parenting styles as a direct result of their Child and Youth Care educational experience. A thematic analysis of the data revealed four major themes: (1) the desire to be an authoritative parent, (2) courses, (3) themes and concepts that were meaningful, and (4) a better understanding of theories relevant to parenting and the need for self-reflection
Creativity and Academic Achievement of Higher Secondary School Students in Ta...inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Attachment Security and Perceived Parental Psychological Control as Parameter...ijtsrd
The study examined attachment security and perceived parental psychological control as parameters of social value orientation among early adolescents. Participants for the study were 210 early adolescents who volunteered from NnamdiAzikiwe University High Awka. Participants’ age ranged from 11 to 15 years, with mean age of 13.26 years and standard deviation of 1.34. Three instruments were deployed for data collection secure domain of the attachment style questionnaire SDASQ by Van Oudenhoven, Hofstra, and Bakker 2003 , adopted version of psychological control domain of the parental control scale developed by Barber 1996 and social value orientation SVO developed by Schwartz 1994 . The study adopted correlation design and statistics appropriate for data analysis were correlation and multiple regression analysis enter method. Hypothesis one was confirmed and result showed that attachment security significantly and positively predicted social value orientation at B = .73 , P . 001. Hypothesis two result was not confirmed at B = .06, p .05. Hence, attachment security is a significant predictor of social value orientation. It was recommended that parents, teachers and care givers should ensure that they establish low anxiety type of relationship with their new born children in order to enhance low anxiety and low avoidance as this will help them at early adolescents to withstand peer pressure of during early adolescent. Nweke, Kingsley Onyibor | Dike Ibiwari Caroline | Dike, Adannia Amarachukwu | Umeaku Ndubuisi Nkemakonam "Attachment Security and Perceived Parental Psychological Control as Parameters of Social Value Orientation among Early Adolescents" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-4 , June 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.compapers/ijtsrd42368.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.comhumanities-and-the-arts/psychology/42368/attachment-security-and-perceived-parental-psychological-control-as-parameters-of-social-value-orientation-among-early-adolescents/nweke-kingsley-onyibor
W. Sean Kearney and Scott Peters - Published in NFEAS JOURNAL, 31(1) 2013-201...William Kritsonis
W. Sean Kearney and Scott Peters - Published in NFEAS JOURNAL, 31(1) 2013-2014 - Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982) - www.nationalforum.com
Relational Assessment between Teacher's Implicit Theories, Rating Judgments a...AJHSSR Journal
In the context of the complementary roles (teacher-student), the teacher's implicit theories
interfere and form the educational relationship, direct the categorization, the resulting expectations and the
behaviors of the interacting persons, thus obstructing or facilitating the learning process. The aim of the present
study is to outline aspects of the teachers' implicit theories and discuss whether they can be altered, emphasizing
on the emergence of the imaginary element relying on student assessment. In order to achieve the aim above, a
meta-analysis of a series of four researches is carried out examining the ways that the implicit theories of
teachers are linked to the assessment judgments and the consequent expectations for student assessment.
The present study was attempted to examine the role of
paternal and maternal parenting styles as predictor of students’
academic achievement. Parental Authority Questionnaire (Buri,
1991) further translated in Urdu by (Babree, 1997) was used to
collect the information from participants. Student’s result of
previous final Exam was taken as Academic Achievement.
Sample of the present study was consist on the F.A/F.Sc students
(N= 350) of final year. Simple linear regression analysis was
applied to test the hypothesis. The result of the study showed that
maternal and paternal authoritative style was a positive predictor
of academic achievement of adolescent. While maternal and
paternal authoritarian styles of parents was found to be a
negative predictor of academic achievement. The results for
permissive parenting style of both mother and father were nonsignificant.
The present study provided an insight to the roles of
parenting to academic achievement
Creativity and Academic Achievement of Higher Secondary School Students in Ta...inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Attachment Security and Perceived Parental Psychological Control as Parameter...ijtsrd
The study examined attachment security and perceived parental psychological control as parameters of social value orientation among early adolescents. Participants for the study were 210 early adolescents who volunteered from NnamdiAzikiwe University High Awka. Participants’ age ranged from 11 to 15 years, with mean age of 13.26 years and standard deviation of 1.34. Three instruments were deployed for data collection secure domain of the attachment style questionnaire SDASQ by Van Oudenhoven, Hofstra, and Bakker 2003 , adopted version of psychological control domain of the parental control scale developed by Barber 1996 and social value orientation SVO developed by Schwartz 1994 . The study adopted correlation design and statistics appropriate for data analysis were correlation and multiple regression analysis enter method. Hypothesis one was confirmed and result showed that attachment security significantly and positively predicted social value orientation at B = .73 , P . 001. Hypothesis two result was not confirmed at B = .06, p .05. Hence, attachment security is a significant predictor of social value orientation. It was recommended that parents, teachers and care givers should ensure that they establish low anxiety type of relationship with their new born children in order to enhance low anxiety and low avoidance as this will help them at early adolescents to withstand peer pressure of during early adolescent. Nweke, Kingsley Onyibor | Dike Ibiwari Caroline | Dike, Adannia Amarachukwu | Umeaku Ndubuisi Nkemakonam "Attachment Security and Perceived Parental Psychological Control as Parameters of Social Value Orientation among Early Adolescents" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-4 , June 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.compapers/ijtsrd42368.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.comhumanities-and-the-arts/psychology/42368/attachment-security-and-perceived-parental-psychological-control-as-parameters-of-social-value-orientation-among-early-adolescents/nweke-kingsley-onyibor
W. Sean Kearney and Scott Peters - Published in NFEAS JOURNAL, 31(1) 2013-201...William Kritsonis
W. Sean Kearney and Scott Peters - Published in NFEAS JOURNAL, 31(1) 2013-2014 - Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982) - www.nationalforum.com
Relational Assessment between Teacher's Implicit Theories, Rating Judgments a...AJHSSR Journal
In the context of the complementary roles (teacher-student), the teacher's implicit theories
interfere and form the educational relationship, direct the categorization, the resulting expectations and the
behaviors of the interacting persons, thus obstructing or facilitating the learning process. The aim of the present
study is to outline aspects of the teachers' implicit theories and discuss whether they can be altered, emphasizing
on the emergence of the imaginary element relying on student assessment. In order to achieve the aim above, a
meta-analysis of a series of four researches is carried out examining the ways that the implicit theories of
teachers are linked to the assessment judgments and the consequent expectations for student assessment.
The present study was attempted to examine the role of
paternal and maternal parenting styles as predictor of students’
academic achievement. Parental Authority Questionnaire (Buri,
1991) further translated in Urdu by (Babree, 1997) was used to
collect the information from participants. Student’s result of
previous final Exam was taken as Academic Achievement.
Sample of the present study was consist on the F.A/F.Sc students
(N= 350) of final year. Simple linear regression analysis was
applied to test the hypothesis. The result of the study showed that
maternal and paternal authoritative style was a positive predictor
of academic achievement of adolescent. While maternal and
paternal authoritarian styles of parents was found to be a
negative predictor of academic achievement. The results for
permissive parenting style of both mother and father were nonsignificant.
The present study provided an insight to the roles of
parenting to academic achievement
BRIEF REPORTMasculine Norms, School Attitudes, and PsychosVannaSchrader3
BRIEF REPORT
Masculine Norms, School Attitudes, and Psychosocial Adjustment
Among Gifted Boys
Samuel J. Shepard, Megan Foley Nicpon, James T. Haley, Michael Lind, and
William Ming Liu
The University of Iowa
Being an academically gifted boy may mean negotiating masculinity. In this explor-
atory study, 58 gifted and talented adolescent boys completed the Male Role Norms
Inventory–Adolescent (MRNI-A) and the Behavior Assessment System for Children–
Self-Report of Personality (BASC-SRP-A). Correlation results show endorsing tradi-
tional masculine norms was positively associated with feelings of competency, confi-
dence, self-reliance, and feeling self-assured. Feelings of inadequacy also decreased
when endorsement of masculine role norms increased. Adhering to achievement and
status norms was associated with higher positive interpersonal relationships in high
school and less social stress. Additionally, restricting emotions was associated with less
satisfaction with friendships and social relationships for all participants. Results gen-
erally show boys adherence to male role norms to be positively related to their
perceptions of academic achievement. Research and clinical implications are discussed.
Keywords: gifted boys, psychosocial adjustment, masculine norms
Professionals in gifted education commonly
refer to students who exhibit talent in various
domains (e.g., intellectual ability, creativity,
leadership) as gifted (Colangelo & Davis,
2003). Collectively, these children tend to be
emotionally well-adjusted (Bain & Bell, 2004;
Cross, Cassady, Dixon, & Adams, 2008; Nail &
Evans, 1997; Neihart, 1999; Roznowski, Reith,
& Hong, 2000); however, problems may arise
throughout development, such as depression,
perfectionism, social stigma, identity issues,
difficulty managing external expectations (Levy
& Plucker, 2003), or feeling unable to be one-
self in school (Cross & Coleman, 1993), due to
the “stigma of giftedness” (Cross, Coleman, &
Terhaar-Yonkers, 1991, p. 45). Among gifted
boys, Bartell and Reynolds (1986) found that
they reported lower self-esteem and higher lev-
els of depression than gifted girls. Others have
suggested that issues relating to masculinity can
interact with boys’ experience of giftedness in
ways that create unique challenges (Kerr &
Cohn, 2001) because what it means to be mas-
culine may have little in common with what it
means to be gifted. Rigid attitudes about mas-
culinity may result in conflict if thoughts and
behaviors they believe men should exhibit are
contrary to their own.
Current perspectives in the study of men and
masculinity view rigid adherence to traditional
male norms as problematic, even among ado-
lescent boys (Feder, Levant, & Dean, 2007).
Scholars view certain male problems–such as
violence, aggression, devaluation of women,
detached fathering, and underutilization of
physical and mental health services–as “unfor-
tunate but predictable results of the male role
socialization process” (Levant ...
