Presentation by Han Soethoudt, Jan Broeze, and Heike Axmann of Wageningen University & Resaearch (WUR).
WUR and Olam Rice Nigeria conducted a controlled experiment in Nigeria in which mechanized rice harvesting and threshing were introduced on smallholder farms. The result of the study shows that mechanization considerably reduces losses, has a positive impact on farmers’ income, and the climate.
Learn more: https://www.wur.nl/en/news-wur/show-day/Mechanization-helps-Nigerian-farms-reduce-food-loss-and-increase-income.htm
Paddy fields account for around 20% of human-related emissions of methane — a potent greenhouse gas. Farmers normally flood rice fields throughout the growing season, meaning that methane is produced by microbes underwater as they help to decay any flooded organic matter
Presented at the Pulses for Sustainable Agriculture and Human Health” on 31 May-1 June 2016 at NASC, New Delhi, India. The conference was jointly organised by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), National Academy of Agricultural Sciences (NAAS), TCi of Cornell University (TCi-CU) and Agriculture Today.
Presentation by Stefan Frank, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA)
International conference on agricultural emissions and food security: Connecting research to policy and practice
10-13 September 2018
Berlin, Germany
Appropriate mechanization of small farmsSandeep Pawar
Increasing food production to feed the growing population is a primary challenge of Indian
farming system. Indian agriculture is characterized by millions of small and marginal
farmers. About 100 million farm families with 250 million workers (50% of work force)
contribute not more than 14 % to GDP. One of the major reasons behind these figures is lack
of appropriate mechanization mainly in small farms in India. One of the main causes for low
agricultural productivity in most of the developing countries, including India, is the lack of
appropriate machineries that suit the requirements of small scale farms. Thus many farms are
deemed as unproductive and inefficient. Need of appropriate mechanization for Indian farms
is defined in the report. This study report attempts to throw a light on other countries
scenario in case of mechanization and possible learning so as to improve outcomes in
agriculture in India.
Paddy fields account for around 20% of human-related emissions of methane — a potent greenhouse gas. Farmers normally flood rice fields throughout the growing season, meaning that methane is produced by microbes underwater as they help to decay any flooded organic matter
Presented at the Pulses for Sustainable Agriculture and Human Health” on 31 May-1 June 2016 at NASC, New Delhi, India. The conference was jointly organised by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), National Academy of Agricultural Sciences (NAAS), TCi of Cornell University (TCi-CU) and Agriculture Today.
Presentation by Stefan Frank, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA)
International conference on agricultural emissions and food security: Connecting research to policy and practice
10-13 September 2018
Berlin, Germany
Appropriate mechanization of small farmsSandeep Pawar
Increasing food production to feed the growing population is a primary challenge of Indian
farming system. Indian agriculture is characterized by millions of small and marginal
farmers. About 100 million farm families with 250 million workers (50% of work force)
contribute not more than 14 % to GDP. One of the major reasons behind these figures is lack
of appropriate mechanization mainly in small farms in India. One of the main causes for low
agricultural productivity in most of the developing countries, including India, is the lack of
appropriate machineries that suit the requirements of small scale farms. Thus many farms are
deemed as unproductive and inefficient. Need of appropriate mechanization for Indian farms
is defined in the report. This study report attempts to throw a light on other countries
scenario in case of mechanization and possible learning so as to improve outcomes in
agriculture in India.
Bangladesh Introduction Bangladesh’s agriculture is rapidly transforming due to social and economic development. These transformations have implications on resource use, food production, and technology development. This paper presents key long-term transformation in Bangladesh’s agriculture.
Presented in ACIAR-IFPRI two days Regional Dialogue on Machine Reforms’ for Sustainable Intensification of Agriculture in South Asia on July 21-22, 2017 in New Delhi, India
Er. Uttam Raj Timilsina(MSc.Engineering,IIT Roorkee)
Professor of Agricultural Engineering,Agriculture and Forestry University (AFU), Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal
uttamrajtimilsina@gmail.com
*All Right Reserved**
Uploaded and Shared by AgriYouthNepal
Crop Residue Management, Smart Mechanization and Its Implications in Tropical...Kasa Kiran Kumar Reddy
Crop residue management through conservation agriculture can improve soil productivity and crop production by maintaining SOM levels. Two significant advantages of surface-residue management are increased OM near the soil surface and enhanced nutrient cycling and retention.
The entire country was fully analysed and mapped for identifying the wastelands. Among all the states, the districts which have more than 15% area under wasteland were identified for detailed mapping. In order to assess the nature and propose of rejuvenating the wastelands, a common classification system has been adopted.
Presented at the Pulses for Sustainable Agriculture and Human Health” on 31 May-1 June 2016 at NASC, New Delhi, India. The conference was jointly organised by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), National Academy of Agricultural Sciences (NAAS), TCi of Cornell University (TCi-CU) and Agriculture Today.