Learning OutcomesThis week students will1. Apply the concep.docxsmile790243
Learning Outcomes
This week students will:
1. Apply the concept of inclusion to educational settings.
2. Describe how to implement the Four S’s of inclusion within a physical education lesson.
3. Reflect on the influence of home and school environment on motivation and motor development.
Introduction
This week you will discuss how inclusion extends beyond formally recognized disabilities, and into having more sensitivity and respect for others. In the text, you will read how inclusion can relate to children from different cultural backgrounds, where certain beliefs, values, and practices are different from traditional American ones. Therefore, you extend the notion of inclusion to children who may face barriers while engaging in physical education, not only from a particular disability, but also perhaps due to their body composition, the language they speak, or their cultural background. You will discuss how you can use teaching strategies to provide an enjoyable physical education for every child.
Required Resources
Required Text
1. Foundations of Moving and Learning
a. Chapter 8 – Including All Children for Success
· This chapter explores the concept of inclusion as it applies to educational settings
.
Recommended Resources
Multimedia
1. Goodman, R. (Director) & Read, M. R. (Producer). (2005). Special needs students in regular classrooms? Sean’s story [Television series episode]. In J. Tomlin (Executive producer) Turning point. New York, NY: ABC News. Retrieved from Films on Demand.
· This is the story of an 8-year-old boy with Down syndrome who was part of a battle over "inclusion," the practice of placing mentally or physically challenged students in regular classrooms.
Running head: GENDER DISCRIMINATION; A CONSEQUENCE OF INEQUALITY 1
GENDER DISCRIMINATION; A CONSEQUENCE OF INEQUALITY 2
Gender Discrimination; a Consequence of Inequality
Student’s Name:
Course Name and Number:
Instructor’s Name:
Date Submitted:
Gender Discrimination; a Consequence of Inequality
Introduction
Description
Inequality is a theme that has become rampant in society over the years receiving interest from big organizations. It is an unseen ailment that arises from poverty, gender disparity, educational level, age, and even race. With the far reach of inequality, it is no surprise several bodies are looking into the issue with the aim of closing that chapter and advancing to newer issues.
Gender Discrimination (Social Problem)
Associated to Meyer (2004), we contemplate the definition of sex to be all practices that are communal, traditional and dialectal that result in processes which differ males from females. Some cultural aspects in our communities have pre-programed individuals to adhere to certain norms that create the disparity between genders. Those of the male gender are usually given the upper hand in some populations, leaving out women and children to the mercy of the men in their lives. There is a constant scuffle for ...
Collaborative Learning, Gender Groupings and Mathematics PerformanceQUESTJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: The study was conducted to find how students perform in class if they work in groups. It also wanted to find out which gender groupings will students be working comfortably and obtaining better results. Experimental research design was utilized where the subjects were randomly assigned. The subjects of this study was composed of 9 groups, three all-male groups, three all-female groups, and three mixed groups. Using ANOVA, data revealed that the subjects’ formative tests mean score had no significant difference which implies that subjects if working by himself/herself obtained more or less similar results due to they were randomly assigned. While the collaborative learning where the subjects worked in different gender groups showed that there was a significant difference in their performance where all-female groups obtained the highest mean score followed by mixed groups implying that if subjects work with whom they are comfortable would have better results. In the Math achievement test which was taken individually posted that there is a significant difference in the mean scores obtained due to the level of improvement of their learning which could be attributed to whom they worked and learned the concepts with.
What is the TDS Return Filing Due Date for FY 2024-25.pdfseoforlegalpillers
It is crucial for the taxpayers to understand about the TDS Return Filing Due Date, so that they can fulfill your TDS obligations efficiently. Taxpayers can avoid penalties by sticking to the deadlines and by accurate filing of TDS. Timely filing of TDS will make sure about the availability of tax credits. You can also seek the professional guidance of experts like Legal Pillers for timely filing of the TDS Return.
Attending a job Interview for B1 and B2 Englsih learnersErika906060
It is a sample of an interview for a business english class for pre-intermediate and intermediate english students with emphasis on the speking ability.
Improving profitability for small businessBen Wann
In this comprehensive presentation, we will explore strategies and practical tips for enhancing profitability in small businesses. Tailored to meet the unique challenges faced by small enterprises, this session covers various aspects that directly impact the bottom line. Attendees will learn how to optimize operational efficiency, manage expenses, and increase revenue through innovative marketing and customer engagement techniques.
Memorandum Of Association Constitution of Company.pptseri bangash
www.seribangash.com
A Memorandum of Association (MOA) is a legal document that outlines the fundamental principles and objectives upon which a company operates. It serves as the company's charter or constitution and defines the scope of its activities. Here's a detailed note on the MOA:
Contents of Memorandum of Association:
Name Clause: This clause states the name of the company, which should end with words like "Limited" or "Ltd." for a public limited company and "Private Limited" or "Pvt. Ltd." for a private limited company.
https://seribangash.com/article-of-association-is-legal-doc-of-company/
Registered Office Clause: It specifies the location where the company's registered office is situated. This office is where all official communications and notices are sent.
Objective Clause: This clause delineates the main objectives for which the company is formed. It's important to define these objectives clearly, as the company cannot undertake activities beyond those mentioned in this clause.
www.seribangash.com
Liability Clause: It outlines the extent of liability of the company's members. In the case of companies limited by shares, the liability of members is limited to the amount unpaid on their shares. For companies limited by guarantee, members' liability is limited to the amount they undertake to contribute if the company is wound up.
https://seribangash.com/promotors-is-person-conceived-formation-company/
Capital Clause: This clause specifies the authorized capital of the company, i.e., the maximum amount of share capital the company is authorized to issue. It also mentions the division of this capital into shares and their respective nominal value.
Association Clause: It simply states that the subscribers wish to form a company and agree to become members of it, in accordance with the terms of the MOA.
Importance of Memorandum of Association:
Legal Requirement: The MOA is a legal requirement for the formation of a company. It must be filed with the Registrar of Companies during the incorporation process.
Constitutional Document: It serves as the company's constitutional document, defining its scope, powers, and limitations.
Protection of Members: It protects the interests of the company's members by clearly defining the objectives and limiting their liability.
External Communication: It provides clarity to external parties, such as investors, creditors, and regulatory authorities, regarding the company's objectives and powers.
https://seribangash.com/difference-public-and-private-company-law/
Binding Authority: The company and its members are bound by the provisions of the MOA. Any action taken beyond its scope may be considered ultra vires (beyond the powers) of the company and therefore void.
Amendment of MOA:
While the MOA lays down the company's fundamental principles, it is not entirely immutable. It can be amended, but only under specific circumstances and in compliance with legal procedures. Amendments typically require shareholder
Skye Residences | Extended Stay Residences Near Toronto Airportmarketingjdass
Experience unparalleled EXTENDED STAY and comfort at Skye Residences located just minutes from Toronto Airport. Discover sophisticated accommodations tailored for discerning travelers.
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Cracking the Workplace Discipline Code Main.pptxWorkforce Group
Cultivating and maintaining discipline within teams is a critical differentiator for successful organisations.
Forward-thinking leaders and business managers understand the impact that discipline has on organisational success. A disciplined workforce operates with clarity, focus, and a shared understanding of expectations, ultimately driving better results, optimising productivity, and facilitating seamless collaboration.
Although discipline is not a one-size-fits-all approach, it can help create a work environment that encourages personal growth and accountability rather than solely relying on punitive measures.
In this deck, you will learn the significance of workplace discipline for organisational success. You’ll also learn
• Four (4) workplace discipline methods you should consider
• The best and most practical approach to implementing workplace discipline.
• Three (3) key tips to maintain a disciplined workplace.
The world of search engine optimization (SEO) is buzzing with discussions after Google confirmed that around 2,500 leaked internal documents related to its Search feature are indeed authentic. The revelation has sparked significant concerns within the SEO community. The leaked documents were initially reported by SEO experts Rand Fishkin and Mike King, igniting widespread analysis and discourse. For More Info:- https://news.arihantwebtech.com/search-disrupted-googles-leaked-documents-rock-the-seo-world/
[Note: This is a partial preview. To download this presentation, visit:
https://www.oeconsulting.com.sg/training-presentations]
Sustainability has become an increasingly critical topic as the world recognizes the need to protect our planet and its resources for future generations. Sustainability means meeting our current needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs. It involves long-term planning and consideration of the consequences of our actions. The goal is to create strategies that ensure the long-term viability of People, Planet, and Profit.
Leading companies such as Nike, Toyota, and Siemens are prioritizing sustainable innovation in their business models, setting an example for others to follow. In this Sustainability training presentation, you will learn key concepts, principles, and practices of sustainability applicable across industries. This training aims to create awareness and educate employees, senior executives, consultants, and other key stakeholders, including investors, policymakers, and supply chain partners, on the importance and implementation of sustainability.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Develop a comprehensive understanding of the fundamental principles and concepts that form the foundation of sustainability within corporate environments.
2. Explore the sustainability implementation model, focusing on effective measures and reporting strategies to track and communicate sustainability efforts.
3. Identify and define best practices and critical success factors essential for achieving sustainability goals within organizations.
CONTENTS
1. Introduction and Key Concepts of Sustainability
2. Principles and Practices of Sustainability
3. Measures and Reporting in Sustainability
4. Sustainability Implementation & Best Practices
To download the complete presentation, visit: https://www.oeconsulting.com.sg/training-presentations
Discover the innovative and creative projects that highlight my journey throu...dylandmeas
Discover the innovative and creative projects that highlight my journey through Full Sail University. Below, you’ll find a collection of my work showcasing my skills and expertise in digital marketing, event planning, and media production.
Enterprise Excellence is Inclusive Excellence.pdfKaiNexus
Enterprise excellence and inclusive excellence are closely linked, and real-world challenges have shown that both are essential to the success of any organization. To achieve enterprise excellence, organizations must focus on improving their operations and processes while creating an inclusive environment that engages everyone. In this interactive session, the facilitator will highlight commonly established business practices and how they limit our ability to engage everyone every day. More importantly, though, participants will likely gain increased awareness of what we can do differently to maximize enterprise excellence through deliberate inclusion.
What is Enterprise Excellence?
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A way to engage all in creating Inclusive Excellence. Lessons from the US military and their parallels to the story of Harry Potter. How belt systems and CI teams can destroy inclusive practices. How leadership language invites people to the party. There are three things leaders can do to engage everyone every day: maximizing psychological safety to create environments where folks learn, contribute, and challenge the status quo.
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Dr. William Harvey is a seasoned Operations Leader with extensive experience in chemical processing, manufacturing, and operations management. At Michelman, he currently oversees multiple sites, leading teams in strategic planning and coaching/practicing continuous improvement. William is set to start his eighth year of teaching at the University of Cincinnati where he teaches marketing, finance, and management. William holds various certifications in change management, quality, leadership, operational excellence, team building, and DiSC, among others.
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1. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 1
Chapter I
The Problem and Its Scope
Introduction
Sex differences are always part of the hotlist of critical issues around the
world. In the studies of Hausmann, Tyson, and Zahidi (2009), it was found out that
no country in the world has ever reached gender equality particularly in critical
areas such as economic participation or education specifically in the field of
Mathematics. If not all, most researches favored boys to do better than girls in the
said subject. It is indisputable that boys have higher achievement in the subject and
higher levels of enrolment in Mathematics courses (Damasio et al., 2003), because
girls are simply uninterested in the subject (Noddings, 1998) and that they
experience more general anxiety than boys do (Feingold, 1994).
Generally, many studies in the past reported that unlike boys, girls are less
interested and not confident, had weakening causal quality to patterns, perceived
boys to be dominant in Mathematics, and had shown more anxiety in the subject
(Casey et al., 2001; Eccles et al., 1983).
In recent studies, some findings tend to deviate from what literature is
suggesting that girls do better in the subject nowadays. In the study of Egorova and
Chertkova (2016), sex differences were evident in all bounds of math achievement,
that girls outperformed boys in the subject. One study evaluating math performance
on the Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement–Second Edition (KTEA-II;
Kaufman & Kaufman, 2004) found that there were no signs of gender differences in
latent Math capacity but that females outsmarted males in terms of Math
2. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 2
computation (Hajovsky, Kaufman, Reynolds, Schwartz, & Scheiber, 2015). In the
study of Smetackova (2015), results show that both sexes achieve similar test scores
and have the same identification with Math. More recent studies show that students
no longer view Mathematics as a domain better suited to males than females (Galdi
et al., 2014; Pasolunghi et al., 2014).
This study is focused on finding out the academic performance of hinterland
high school students as well as their level of anxiety, interest and self-confidence in
Mathematics. Also, the researcher wants to find out if the academic performance,
anxiety, interest, and self-confidence of students when grouped according to sex
differ significantly. This study will give information also to the researcher which can
be used as suggestions and recommendations with regard to catering the needs of
both sexes in the subject using differentiated instruction at the same time proving if
there is a turning point in this phenomenon that girls no longer view the subject as a
domain better suited to boys, that they no longer have higher Math anxiety than the
opposite sex, and that they have gained confidence and interest towards the subject
while paving their way to achieving better academic performance in Math, despite
of the many studies showing that students still explicitly endorse traditional gender
stereotypes advantaging males in the discipline (Cvencek et al., 2001).
Generally, boys still dominate especially in terms of anxiety and self-
confidence in Math as reported in recent studies. What propels the researcher to
conduct this study is that, based on personal observation and initial interviews
conducted, girls are said to be more confident and have a high level of self-
confidence in Math compared to boys.
3. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 3
Theoretical Background of the Study
The study is anchored on the following theories: Gender-Schema Theory,
Sociocultural Learning Theory, Mindset Theory, and Stereotype Threat Theory.
Gender-Schema Theory. This theory, which was formally introduced by
Sandra Bern in 1981, asserted that children learn about male and female roles from
the culture in which they live. According to this theory, children regulate their
behavior to conform to the sex norms of their culture from the earliest stages of
social development. Bern suggested that cognitive development of a child combined
with societal influences primarily affect thought patterns (schema) that dictate
“male” and “female” traits. Gender schema has an effect not only on how people
process information but also on the attitudes and beliefs that drive “gender-
appropriate” behavior. Both boys and girls experience the extreme pressure to
adhere to culturally sanctioned gender roles during adolescence stage (Priess-
Groben, Linberg, & Hyde, 2009)
This theory relates to the study because the performance of students in
school particularly in Math is influenced by their self-concept which is also
influenced by their perception of their functions in their culture. Students tend to
communicate, react, and interact consciously with people around them and in no
time, they attempt to acquire, develop, and organize their perceptions on their
being, and try to evaluate if these perceptions are consistent with whom they are.
Since girls were deemed inferior compared to boys that they cannot perform Math
(Beilock, 2008), their performance in the subject was disrupted. In this connection,
teachers must do their best to employ strategies that are eradicating gender gaps in
4. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 4
terms of the self-concept and performance of students in Mathematics. Gender and
Development (GAD) activities should also be enforced in schools since schools are
major contexts for gender socialization because of the fact that students spend large
amounts of time in such settings. Gender and Development (GAD) refers to the
development perspective and process that is participatory and empowering,
equitable, sustainable, free from violence, respectful of human rights, supportive of
self-determination and actualization of human potentials. It seeks to achieve gender
equality as a fundamental value that should be reflected in development choices and
contends that women are active agents of development, not just passive recipients
of development.
Sociocultural Learning Theory. This theory by Lev Vygotsky is based on
the idea that a learner’s environment plays a key role in the development of his/her
learning. This theory takes also into account how learners are impacted by their
peers, and how social scenarios impact their ability to acquire information.
Sociocultural forces which include parents’ and teachers’ perceptions, expectations,
and attitudes, including stereotypes, mold self-concept and attitudes toward the
subject and indeed have an imperative impact on students’ academic choices.
This theory implies that students, particularly girls, are attentive to the
behaviors and attitudes of women in their culture and they try to base their
decisions on this especially when they seem efficacious. That is, if they observe that
women in their culture are not inclined in numbers and did not become engineers
or scientists, they may think and believe that such careers do not belong in the
realm of possibilities for girls and tend to feel anxious about it and as a result, they
5. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 5
avoid and feel hesitant in taking the subject. Indeed, society’s perception about boys’
and girls’ Math skills leads to the discrepancy in the identification of their capacities
and interests at their young ages (Cvencek et al., 2011). In the study of Hu, Teng, and
Leung (2018), results showed that national culture played an important role in
shaping Mathematics achievement.
Mindset Theory. Dweck’s mindset theory (2000, 2006) argues that students
do not have a common approach to challenges. Rather, their response to challenge is
influenced by their attitude, or their perception that skills can be established or are
innate. Those who claim that intelligence is inherent, people with a fixed mindset,
tend to be much highly likely to choose challenging tasks, because they don’t want to
disconfirm their intellect before others. By comparison, those who assume
knowledge is malleable or can be created, growth mentally individuals, tend to take
on challenging material because they don’t think the task at hand means something
unique about their overall intelligence. Thus, fixed mindset individuals are thought
to have weak responses to challenging material, while individuals with a growth
mindset are thought to have masterful responses to challenging materials (Dweck,
2000, 2006).
This theory applies to the study because it has been shown that girls are
more likely to have a fixed mindset (Dweck, 2007) indicating that when faced with a
difficult task they may adopt helpless behaviors. If girls are more inclined to see
their abilities as being fixed rather than malleable, they may also be more likely to
believe that they are unable to cope with setbacks or challenging Mathematics tasks.
In comparison, boys continue to do better in Math since some individuals, such as
6. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 6
teachers, always believed in them to perform naturally better in the subject (Ernest,
1976; Li, 1999).
Stereotype Threat Theory. It is a situational dilemma where people are or
feel themselves to be at risk of conforming to assumptions surrounding their social
group. It is apparently a contributing factor to gender gaps in academic performance
and self-confidence for many years. This theory asserts that stereotype threat
occurs whenever an individual’s performance may confirm a negative stereotype
and that triggering such negative stereotypes in performance circumstances
decrease the quality of the task performance of the group members (Steele &
Aronson, 1995). Also, theories in psychology and some researches support the basic
assumption that awareness of a negative stereotype increases the level of anxiety
and evaluation apprehension as the domain turns more self-relevant (Steele &
Aronson, 1995; Howard & Hammond, 1985). Steele (1997) argued that students
who belong to groups which radiate negative intellectual stereotype display not
only personal embarrassment and failure but also confirm the negative group
stereotype. This, he pointed out, yields an increased anxiety, which makes students
less confident to deal with the subject and drags down performance at preparation’s
every level.
This theory supports this study by claiming that stereotyping is a strong
factor that influences student performance. For instance, since girls were deemed
inferior that they cannot perform Math (Beilock, 2008), their performance in Math is
disrupted under pressure not because of inadequate talent but because they feel
threatened with the likelihood of their success reinforcing the negative stereotypes
7. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 7
associated with their social group. Societal stereotype plays an imperative role in
shaping the identity of young individuals which definitely can influence students’
academic self-concept (Cheryan et al., 2015).
The above-mentioned theories, where this study is anchored on, contribute
meaningfully to the existing phenomenon, sex differences in Mathematics. There
was an extreme pressure saddled onto the shoulders of students particularly to girls
that distracted and led them to not like Mathematics and perform low in the subject.
Students, especially girls, became hesitant to deal with the subject because aside
from the stereotype that they cannot do Math (Beilock, 2008), they were
underrepresented in the subject and were not provided the same opportunities like
boys for the reason that they are deemed inferior not just by people whom they do
not know but by their teachers and parents. Teachers believed that boys naturally
perform better in the subject than girls that they tend to overestimate boys’
capabilities (Ernest, 1976; Li, 1999) which results in making their parents believe
that Math is a difficult subject for their daughters (Yee & Eccles, 1998).