Bangladesh Introduction Bangladesh’s agriculture is rapidly transforming due to social and economic development. These transformations have implications on resource use, food production, and technology development. This paper presents key long-term transformation in Bangladesh’s agriculture.
Presented in ACIAR-IFPRI two days Regional Dialogue on Machine Reforms’ for Sustainable Intensification of Agriculture in South Asia on July 21-22, 2017 in New Delhi, India
Er. Uttam Raj Timilsina(MSc.Engineering,IIT Roorkee)
Professor of Agricultural Engineering,Agriculture and Forestry University (AFU), Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal
uttamrajtimilsina@gmail.com
*All Right Reserved**
Uploaded and Shared by AgriYouthNepal
Crop Residue Management, Smart Mechanization and Its Implications in Tropical...Kasa Kiran Kumar Reddy
Crop residue management through conservation agriculture can improve soil productivity and crop production by maintaining SOM levels. Two significant advantages of surface-residue management are increased OM near the soil surface and enhanced nutrient cycling and retention.
The entire country was fully analysed and mapped for identifying the wastelands. Among all the states, the districts which have more than 15% area under wasteland were identified for detailed mapping. In order to assess the nature and propose of rejuvenating the wastelands, a common classification system has been adopted.
Presented at the Pulses for Sustainable Agriculture and Human Health” on 31 May-1 June 2016 at NASC, New Delhi, India. The conference was jointly organised by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), National Academy of Agricultural Sciences (NAAS), TCi of Cornell University (TCi-CU) and Agriculture Today.
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Shiv Kumar Agrawal, Maalouf F, Biradar C, Nangia V, Saharawat Y, Sarker A, and Baum M
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We analyse trade-offs between food-loss-and-waste measures and climate change impacts. This learns us that FLW reducing measures may also imply significant GHG emissions. Net effect is not by default positive from climate change impact perspective.
The Accelerating Impact of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) project works to deliver a climate-smart African future driven by science and innovation in agriculture.
AICCRA does this by enhancing access to climate information services and climate-smart agricultural technology to millions of smallholder farmers in Africa.
With better access to climate technology and advisory services—linked to information about effective response measures—farmers can better anticipate climate-related events and take preventative action that help communities better safeguard their livelihoods and the environment.
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About IDA: IDA helps the world’s poorest countries by providing grants and low to zero-interest loans for projects and programmes that boost economic growth, reduce poverty, and improve poor people’s lives.
IDA is one of the largest sources of assistance for the world’s 76 poorest countries, 39 of which are in Africa.
Annual IDA commitments have averaged about $21 billion over circa 2017-2020, with approximately 61 percent going to Africa.
This presentation was given on 27 October 2021 by Mengpin Ge, Global Climate Program Associate at WRI, during the webinar "Achieving NDC Ambition in Agriculture" organized by CCAFS, FAO and WRI.
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The webinar recording can be found here: https://youtu.be/UoX6aoC4fhQ
The multilevel CSA monitoring set of standard core uptake and outcome indicators + expanded indicators linked to a rapid and reliable ICT based data collection instrument to systematically
assess and monitor:
- CSA Adoption/ Access to CIS
- CSA effects on food security and livelihoods household level)
- CSA effects on farm performance
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Presented by Ciniro Costa Jr., CCAFS, on 28 June 2021 at the Asian Development Bank (ADB) Webinar on Sustainable Protein Case Study: Outputs and Synthesis of Results.
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Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
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This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
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The impact of mechanization in smallholder rice production in Nigeria
1. Promising business cases for rice smallholders for income increasing and climate smart
interventions, Version 2
Han Soethoudt, Jan Broeze, Heike Axmann
May 2021
The impact of mechanization in smallholder rice
production in Nigeria
2. Background
Company : Olam
Region case study: Nigeria
Rice Farmers Olam: 66,000 (≈ 50% in Nigeria)
Product : Rice
Topic: food loss reduction, increase farmer profit, decrease
greenhous gas emissions
3. Rice loss reduction pilot Nigeria: intervention
analysis in rice harvest, threshing (and
winnowing)
Goal: analyse the impact on food loss and farmer profit and
greenhouse gas emissions
1. when switching from manually to mechanised rice harvesting
2. when switching from manually to mechanised rice threshing
4. Pilot set up: Harvest
• 5 farmers were selected
• each farmer marked 6 pieces of land of 24m2: 3 for manual harvesting and 3
for mechanised harvesting with a reaper
• weighing (using digital scale) of:
o harvested material (plant material + paddy) (before drying)
o paddy left on soil in harvested piece of land
o harvested material (plant material + paddy) (after drying)
o mechanically threshed paddy
• moisture content measurement of paddy before and after drying
5. Pilot set up: Threshing (and winnowing)
• same 5 farmers were selected
• each farmer marked 6 pieces of land of 24m2 for manual harvesting
• 3 harvested volumes were manually threshed as usual and the other 3 were
mechanically threshed
• weighing (using digital scale) of:
o harvested material (plant material + paddy) (after drying)
o mechanically threshed paddy
• winnowing was included (integrated in mechanised threshing) and assumed
to have no significant loss (according to Olam experts)
7. Results (reduction food loss)
Harvest pilot:
▪ manual harvesting: 9.6% loss of available paddy on land
▪ mechanized harvesting: 0.9% loss of available paddy
The main reason for the huge difference in loss is the fact that the reaper takes everything from the land,
whereas with manual threshing some material is not taken from the land. The lost paddy on the soil is less
relevant
Threshing pilot:
▪ manual threshing: 31.1% of the weight of the dried input plant material (incl. paddy) was threshed as
paddy
▪ mechanized threshing: 33.1%
The difference in loss for the 2 threshing scenarios can be calculated and equals 180 kg per ha.
Absolute values for threshing losses can be derived via a work-around:
▪ mechanized threshing: 1% loss (assumed, based on literature)
▪ manual threshing 7% loss (based on the differences in yield).
8. Results (profit & GHGe reduction) Scenario 1: mechanised harvesting
• Olam farmer has 1.92 ha average (pilot 2019)
• Average farm price is 169 Naira/kg = 0.37 USD/kg (400 Naira ~ 1 US $)
Results per harvest of switching to mechanised harvesting:
* = of paddy, directly after harvest, before drying
** = after mechanized threshing
*** = 1 US $ ~ 400 Nigerian Naira
**** = 1,43 million, average farm size 2.24 ha (KPMG, 2019)
Scenario 1: Mechanised harvesting
Harvest impact/harvest Harvesting loss
reduction*
Profit increase**
US$***
GHGe’s reduction
Per ha 299 kg 126 1,042 kg
Per farmer 575 kg 243 2,000 kg
Olam (32,800 farmers) 18.8 kton 7,961K 65.6 kton
All rice farmers Nigeria**** 958 kton 405M 3.3 Mton
9. Results (profit & GHGe reduction) Scenario 2: mechanised threshing
Results per harvest of switching to mechanised threshing:
Scenario 2: Mechanised threshing
Threshing impact Loss reduction
(weight)
Profit increase US$ GHGe reduction
Per ha 180 kg 76 716 kg
Per farmer 346 kg 146 1,374 kg
Olam (32,800 farmers) 11.4 kton 4,789K 45.1 kton
All rice farmers Nigeria 577 kton 244M 2.3 Mton
10. Results (profit & GHGe reduction) Scenario 3: mechanised harvesting
and mechanised threshing
Results per harvest of switching to mechanised harvesting and mechanised
threshing
Scenario 3: mechanised harvesting and mechanised threshing
Harvest impact Loss reduction
(weight)
Profit increase
US$
GHGe’s reduction
Per ha 479 kg 202 1,696 kg
Per farmer 921 kg 389 3,256 kg
Olam (32,800 farmers) 30.2 kton 12,760K 106.8 kton
All rice farmers Nigeria 1,535 kton 648M 5.4 Mton
11. Business case (1) - Assumptions
▪ Information provided by Olam staff
▪ Assume farmers rent the equipment
11
Parameter Value (Nigerian Naira)
Labor costs (N per hour) 125
Rice price (N per kg paddy) 169
Fuel price (N per liter) 165.7
Harvesting labor needed (hours per ha) 160
Threshing labor needed (hours per ha) 80
Cost of renting reaper (model 4GL-120) (N per ha) 17,500
Cost of buying reaper (N) 820,000
Reaper fuel consumption (liters per ha) 4.5
Reaper capacity (ha per day) 1
Cost of renting thresher (model Sh 101-2) (N per ha) 10,000
Cost of buying thresher (N) 350,000
Thresher fuel consumption (liters per ha) 5.5
Thresher capacity (metric ton of input (dried plant material) per hour) 1
12. Business case (2) - Results
▪ Positive business case for farmers to rent machinery
▪ Up-front costs may be prohibitive
▪ Purchasing equipment has even higher up-front cost, but is feasible through farmer cooperatives
▪ Improving access to financing can help overcome barriers
* NN= Nigerian Naira, 400 NN ~ 1 US$ 12
Baseline Scenario 2 Scenario 3
Harvesting Manual Manual Mechanized
Threshing Manual Mechanized Mechanized
Average yield (kg paddy per ha) 2,768 2,967 3,257
Revenue (N per ha, NN*) 470,823 501,423 550,433
Harvesting costs (N per ha, NN) 20,000 20,000 20,246
Threshing costs (N per ha, NN) 10,000 13,161 13,536
Revenue increase (N per ha, NN) 30,589 79,599
Cost increase (N per ha, NN) 3,161 3,782
Financial result (N per ha, NN) + 27,428 + 75,871
Financial result (%) + 5.8 % + 16.1 %
Labor hours saved 62 in threshing 144 in harvesting, 59 in threshing
13. Equipment cost comparison between buying and renting
reaper and thresher (for individual farmer in cooperative)
▪ With a reaper costing ~ N820,000 (~US$ 2,050) to buy and a thresher ~N350,000 (~US$875) the
upfront cost for a single farmer with 2 hectares in a 15-farmer cooperative would be ~N78,000
▪ Buying becomes the more cost-effective option if cost of buying with a cooperative of 15 farmers can be