The diagram on page 9 shows the interrelatedness of the theories and their
relevance in the existing phenomenon, sex differences in Math. These theories are
closely related particularly in this study since all of these theories discussed how
individuals’ learning and perception of themselves are influenced by the kind of
environment and society that they are in since it plays a key role in the development
of their learning. As discussed in the theories above, students learn from the culture
that they live in that’s why their ability to think and perform mathematical tasks is
most of the time impacted by the norms and standards imposed by their
8. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 8
environment. They tend to base their decisions on what their peers and what other
people perceive of them, be it positive or not. Their learning and acquisition of
knowledge as well as their view of themselves as learners and thinkers are greatly
affected by the kind of environment and culture that they have, by the society that
they belong in which has imposed norms and standards that they thought they have
to adhere to and meet, and also by the people that surrounds them especially their
gender-based perception of every individual. These factors have planted and
cultivated fear in students, making them feel anxious, less interested and confident
in the subject, resulting in poor academic performance.
9. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 9
Figure1. Schematic Diagram of the Theoretical Framework of the Study
Gender-
Schema
Theory
Sex Differences
In Math
Sociocultural
Learning
Theory
Mindset
Theory
Stereotype
Threat
Theory
10. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 10
Review of Related Literature and Studies
Mathematics has been considered one of the core subjects because of its
usefulness beyond the pillars of every institution. It seems to be generally agreed
that in order for individuals to work (reasonably well) in an increasingly complex
environment, a basic level of numeracy is needed (All Party Parliamentary Group on
Financial Education, 2011; Burghes, 2012; Gove in Foreword to Vorderman et al.,
2011; Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology, 2013;). Numeracy, or
mathematical knowledge, is seen as crucially important (Ofste, 2012; Vorderman et
al., 2011) which is increasingly necessary in a range of life-skills. But for the past
decades, a lot of studies implied that not both sexes excel in the said discipline. If so,
what can be the underlying factors?
Sex differences in students’ performance in Math. The literature on sex
differences in Mathematics performance is wide and well-studied. Some researches
(Jacobs, Fennema, Carpenter, Franke & Levi, 1998; Maccoby & Jacklin, 1974;
Shibley-Hyde, Fennema & Lamon, 1990) laid down a vast amount of research
findings about differences in sex-related Mathematics performance over the past
decades. Traditionally, data always favor males to excel in Math performance
compared to females. The prevalence of this viewpoint has been enforced by
individuals who strengthen the development of youth, such as teachers, who
believed ever since that those males perform naturally better at Math and tend to
overvalue males’ abilities in comparison to females’ (Ernest, 1976; Li, 1999), and
this trend has been followed by parents, assuming their sons have tremendous
mathematical ability (Furnham, Reeves, & Budhani, 2002) and thinking that Math
11. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 11
appears to be more difficult to their daughters (Yee & Eccles, 1998). In previous
studies of Tyler (1965), Anastasi (1958), and Maccoby (1966), male students
generally do better than female students in numerical and spatial aptitudes and in
arithmetical reasoning tests.
In today’s era, girls started to do better in the subject and had higher
achievements in Mathematics based on school grades (Egorova & Chertkova, 2016).
In the study of Cotton and Price (2013) on “Gender differences in repeated
competition: Evidence from school math contests”, results show that in any
subsequent time the male advantage is not detected, and females also outperform
males in later periods.
There are also some research findings which tend to suggest that there are
no significant differences in the academic performance of both male and female in
Math, and if there is, the difference is minor (Voyer & Voyer, 2014) . One study
assessing math performance on the Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement–
Second Edition (KTEA-II; Kaufman & Kaufman, 2004) for students whose ages range
from 7 to 19 found that there were no signs of gender differences in latent Math
capacity but that females outsmarted males in terms of Math computation
(Reynolds, Scheiber, Hajovsky, Schwartz, & Kaufman, 2015). Also, in the study of
Ajai and Imoko (2015), it was reported that male and female students did not differ
significantly in Mathematics achievement and retention scores, thereby showing
that male and female students are both capable of competing and collaborating in
Math.
12. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 12
Sex differences in students’ anxiety in Math. Math anxiety is described as
“feelings of stress and anxiety which interfere with the manipulation of
mathematical problems in a wide range of ordinary life and academic
circumstances” (Richardson & Suinn, 1972, p.551). It is more than just disliking
math and leads to a global avoidance pattern - whenever possible, students avoid
taking math classes and avoid situations in which math will be necessary (Sparks,
2011; Hellum-Alexander, 2010; Ashcraft & Krause, 2007). Beilock and colleagues
(2010) concluded that “the fears that math-anxious individuals experience when
they are called on to do math prevent them from using the math knowledge they
possess to show what they know. This is a negative affective response to Math
circumstances (Maloney & Beilock, 2012) that correlates with low Math
achievements and predicts avoidance of math-related courses, tasks, and careers
(Hembree, 1990). In other words, as students’ math anxiety increases, their test
scores decrease (Furner & Berman, 2004; Woodard, 2004).
Previous studies report that girls tend to show higher anxiety and lower self-
concept about their Math competence than boys (Casey, Nuttall, & Pezaris, 1997;
Pajares & Miller, 1994; Meece, Wigfield, & Eccles, 1990).
In some recent studies, girls tend to be consistent in having higher Math
anxiety than boys (e.g. Devine, Fawcett, Szucs, & Dowker, 2012; Frenzel, Pekrun, &
Goetz, 2007; Jain & Dowson, 2009; Kvedere, 2012), making boys have more positive
attitudes towards math than girls (Krinzinger, Wood, & Willmes, 2012). It was also
found out that girls were more anxious about Math in general than boys but both do
just as well on the subject (Goetz, Bieg, Ludtke, Pekrun, & Hall, 2013; Stoesz et al.,
13. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 13
2016). This seems to be linked to variations in how well they think they are at Math
between boys and girls. The boys’ ratings of their Math skills were consistently
higher than girls’ ratings. Statistical tests suggest that these rating inequalities were
associated with differences in general anxiety in Math.
By comparison, there are also some recent studies which have revealed no
sex differences in Math anxiety (e.g. Dede, 2008; Kyttala & Bjorn, 2014). In an
interesting study of Jolejole-Caube, Dumlao, and Abocejo (2019), it was revealed
that both male and female students experience a moderate level of anxiety towards
Mathematics which was on the same level. These findings suggest helping all
children get more educated about how well they are doing in Math classes would be
worthwhile. Knowing their performance level might help them reduce their anxiety
over Math in general. Furthermore, it may be useful to take children with general
Math anxiety and to help them to realize that they do not experience so much
anxiety when they do Math.
Sex differences in students’ interest in Math. There are actually different
conceptualizations of interest (Hidi & Renninger, 2006). In line with Krapp’s
concept of the person-object (2002), interest is defined as a characteristic of a
student-domain relationship. In some studies, it is being manifested differently by
both sexes particularly in the area of Mathematics.
Math interest is fundamental to self-determined practices, and is likely to be
reciprocally connected with Math achievement (Garon-Carrier et al., 2016; Marsh et
al., 2015; Ryan & Deci, 2000). This feeling and attitude towards Mathematics are
vital since these affect how well or how often they do it, and how much enjoyment
14. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 14
they derive from it (Moenikia & Zahed-Babelanb, 2010) as well as influence the
willingness of the students to learn the subject and the advantage that it will bring
to math instruction (Atanasova-Pacemska et al., 2015). Furthermore, Zan and Di
Martino (2007), as cited in the study of Sanchal and Sharma (2017), revealed that
students who feel comfortable in doing math tasks and activities are linked with
being successful in mathematics. Indeed, it was found that there is a strong mutual
relationship between Math interest and achievement (Liu, 2009; Pinxten et al.,
2014; Yoon, Eccles & Wigfield, 1996).
Many studies in the past have documented that boys are more interested in
the subject than girls (Eccles et al., 1983; Hoffmann et al., 1998; Fredricks & Eccles,
2002). Köller et al. (2001) also reported that in secondary years, boys showed a high
level of interest in Mathematics than girls.
In recent studies conducted in the domains of Mathematics, it was reported
that males still typically report greater levels of interest in Mathematics than
females (e.g., Fredricks & Eccles, 2002; Frenzel et al., 2010; Marsh et al., 2005).
These interest gaps in Mathematics seem to appear quite early in the academic path
as it has been observed as young as grade 1 students (Cvencek, Meltzoff &
Greenwald, 2011).
More recent studies have also identified minor differences in sex (Pinxten et
al., 2014) and the strengths of effects for math to interest results can be slightly
stronger for girls than for boys. (Ganley & Lubienski, 2016). Such gender differences
in students’ interest are often interpreted as a result of gender stereotypes, which
are socially held views that certain attributes should be assigned to individuals
15. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 15
based on their sex (Lips, 2005). Despite a few studies showing that students still
explicitly endorse traditional gender stereotypes advantaging males in Mathematics
(Cvencek et al., 2011), most others show that students no longer view Mathematics
as a domain better suited to males than females (Galdi et al., 2014; Pasolunghi et al.,
2014). Therefore, equal opportunities should be provided to all students while
letting them work with one another. According to the report from the National
Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2011), it is said that group work in
mathematical education plays an essential role in students’ question acquisition and
in criticizing constructively (Koçak, Bozan, & Işık, 2009), all leading to productive
and beneficial outcomes in student learning. Also, Ellis and Dryd (1997) claimed
that students have positive thoughts and feelings about Mathematics in general and
that they enjoy problem solving and calculations.
In the field of Science, it was found out that interest is significantly
decreasing over time for boys but not for girls (Alexander et al.,2012, p. 774).
Though it is in the domain of Science, still it can be linked to Mathematics since both
disciplines are just related and belong to natural science in general.