spread over 3 harvests or more
13
1 harvest 2 harvests 3 harvests 4 harvests 5 harvests
Cost of renting (N per
harvest per farmer, NN)
27,500 27,500 27,500 27,500 27,500
Cost of buying (N per
harvest per farmer, NN)
78,000 29,000 26,000 19,500 15,600
14. Summery scenario assessment of Greenhouse Gas emissions: baseline versus
mechanization via ACE-calculator (Agro-Chain Greenhouse Gas emissions
calculator) including Food loss induced Greenhouse Gas emissions and
emissions from mechanization
14
Baseline Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3
Total paddy rice growth (kg/ha) 3,315 3,315 3,315 3,315
Harvesting method Manual Mechanized Manual Mechanized
Losses in harvest 9.55% 0.93% 9.55% 0.93%
Threshing method Manual Manual Mechanized Mechanized
Losses in threshing 7% 7% 1% 1%
Total paddy threshed rice (kg/ha) 2,789 3,054 2,968 3,251
GHG emissions per kg produced paddy rice (kg CO2-
eq. per kg threshed rice) (assuming crop GHG
emission factor 3.66kg CO2-eq. per kg paddy
4,352 3,979 4,096 3,744
Climate impact of mechanization (emissions
avoided, kg CO2-eq)
Per ha (kg CO2-eq.) 1,042 716 1,696
Per farmer Olam (1.92ha) (kg CO2-eq.) 2,000 1,374 3,256
Rice farms in Nigeria (1.43 million/2.24ha) (Mton CO2-
eq.)
3.3 2.29 5.4
16. Overall conclusions
▪ Introduction of machinery in threshing and harvesting in rice in Nigeria
can:
● reduce food losses and increase the amount of paddy yield per
ha by 14 % ~ 479 kg of paddy
● provide a positive business case for smallholder farmers to
improve their livelihood, net income increase of ~ 189 $ per ha/
Olam farmer ~ 389 $, and save > 200 labour hours
● significally reduce the Greenhouse gas; 1,696 kg CO2-eq by
hectare avoided
17. * 400 Naira ~ 1 US $
Overview results per harvest of switching to
mechanized harvesting and/or threshing
17
Scenario 1
Switching to mechanized
harvesting
Scenario 2
Switching to mechanized
threshing
Scenario 3
Switching to mechanized
threshing and mechanized
harvesting
Impact Loss
reduction
(kg)*
Profit
increase
Naira*/US$
Loss
reduction
(kg)
Profit
increase
Naira*/US$
Loss
reduction
(kg)
Profit increase
Naira*/US$
Per ha 299 kg 50,531/126 180 kg 30,420/76 479 kg 80,555/202
Per farmer Olam
(1.92 ha)
575 kg 97,175/243 346 kg 58,406/146 921 kg 155,650/389
Farmers linked to
Olam in Nigeria
(32,800)
18.8 kton 3.2
bln/7,961K
11.4 kton 1.9
bln/4,798K
30.2 kton 5.1 bln/12,760K
All rice farmers
Nigeria (1.43
million/2.24 ha)
958 kton 162 bln/405M 577 kton 97 bln/244M 1,535 kton 259 bln/648M
18. ▪ Challenges to overcome investment costs ~ 2,925 $US for reaper &
thresher:
● ability of individual farmers to co-invest and cover the higher upfront
cost of buying equipment
● Access to finance for service providers to invest in mechanization
● the capacity of farmer cooperatives to procure, maintain and store the
equipment
The challenge
18
19. Thank you
contact information:
heike.axmann@wur.nl
19
DISCLAIMERS:
This work was implemented as part of the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), which is carried
out with support from the CGIAR Trust Fund and through bilateral funding agreements. For details please visit https://ccafs.cgiar.org/donors.
The views expressed in this document cannot be taken to reflect the official opinions of these organizations.
Estimate your food products’ climate impact through our ACGE calculator
https://ccafs.cgiar.org/agro-chain-greenhouse-gas-emissions-acge-calculator
Acknowledgement: this work is financially supported via Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), the
Consortium for Innovation in Post-Harvest Loss & Food Waste Reduction, and Olam International who supported the food loss
data collection for this study.