Sex differences in students’ self-confidence in Math. Self-confidence is
one of the most important psychological structures and is the subject of much of the
existing research on students’ Math achievement (Hammouri, 2004; Hosein & Harle,
2018; Kadijevich, 2018; Kvedere, 2014; Waini, et al., 2014). Sanchal & Sharma
(2017) supported the notion that confidence in learning Mathematics improves
students’ interest and participation
16. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 16
Literature has suggested lack of trust among women as a major source of
explanation for sex differences in competitive educational and career choices. For
example, Gneezy et al. (2003) argue that women underestimate their ability
compared to men, and they feel less confident and competent in solving problems.
Since before, boys report to have greater confidence than girls (Hyde et al.,
1990). Previous studies using general measures of confidence, such as grade
prediction or potential ability to pass a test, have found that girls are less confident
than boys in their abilities in Mathematics and problem solving (Campbell &
Hackett, 1986; Hornig, 1987; Johnson, 1989; Matyas, 1984). This finding of lesser
confidence in girls was observed at sixth grade level (Fennema & Sherman, 1978),
junior and senior high level (Rosen & Aneshel, 1978), and undergraduate and
graduate (Dix, 1987). Females tend to underestimate themselves even if they do
well or better than their male counterparts (Fennema & Sherman, 1978; Zukerman,
1987). Moreover, this general lack of confidence does not end with academy
graduation. Successful professional women may also underestimate their capacities
and overestimate others’ abilities; a tendency Clance and O’Toole (1988) labeled the
“Imposter Phenomenon”.
Sex differences in Math confidence were observed in one longitudinal study
as early as the first grade, although this disparity decreased over the course of
schooling (Fredricks & Eccles, 2002; Wigfield et al., 1997).
The current literature has well-identified a correlation between gender gaps
in confidence and competitiveness by demonstrating how men are more confident
than women, resulting in different competitive choices and achievements among the
17. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 17
sexes. In fact, overconfidence among men is a major determinant of their excessive
involvement in competition (Niederle & Vesterlund, 2007; Buser et al., 2014).
Generally, boys still dominate especially in terms of anxiety, interest, and
self-confidence in Math as reported in recent studies. What propels the researcher
to conduct this study is that, based on personal observation and initial interviews
conducted, girls are said to be more confident and have high level of self-confidence
in Math compared to boys, especially in hinterland settings. That is why, the
researcher wanted to identify the sex differences for it will help teachers create a
differentiated instruction which is mandated by DepEd.
As mentioned, this study is focused on identifying sex differences.
Biologically speaking, sex differences consist of five factors present at birth: the
presence or absence of the SRY gene (an intronless sex-determining gene on the Y
chromosome), the type of gonads, the sex hormones, the internal reproductive
anatomy (such as the uterus), and the external genitalia. Since the term used is ‘sex’,
which relates to biological differences and is defined by genetic factors, respondents
in this study were treated based on how they are biologically defined --- male and
female.
Conceptual Framework of the Study
Numerous studies suggest that sex differences tend to be innate or genetic.
One of the reasons why girls performed low, have less confidence and interest, and
higher anxiety than boys in Math is that fewer girls than boys have the intrinsic
ability to deal with the subject. They are inclined in verbal activities which is why
they score higher than boys in the said activities (Hyde & Linn, 1988), and the
18. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 18
particular reason for this circumstance is that the normal process of communication
and language skills development is faster and more advanced in girls compared with
boys (Adani & Cepanec, 2019).
The conceptual framework of the study shows the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables. The independent variable is the students’ sex
while the dependent variable is limited to the following: students’ Mathematics
performance, anxiety, interest, and self-confidence.
The researcher has the presumption that students’ sex is related to the
following: students’ academic performance, anxiety, interest, and self-confidence.
The findings of this study will help the researcher figure out if there is a turning
point in the phenomenon, that girls no longer view Mathematics as a male domain,
have less anxiety, if there is, than boys, and perform well in the subject while gaining
enough confidence and interest. It will also give ideas not just to the people in
different societies but to students in particular that they need not to be pressured by
external factors and do in accordance to what people have perceived of them
because they are not obliged to.
19. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 19
Independent Variable
Dependent Variable
Figure1. Diagram of the Conceptual Framework of the Study
Students’ Sex
Students’ Mathematics:
Performance
Anxiety
Interest
Self-confidence
20. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 20
Statement of the Problem
This study aims to identify sex differences in the academic performance of
hinterland high school students towards Mathematics in relation to some selected
dependent variables. Specifically, it seeks to answer the following questions:
1. What is the academic performance of students in Mathematics?
2. To what extent do the students displayed the following in Mathematics class:
2.1 anxiety;
2.2 interest; and
2.3 self-confidence?
3. When grouped according to sex, is there a significant difference in the students’:
3.1 academic performance;
3.2 anxiety;
3.3 interest; and
3.4 self-confidence?
Research Hypothesis
The null hypothesis of the study is:
H01: When grouped according to sex, there is no significant difference in the
students’ academic performance, anxiety, interest, and self-confidence.
Significance of the Study
This study is important to the following:
Teachers. Results of the study will give teachers insights while reminding
them that their perception of students plays a vital role in students’ participation in
the educative process. It will allow them to realize that girls and boys can both
21. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 21
perform better in Mathematics, especially when treated fairly and provided equal
opportunities. Also, results of this study can be used in preparing and designing
teaching-learning activities using differentiated instructions, which is mandated by
the Department of Education.
Principals. Results of this study could also serve as a guide for school
principals in their attempts to strengthen instructional support such as allocation of
budget for more Mathematics manipulative objects and the like.
Mathematics coordinators. Mathematics coordinators can also utilize the
results of this study in giving technical assistance and instructional support to
school heads and Mathematics teachers.
Parents. Results of this study will encourage parents even more to support
and motivate their children to do better in school without having to compare them
to others regardless of their standing in school. This will also help them realize that
they should not be the one to put down, underestimate, and be in doubt of their
children’s capacities but be a strong support system instead.
Curriculum. The data obtained from this study could act as a basis for
assessing and improving the Mathematics Curriculum.
Society. The society plays an imperative part in molding better and
successful individuals. The results of this study will widen its concept of
mathematical ability and competence, making it open-minded and a safe place for
students to explore on their own, be proud of who they are, be confident on their
own skills, and most importantly, it will remind society to be a gender-sensitive
environment where anyone, regardless of sex, can excel and participate.
22. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 22
Students. This study aims to boost the confidence of students, particularly
girls, in the subject Mathematics and make them believe in themselves that they can
also excel in the subject just like boys do so that they may no longer hesitate to
participate in any mathematical activity for the reason that they were deemed
inferior. This will also make them realize that they need not to conform to anybody’s
standards and perception of them, that they should be only working hard for them
to acquire meaningful and substantial learning and not for the purpose of trying to
impress somebody.
Scope and Limitations of the Study
Scope of the study. This research focused on determining the academic
performance, level of anxiety, interest, and self-confidence in Mathematics of
hinterland high school students and how these variables are related to their sex. The
data gathered were used in analyzing and concluding whether there is a turning
point in the phenomenon, sex differences in Mathematics, that girls excel in the
subject with enough interest and confidence. The respondents of this study were
from the selected hinterland high schools of Tanjay City, Sto. Niño High School,
Namonbon High School, and Pilipigan Indigenous People Integrated School (PIPIS).
Limitations of the study. Now that we are in a pandemic and the face-to-
face learning modality is not available, the physical and emotional conditions of
students during the conduct of the study as well as the location of their respective
homes were considered as limitations.
23. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 23
Research Methodology
This research study focused on finding out sex differences in mathematics in
terms of academic performance, anxiety, interest, and self-confidence in the selected
hinterland schools in Tanjay City Division. To conduct the study efficiently and
successfully, the researcher employed and followed the following:
Research design. This study employed the descriptive-correlational survey.
It is descriptive because the researcher described the students’ academic
performance, anxiety, interest, and self-confidence in Mathematics. On the other
hand, it is also correlational because students’ sex was correlated to the mentioned
variables.
Research environment. The questionnaires were answered by the students
in their respective homes since the face-to-face learning modality is not possible
because of the pandemic. Respondents are students from Sto. Niño High School,
Namonbon High School, and Pilipigan Indigenous People Integrated School (PIPIS).
Sto. Niño High School is located in Barangay Sto. Niño which is the farthest
barangay of the city. The school is quite accessible with any vehicle especially when
the weather is fine but when rain comes, the road becomes muddy and gunky. The
school has electricity and there is an abundance of water. It has enough facilities for
students to explore and learn with concrete classrooms. Though signals in
hinterland are not really strong, the school still managed to have a Wi-Fi connection.
Namonbon High School is a remote school located in Sitio Namonbon,
Barangay Pal-ew, Tanjay City. There is electricity and water in this area but signal is
quite difficult to have. The school is also accessible with vehicles especially when the
24. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 24
weather is fine but will take you to walk a distance of 20 meters if not. The school
does not have enough facilities. Classrooms of grades 7-10 are concrete while
classrooms of grades 11 and 12 are makeshifts.
On the other hand, Pilipigan Indigenous People Integrated School (PIPIS) is
also a remote school located in Barangay Pal-ew, Tanjay City. There is no electricity
in this area but there is abundance of water coming from a spring. It is quite remote
that teachers have to trek for hours in the woods just to get there. Classrooms in this
school are not concrete. The school only has makeshift classrooms and does not
have enough facilities. Signal is also not quite evident in this area.
Research respondents. The respondents of this study were all the students
of Sto Niño High School, Namonbon High School, and Pilipigan Indigenous People
Integrated School (PIPIS) which were randomly selected using single-stage cluster
sampling. This means that all elements in the selected clusters are included in the
sample. The distribution of the students is as follows:
School Number of Students
Sto. Niño High School 370
Namonbon High School 64
PIPIS 173
Total 607
Research instruments. The researcher used a questionnaire that is
composed of 3 parts. The first part was made for the purpose of gauging the level of
anxiety of students. The researcher used the Turkish Children’s Anxiety in Math
Scale (T-CAMS) instrument of Kandemir, Jameson, and Palestro (2016). This 11-
item questionnaire revealed a valid and reliable measure of students’ Mathematical
anxiety with alpha coefficient of 0. 856.
25. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 25
For the second part, it was for measuring the level of interest of students in
the subject. The questionnaire used was self-made that is why the researcher
conducted a dry run from 30 respondents which were not part of the final sample.
The researcher employed Cronbach’s alpha and it yielded a valid and reliable
measure of students’ Mathematical interest with alpha coefficient of 0.923.
Lastly, the third part of the questionnaire was for measuring self-confidence
of students in Mathematics which was taken from the instrument of Majeed,
Darmawan and Lynch (2013) on attitudes towards. It has a Cronbach’s alpha
coefficient of 0.928.
Ethical considerations. The researcher showed on the entire duration of the
study all the necessary ethical considerations. Full consent was obtained from the
participants by the researcher prior to the study. The researcher made sure that the
protection of their privacy as well as the adequate level of confidentiality of the
research data will be ensured.
The researcher followed the ethical protocols stipulated in the Ethics
Committee of Foundation University. To ensure that the research topic will be
evidently sound, significant and ethically correct consultation was pursued. The
researcher also displayed a non-judgmental attitude during the entire process to
ensure that censure will be avoided.
Research procedure. In gathering data for the study, the researcher sent a
letter to the Schools Division Superintendent then to the school administrator and
teacher-in-charge of the different schools covered by the study for an approval.
Since we are facing the Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID 19) pandemic, the
26. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 26
learning delivery modality adopted was the modular distance learning which is why
with regard to the gathering of data, questionnaires were floated during the
distribution of modules. The researcher asked for assistance from the different
advisers of the respondents to place the questionnaires in the envelope together
with the learning modules before handing it to parents with proper instructions.
After the retrieval of the questionnaires, the researcher asked permission from the
teacher to have the grade in Mathematics of each respondent from the previous
school year, 2019-2020, reflected in the form 10.
The results were then tallied using MS Excel, analyzed and interpreted.
Statistical Treatment of the Data
The tools that were used by the researcher in analyzing the data were the
following:
Percent. This was used in presenting the academic performance of the
students.
Mean. This was used in getting the extent of performance of students.
Mann-Whitney U test. This was used to identify the significant difference
between anxiety, interest, and self-confidence of male and female students. This test
was considered since the data are in ordinal scale.
z-test. This was used to identify the significant difference between the
academic performance of male and female students. Also, this was chosen because
the data was in ratio scale and the number of samples in every group was greater
than 30.
27. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 27
The proficiency level or academic performance at which the students were
performing was based on the following criteria (DepEd Order No. 8, s 2015).
Rating Verbal
Equivalent
*Explanations
90% and
above
Outstanding The student at this level exceeds the core
requirements in terms of knowledge, skills and
understanding, and can transfer them automatically
and flexibly through authentic performance tasks.
85% - 89% Very
Satisfactory
The student at this level has developed the
fundamental knowledge and skills and core
understandings, and can transfer them
independently through authentic performance tasks.
80% - 84% Satisfactory The student at this level has developed the
fundamental knowledge and skills and core
understandings, and with little guidance from the
teacher and/or with some assistance from peers, and
can transfer these understandings through authentic
performance tasks.
75% - 79% Fairly
Satisfactory
The student at this level possesses the minimum
knowledge and skills and core understandings, but
needs help throughout the performance of authentic
tasks.
74% down Did Not Meet
Expectations
The student at this level struggles with his/her
understanding; prerequisite and fundamental
knowledge and/or skills have not been acquired or
developed adequately to aid understanding.
28. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 28
The following interpretations were also applied by the researcher to describe
the Mathematical anxiety of the students:
Verbal Description Scale Explanation
Extremely Anxious 4.21 – 5.00 The feeling/behavior is felt/manifested by
the students 81% -100% of the time.
Anxious 3.41 – 4.20 The feeling/behavior is felt/manifested by
the students 61% - 80% of the time.
Fairly Anxious 2.61 – 3.40 The feeling/behavior is felt/manifested by
the students 41% - 60% of the time.
A Little Anxious 1.81 – 2.60 The feeling/behavior is felt/manifested by
the students 21% - 40% of the time.
Not Anxious 1.00 – 1.80 The feeling/behavior is felt/manifested by
the students 1% - 20% of the time.
Furthermore, the researcher used the following classifications for the
Mathematics interest of the students:
Verbal
Description
Explanation
Strongly Agree The feeling/behavior is felt/manifested by the
students 81% -100% of the time.
Agree The feeling/behavior is felt/manifested by the
students 61% - 80% of the time.
Moderately Agree The feeling/behavior is felt/manifested by the
students 41% -60% of the time.
Disagree The feeling/behavior is felt/manifested by the
students 21% - 40% of the time.
Strongly Disagree The feeling/behavior is felt/manifested 1% -
20% of the time.
29. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 29
The researcher also used the following interpretations to describe the
Mathematics confidence of students:
Verbal
Description
Confidence
Interpretation
Explanation
Strongly Agree Very Confident The feeling/behavior is felt/manifested by the
students 81% -100% of the time.
Agree Confident The feeling/behavior is felt/manifested by the
students 61% - 80% of the time.
Moderately Agree Moderately
Confident
The feeling/behavior is felt/manifested by the
students 41% -60% of the time.
Disagree A little confident The feeling/behavior is felt/manifested by the
students 21% - 40% of the time.
Strongly Disagree Not confident The feeling/behavior is felt/manifested 1% -
20% of the time.
30. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 30
Operational Definition of Terms
The following terms are defined in order to have a clear understanding on
each concept since these terms will be used in the study:
Sex differences. These have something to do with differences in academic
performance, anxiety, interest, and self-confidence manifested by both male and
female students in the subject Mathematics. Generally, these refer to the behavior of
males and females in the subject and how they think and feel when dealing with
mathematical tasks with or without their classmates around.
Academic performance. This refers to the average grade or measurement of
student achievement in Mathematics in a school year.
Math anxiety. This refers to the feeling of tension or fear that students have
whenever they enter their Math class and get to perform activities related to the
said subject.
Interest in Mathematics. It refers to the drive that students have when it
comes to learning about Mathematics and their perception of the subject.
Self-confidence in Mathematics. Self-confidence has something to do with
trusting one’s self and one’s personal ability in dealing with mathematical problems.
31. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 31
Chapter II
Presentation, Analysis, and Interpretation of Data
This chapter provides information about the data gathered from the average
grades in Mathematics of the students of Sto Niño High School, Namonbon High
School, and Pilipigan Indigenous People Integrated School (PIPIS) in the school year
2019-2020 as well as their responses on the different questionnaires given. The
data are presented in both tabular and textual forms, analyzed, and interpreted to
provide answers to problems presented earlier in this study.
Table 1
Academic Performance of Students in Mathematics
Rating Verbal Description Frequency Percent
90% - 100% Outstanding 34 5.60
85% - 89% Very Satisfactory 133 21.91
80% - 84% Satisfactory 211 34.76
75% - 79% Fairly Satisfactory 218 35.91
74% and Below Did Not Meet Expectations 5 0.82
Total 607 100.00
Mean = 81.57 (Satisfactory)
sd = 4.79
The data in Table 1 shows the academic performance of students in
Mathematics. Most of the students, with a percentage of 35.91, have a rating that
falls between 75% - 79% with a verbal description of fairly satisfactory. This means
that students at this level possess the minimum knowledge, skills, and core
understandings, but need help throughout the performance of authentic tasks
(DepEd Order No. 8, s 2015).
Another large percentage (34.76) of students has a rating between 80% -
84% with a satisfactory level. This means that the students at this level have
32. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 32
developed the fundamental knowledge, skills, and core understanding of
Mathematics subject and with little guidance from the teacher and/or with some
assistance from peers can transfer these understanding through authentic
performance tasks (DepEd Order No. 8, s 2015).
With a mean of 81.57, a satisfactory academic performance is being
indicated. This agrees to the claim of Rodriguez (2019) that students’ performance
in Math class is in satisfactory level. This is substantiated by the findings of
Malibiran, Candelario-Aplaon, and Izon (2019) that students’ Math performance in
problem-solving is in satisfactory level. The current finding has a standard deviation
of 4.79 which suggests greater variability in students’ ratings, which means that
data are not clustered around the mean and are more spread out.
Table 2.1
Extentto whichStudents DisplayedMathematics AnxietyinClass (n=607)
Indicators
wx̄ Verbal
Description
1. If I have to solve problems on the board in front of the
class, I feel:
3.40 Fairly Anxious
2. Working on Math at home makes me feel: 3.35 Fairly Anxious
3. When my teacher says that he or she is going to give
me a Math problem on the board, I feel:
3.34 Fairly Anxious
4. When I solve Math puzzles, I feel: 3.33 Fairly Anxious
5. Thinking about working on Math in class makes me
feel:
3.27 Fairly Anxious
6. When the teacher calls on me to answer a Math
problem, I feel:
3.23 Fairly Anxious
7. When I solve Math problems, I feel: 3.21 Fairly Anxious
8. When I know that my class will be working on Math at
school, I feel:
3.21 Fairly Anxious
9. Compared to other school subjects, Math makes me
feel:
3.19 Fairly Anxious
10. When I know that I am going to have a Math test, I feel: 3.18 Fairly Anxious
11. When I think about doing Math, I feel: 3.17 Fairly Anxious
Composite 3.26 Fairly Anxious
Legend: Range VerbalDescription
4.21 – 5.00 Extremely Anxious
3.41 – 4.20 Anxious
2.61 – 3.40 Fairly Anxious
1.81 – 2.60 A LittleAnxious
33. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 33
1.00 – 1.80 Not Anxious
The data in Table 2.1 shows the extent to which students displayed
Mathematics anxiety in class. It is being revealed that during their Mathematics
class, generally students are feeling fairly anxious as evidenced by wx̄ ranging from
3.17 – 3.40. This means that the anxious feeling is being manifested by the students
41% - 60% of the time. This is being supported in an interesting study of Jole-jole-
Caube, Dumlao, and Abocejo (2019) which revealed that students experience a
moderate level of anxiety towards Mathematics. Clearly, mathematics anxiety has
been a feeling of apprehension and increased physiological reactivity when
individuals have to manipulate numbers, solve math problems, or when they are
exposed to an evaluative situation which deals with mathematics (Carey et al.,
2016). Beilock and colleagues (2010) concluded that the worries of math-anxious
individuals when they are called to do math prohibit them from using their
mathematical skills to explain what they know. It is more than just disliking math
and contributes to a global trend of avoidance - students avoid taking math classes
whenever possible and avoid circumstances in which math is required. (Sparks,
2011; Hellum-Alexander, 2010; Ashcraft & Krause, 2007).
The data in Table 2.2 on the next page shows the extent to which students
displayed interest in Mathematics class. Just like in Table 1.1, indicators are being
presented according to the order of the weighted mean. Based on the table above,
students are interested (𝑤𝑥̄ = 3.62) in the subject when they study with their group
members in class. According to the report from the National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics (2011), it is said that group work in mathematical education plays an
essential role in students’ question acquisition and in criticizing constructively
34. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 34
(Koçak, Bozan, & Işık, 2009), all leading to productive and beneficial outcomes in
student learning.
Table 2.2
Extent to which Students Displayed Interest in Mathematics Class (n = 607)
Indicators
wx̄ Verbal
Description
1. I like to study with my group members in class. 3.62 Interested
2. I keep trying to learn even if I am nervous. 3.61 Interested
3. I think about my learning (e.g. “How am I
doing?”)
3.60 Interested
4. I ask the teacher for help when needed. 3.57 Interested
5. I do my best whatever the situation is. 3.53 Interested
6. I like to solve problems in class. 3.50 Interested
7. I participate in all Math-related activities in
class.
3.48 Interested
8. Mathematics is a very interesting subject. 3.43 Interested
9. I am comfortable answering questions in
Mathematics class.
3.39 Fairly Interested
10. I am willing to take more than the required
amount of Mathematics.
3.37 Fairly Interested
11. Mathematics is dull and boring. 2.97 Fairly Interested
Composite 3.46 Interested
Legend: Range VerbalDescription
4.21 – 5.00 Very Interested
3.41 – 4.20 Interested
2.61 – 3.40 Fairly Interested
1.81 – 2.60 A LittleInterested
1.00 – 1.80 Not Interested
Students also show interest in the subject by trying to learn even if they are
nervous (𝑤𝑥̄ = 3.61)and by thinking about their learning (𝑤𝑥̄ = 3.60). There is
really a need for students, aside from going extra mile, to really understand and
grasp the concept, to assess and monitor their learning which has something to do
with metacognition. This allows a student who has been taught a specific technique
to recall and deploy the strategy in a similar yet new way in a specific problem
context (Kuhn & Dean, 2004). Furthermore, students also show interest in their
Mathematics class by asking their teacher for help when needed (𝑤𝑥̄ = 3.57) and by
35. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 35
doing their best whatever the situation is (𝑤𝑥̄ = 3.53). Help seeking occurs at a
critical point in the learning process when a student encounters ambiguity,
difficulty, or obstacle. Students are likely to assess their dedication and ability to
complete their work at such a stage. It has been shown that help-seeking behavior
with teachers is key to achievement (Ryan, Patrick, & Shim, 2005).
It is also being shown in Table 2.2 that students want to solve problems in
Math (𝑤𝑥̄ = 3.50) and participate in all Math-related activities in their class (𝑤𝑥̄ =
3.48) because they find the subject very interesting (𝑤𝑥̄ = 3.43). This supports the
findings of recent studies that students no longer view Mathematics as a domain
better suited to males than females (Galdi et al., 2014; Pasolunghi et al., 2014).
Likewise, this also supports the claim of Ellis and Dryd (1997) that students have
positive thoughts and feelings about Mathematics in general and that they enjoy
problem solving and calculations.
On the other hand, the bottom three indicators, ‘I am comfortable answering
questions in Mathematics class’ (𝑤𝑥̄ = 3.39), ‘I am willing to take more than the
required amount of Mathematics’ (𝑤𝑥̄ = 3.37), and ‘Mathematics is dull and boring’
(𝑤𝑥̄ = 2.97), have the same verbal description of “fairly interested”. These feelings
and attitude towards Mathematics are vital since these affect how well or how often
they do it, and how much enjoyment they derive from it (Moenikia & Zahed-
Babelanb, 2010) as well as influence the willingness of the students to learn the
subject and the advantage that it will bring to math instruction (Atanasova-
Pacemska et al., 2015). Furthermore, Zan and Di Martino (2007), as cited in the
36. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 36
study of Sanchal and Sharma (2017), revealed that students who feel comfortable in
doing math tasks and activities are linked with being successful in mathematics.
Generally, it has a composite weighted mean of 3.46 with a verbal equivalent
of ‘interested’. This means that the feeling of being interested in the subject is
manifested by students 61% - 80% of the time.
Table 2.3
Extent to which Students Displayed Confidence in Mathematics Class
Indicator wx̄ Verbal Description Confidence
Interpretation
Positive Statements
1. I have a lot of self-confidence
when it comes to Mathematics.
3.55 Agree Confident
2. I expect to do fairly well in any
Mathematics class I take.
3.48 Agree Confident
3. I learn Mathematics easily. 3.33 Moderately Agree Moderately Confident
4. Mathematics does not scare me
at all.
3.27 Moderately Agree Moderately Confident
5. I am able to solve Mathematics
problems without too much
difficulty.
3.18 Moderately Agree Moderately Confident
6. I believe I am good at solving
Mathematics problems.
3.13 Moderately Agree Moderately Confident
Composite 3.32 Moderately Agree Moderately Confident
Negative Statements
7. My mind goes blank and I am
unable to think clearly when
working with Mathematics.
2.98 Moderately Agree Moderately Confident
8. Studying Mathematics makes
me feel nervous.
2.97 Moderately Agree Moderately Confident
9. Mathematics is one of my
dreaded subjects.
2.93 Moderately Agree Moderately Confident
10. Mathematics makes me feel
uncomfortable.
2.77 Moderately Agree Moderately Confident
11. When I heard the word
Mathematics, I have a feeling of
dislike.
2.75 Moderately Agree Moderately Confident
12. I am always confused in my
Mathematics class.
2.61 Moderately Agree Moderately Confident
Composite 2.84 Moderately Agree Moderately Confident
Overall Composite 3.24 Moderately Agree Moderately Confident
Legend: Range VerbalDescription Confidence Interpretation
Positive Statements Negative Statements
4.21 – 5.00 Strongly Agree Very Confident Not Confident
3.41 – 4.20 Agree Confident A LittleConfident
2.61 – 3.40 Moderately Agree Moderately Confident Moderately Confident
1.81 – 2.60 Disagree A LittleConfident Confident
1.00 – 1.80 Strongly Agree Not Confident Very Confident
37. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 37
Table 2.3 shows the extent to which students displayed confidence in
Mathematics class. Statements are divided into two, positive and negative statements.
On the positively worded indicators which state, ‘I have a lot of self-confidence when it
comes to Mathematics’ (𝑤𝑥̄ = 3.55) and ‘I expect to do fairly well in any Mathematics
class I take’ (𝑤𝑥̄ = 3.48), have a verbal description of ‘agree’ or they are ‘confident’.
Sanchal and Sharma (2017) supported the notion that confidence in learning the subject
improves students’ interest and participation. As being shown in Table 2.2, students
show interest in the subject.
Furthermore, the rest in the positively worded indicators have wx̄ ranging
from 3.13 – 3.33 which imply that students feel moderately confident in a Mathematics
class or their confidence is displayed 41% - 60% of the time.
On the negatively worded indicators, the table divulges that students
moderately agree that working with Mathematics makes their minds blank and unable
to think and it makes them nervous. They also moderately claimed that the subject is
one of their dreaded subjects and it makes them feel uncomfortable, confused and
dislike the word Mathematics as evidenced of the values of the values of wx̄ ranging
from 2.61 – 2.98.
To sum it all up, it has an overall composite weighted mean of 3.25 with a
verbal description of ‘moderately agree’ or students are ‘moderately confident’ in a
Mathematics class 41% - 60% of the time.
38. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 38
Table 3
Analysis Table on the Difference in the Students’ Academic Performance, Anxiety,
Interest and Self-Confidence when Grouped According to Their Sex
Variables n Mean Median Comp. z p-value Decision Remark
Academic Performance
Male 275 79.56 78 10.216 0.000 Reject Ho Significant
Female 332 83.23 83
Variables n Mean Rank Median Comp. U p-value Decision Remark
Anxiety
Male 275 365.7 3.90 28,675 0.000 Reject Ho Significant
Female 332 252.9 3.00
Interest
Male 275 253.5 3.27 31,755 0.000 Reject Ho Significant
Female 332 345.9 3.82
Self-Confidence
Male 275 242.1 3.00 28,623 0.000 Reject Ho Significant
Female 332 355.3 3.67
Level of significance = 0.05
Table 3 shows the data in analyzing the difference in the students’ academic
performance, anxiety, interest and self-confidence when grouped according to their
sex. As presented, all p-values are less than the level of significance (0.05). This
finding is sufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis. This means that there is a
significant difference in the students’ academic performance, anxiety, interest and
self-confidence.
Considering students’ academic performance, it is apparent that female
students (mean = 83.23; median = 83) have better ratings compared to the male
students (mean = 79.56; median = 78) using z-Test. This supports the claim that
girls started to do better and has higher achievements in their Mathematics class
(Egorova & Chertkova, 2016) and that they outsmarted boys in terms of Math
computation (Reynolds, Scheiber, Hajovsky, Schwartz, & Kaufman, 2015). On the
39. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 39
other hand, these results no longer agree to previous studies of Tyler (1965),
Anastasi (1958), and Maccoby (1966) that male students generally do better than
female students in numerical tests. It also disagrees to the claim that both male and
female students are capable of competing and collaborating in Math (Ajai & Imoko,
2015) and that both do just as well on the subject (Goetz, Bieg, Ludtke, Pekrun, &
Hall, 2013; Stoesz et al., 2016)
It is also reflected in the table that male students have higher mathematical
anxiety (mean rank = 365.7; median = 3.90) than the female students (mean rank =
252.9; median = 3.00) using the Mann-Whitney U Test. This does not agree to
previous and recent studies that girls tend to show higher anxiety and lower self-
concept about their Math competence and tend to be consistent in having higher
Math anxiety than boys (Casey, Nuttall, & Pezaris, 1997; Pajares & Miller, 1994;
Meece, Wigfield, &Eccles, 1990; Devine, Fawcett, Szucs, & Dowker, 2012; Frenzel,
Pekrun, & Goetz, 2007; Jain & Dowson, 2009; Kvedere, 2012). This shows a
relationship between the academic performance and anxiety of students. Since girls
are less anxious than boys, they have better ratings than them. In other words, as
students’ math anxiety increases, their test scores decrease (Furner & Berman,
2004; Woodard, 2004).
The table further indicates that female students displayed better interest in
Mathematics (mean rank = 345.9; median = 3.82) than the male students (mean
rank = 253.5; median = 3.27) utilizing again the Mann-Whitney U Test. Clearly, Math
interest is connected with Math achievement (Garon-Carrier et al., 2016; Marsh et
al., 2015; Ryan & Deci, 2000). This supports the claim that there is a strong
40. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 40
relationship between Math interest and achievement (Liu, 2009; Pinxten et al.,
2014; Yoon, Eccles & Wigfield, 1996) since girls displayed better interest and have
higher ratings in the subject than boys and vice versa. On the other side of the coin,
results disagree to some studies that boys are more interested in the subject and
showed a high level of interest in Mathematics than girls (Eccles et al., 1983;
Hoffmann et al., 1998; Fredricks & Eccles, 2002; Köller et al., 2001).
Moreover, the table signifies that female students manifest higher self-
confidence in Mathematics class (mean rank = 355.3; median = 3.67) than the male
students (mean rank = 242.1; median = 3.00) considering the Mann-Whitney U Test.
This strongly disagrees to some claims that boys have greater confidence than girls
(Hyde et al., 1990), that girls are less confident than boys in their abilities in
Mathematics and problem solving (Campbell & Hackett, 1986; Hornig, 1987;
Johnson, 1989; Matyas, 1984), and that they underestimate themselves even if they
do well or better than their male counterparts (Fennema & Sherman, 1978;
Zukerman, 1987). The variables are pretty connected to each other since girls have
high ratings in Math compared to boys for the reason that they have higher self-
confidence, displayed better interest, and lower math anxiety than boys.
41. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 41
Chapter III
Summary of Findings, Conclusions, and Recommendations
This chapter contains the restatement of the problem and summary of findings,
conclusions, and recommendations.
Restatement of the Problem
This study aims to identify sex differences in the academic performance of
hinterland high school students towards Mathematics in relation to some selected
dependent variables. Specifically, it seeks to answer the following questions:
4. What is the academic performance of students in Mathematics?
5. To what extent do the students displayed the following in Mathematics class:
5.1 anxiety;
5.2 interest; and
5.3 self-confidence?
6. When grouped according to sex, is there a significant difference in the
students’:
6.1 academic performance;
6.2 anxiety;
6.3 interest; and
6.4 self-confidence?
42. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 42
Summary of Findings
Presented hereunder are the results based on the analysis and interpretation
of the data.
1. Academic Performance of Students in Mathematics
The data revealed that most of the respondents (35.91%) have ratings that
fall between 75% - 79% with a verbal description of fairly satisfactory. A big
percentage of them (34.76%) have ratings that are within the range of 80% - 84%
with a satisfactory level description. Furthermore, the data unveiled that generally,
the academic performance of students in Mathematics is 81.57% and classified as in
the satisfactory level.
2. Extent to which students displayed the following in their Mathematics class
The data divulged the following responses of students in their Mathematics
class:
2.1 anxiety: composite weighted mean is 3.26 (fairly anxious)
2.2 interest: composite weighted mean is 3.46 (interested)
2.3 self-confidence: composite weighted mean is 3.25 (moderately confident)
3. Difference between students’ academic performance, anxiety, interest, and
self-confidence when grouped according to sex
The data disclosed that there is a significant difference (all p-values < 0.05) in
the students’ academic performance, anxiety, interest and self-confidence when
grouped according to their sex.
43. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 43
3.1 academic performance: female students (mean = 83.23; median = 83) have
better ratings compared to the male students (mean = 79.56; median = 78)
3.2 anxiety: male students have higher mathematical anxiety (mean rank =
365.7; median = 3.90) than the female students (mean rank = 252.9;
median = 3.00)
3.3 interest: female students displayed better interest in Mathematics (mean
rank = 345.9; median = 3.82) than the male students (mean rank = 253.5;
median = 3.27)
3.4 self-confidence: female students manifest higher self-confidence in
Mathematics class (mean rank = 355.3; median = 3.67) than the male
students (mean rank = 242.1; median = 3.00)
Conclusions
Based on the findings cited above, the following conclusions are
hereby drawn:
1. The academic performance of students in mathematics is in the satisfactory
level.
2. Students are fairly anxious, interested, and moderately confident in their
Mathematics class.
3. When grouped according to sex, there is a difference in the students’
academic performance, anxiety, interest, and self-confidence in favor of the
female students.
44. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 44
In general, female students have higher ratings than boys. They have lower
mathematical anxiety and have displayed better interest in the subject and
manifest higher self-confidence in Mathematics class.
Recommendations
On the bases of the findings and conclusions presented, the following
recommendations hereby proposed that:
1. Teachers should always make sure that equal opportunities are provided in
the learning environment and should continue in providing guidance in any
given Mathematical tasks.
2. Teachers must see to it that students are placed in a motivating environment,
where they feel comfortable whenever faced with Math-related scenarios.
Math is a challenging discipline and is often branded as a painful subject that
is why teachers must do their best to make the process of learning the
subject painless. They can seek help from their school heads, supervisors, or
to anyone who they think can help them improve the delivery of instructions.
3. This study is focused on determining the academic performance, level of
anxiety, interest, and self-confidence in Mathematics of hinterland high
school students and how these variables are related to their sex. Teachers
may conduct a replication of this study and include other variables to gather
more data regarding the existing phenomenon.
45. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 45
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57. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 57
APPENDICES
58. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 58
Appendix A
59. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 59
Appendix B
Questionnaire
This questionnaire aims to identify the students’ anxiety level, interest, and
self-confidence in Mathematics. Kindly honestly answer the following questions.
Rest assured that the information you share is confidential. Thank you very much
for your time and cooperation.
Name: _____________________________
Grade in Math: ___________________
Part I. Profile of the Students:
Sex: ____Male ____Female
_
Part II. Math Anxiety
Direction: 1. Read each statement. Think carefully about each statement and
respond as truthfully as you can.
2. Place a check mark (√ ) in the blank that best describes your feeling.
The following will be your guide:
Verbal Description Explanation
Extremely Anxious The feeling/behavior is felt/manifested by the
students 81% -100% of the time.
Anxious The feeling/behavior is felt/manifested by the
students 61% - 80% of the time.
Fairly Anxious The feeling/behavior is felt/manifested by the
students 41% - 60% of the time.
A Little Anxious The feeling/behavior is felt/manifested by the
students 21% - 40% of the time.
Not Anxious The feeling/behavior is felt/manifested by the
students 1% - 20% of the time.
Note: Time may refer to the following: all exam days, all Math activities, and the
like.
60. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 60
Indicators
Extremely
Anxious
Anxious Fairly
Anxious
A little
anxious
Not
anxious
12. When I solve Math problems, I feel:
13. When I think about doing Math, I feel:
14. Compared to other school subjects, Math
makes me feel:
15. When I solve Math puzzles, I feel:
16. When the teacher calls on me to answer a
Math problem, I feel:
17. If I have to solve problems on the board in
front of the class, I feel:
18. Thinking about working on Math in class
makes me feel:
19. Working on Math at home makes me feel:
20. When my teacher says that he or she is going
to give me a Math problem on the board, I
feel:
21. When I know that my class will be working
on Math at school, I feel:
22. When I know that I am going to have a Math
test, I feel:
Adopted from The Turkish Children’s Anxiety in Math Scale (T-CAMS) by Kandemir, M., Jameson, M., & Palestro, J. (2016)
61. SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE, ANXIETY, INTEREST, AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 61
Part III. Interest
Direction: 1. Read each statement. Think carefully about each statement and
respond as truthfully as you can.
2. Place a check mark (√ ) in the blank that best describes your feeling.
The following will be your guide:
Verbal Description Explanation
Very Interested The feeling/behavior is felt/manifested by the
students 81% -100% of the time.
Interested The feeling/behavior is felt/manifested by the
students 61% - 80% of the time.
Fairly Interested The feeling/behavior is felt/manifested by the
students 41% - 60% of the time.
A Little Interested The feeling/behavior is felt/manifested by the
students 21% - 40% of the time.
Not Interested The feeling/behavior is felt/manifested by the
students 1% - 20% of the time.
Note: Time may refer to the following: all exam days, all Math activities, and the
like.
Indicators
Very
interested
Interested Fairly
interested
A little
interested
Not
interested
12. I like to solve problems in class.
13. I like to study with my group
members in class.
14. I do my best whatever the
situation is.
15. I think about my learning (e.g.
“How am I doing?”)
16. I ask the teacher for help when
needed.
17. I participate in all Math-related
activities in class.
18. I keep trying to learn even if I am
nervous.
19. Mathematics is dull and boring.
20. Mathematics is a very interesting
subject.
21. I am comfortable answering
questions in Mathematics class.
22. I am willing to take more than the
required amount of Mathematics.