The document defines weather elements and the factors that influence them. It states that temperature depends on hours of sun, latitude, altitude, distance from the ocean, and relief. It explains that air pressure decreases with height and that high pressure causes sunny weather while low pressure causes storms. Humidity depends on temperature, and wind is caused by the movement of air masses from colder to warmer areas. Finally, it indicates that precipitation forms as water evaporates and rises into clouds, then falls as rain, snow, or hail, with more precipitation closer to the equator, sea, or mountains.
This document discusses various proxies that can be used to reconstruct paleoclimate records from the Holocene epoch. It describes biotic proxies like diatoms, tree rings, pollens, corals, and phytoliths. Abiotic proxies discussed include ice cores, oxygen isotopes, lake and ocean sediments, speleothems, and x-ray diffraction. Specific proxies are then described in more detail, including how diatoms, tree rings, pollens, corals, oxygen isotopes, sediments, and x-ray diffraction can be analyzed to infer past climate conditions. A wide range of additional proxies are also listed.
Surface currents are driven mainly by wind and move large amounts of water across oceans, influencing global climate. Deep currents form due to differences in water density from temperature and salinity and are not wind-driven. Major surface currents like the Gulf Stream distribute heat from the equator to poles, warming areas like northern Europe. El Niño is a periodic warming of tropical Pacific waters that alters weather worldwide and impacts fisheries and agriculture through changed rainfall and storms. Scientists monitor oceans to improve understanding and forecasts of El Niño events and their far-reaching climatic effects.
Fronts are boundaries between two air masses of differing characteristics. There are four main types of fronts: cold fronts, warm fronts, occluded fronts, and stationary fronts. Cold fronts are steep boundaries where cold air overrides warm air, bringing precipitation. Warm fronts are more gradual, with light, continuous precipitation as warm air rises over cold air. Occluded fronts occur when a cold front catches up to a warm front. Stationary fronts have little or no movement as the air masses are parallel.
The document defines weather elements and the factors that influence them. It states that temperature depends on hours of sun, latitude, altitude, distance from the ocean, and relief. It explains that air pressure decreases with height and that high pressure causes sunny weather while low pressure causes storms. Humidity depends on temperature, and wind is caused by the movement of air masses from colder to warmer areas. Finally, it indicates that precipitation forms as water evaporates and rises into clouds, then falls as rain, snow, or hail, with more precipitation closer to the equator, sea, or mountains.
This document discusses various proxies that can be used to reconstruct paleoclimate records from the Holocene epoch. It describes biotic proxies like diatoms, tree rings, pollens, corals, and phytoliths. Abiotic proxies discussed include ice cores, oxygen isotopes, lake and ocean sediments, speleothems, and x-ray diffraction. Specific proxies are then described in more detail, including how diatoms, tree rings, pollens, corals, oxygen isotopes, sediments, and x-ray diffraction can be analyzed to infer past climate conditions. A wide range of additional proxies are also listed.
Surface currents are driven mainly by wind and move large amounts of water across oceans, influencing global climate. Deep currents form due to differences in water density from temperature and salinity and are not wind-driven. Major surface currents like the Gulf Stream distribute heat from the equator to poles, warming areas like northern Europe. El Niño is a periodic warming of tropical Pacific waters that alters weather worldwide and impacts fisheries and agriculture through changed rainfall and storms. Scientists monitor oceans to improve understanding and forecasts of El Niño events and their far-reaching climatic effects.
Fronts are boundaries between two air masses of differing characteristics. There are four main types of fronts: cold fronts, warm fronts, occluded fronts, and stationary fronts. Cold fronts are steep boundaries where cold air overrides warm air, bringing precipitation. Warm fronts are more gradual, with light, continuous precipitation as warm air rises over cold air. Occluded fronts occur when a cold front catches up to a warm front. Stationary fronts have little or no movement as the air masses are parallel.
This document discusses global air circulation patterns driven by uneven heating of the atmosphere. It describes three main factors that influence winds: pressure gradient force, Coriolis force, and friction force. Unequal heating creates high and low pressure systems that drive winds according to these forces. The document outlines the major wind systems in different latitudes, including the trade winds near the equator; westerlies in mid-latitudes between subtropical highs and subpolar lows; and polar easterlies near the poles. Diagrams are provided showing typical January and July surface pressure patterns and winds in each region.
Fronts are boundaries between air masses and are a dominant feature of mid-latitudes. There are three main types of fronts: warm fronts, where warm air rises over cold air; cold fronts, where dense cold air pushes under warm air; and occluded fronts, where a cold front catches up to a warm front. Mid-latitude cyclones form along polar fronts due to divergence aloft and convergence at the surface, driving rotation and cloud formation. They typically intensify as cold fronts overtake warm fronts, then weaken as the low fills in.
The document discusses air masses and fronts. It defines air masses as large bodies of air with uniform properties that form over land or water surfaces. There are four main types of air masses classified by their region of formation: maritime/continental and polar/tropical. Fronts are boundaries between unlike air masses. There are three main types of fronts: cold fronts, where cold air overtakes warm air; warm fronts, where warm air overtakes cold air; and occluded fronts, where a warm air mass is overtaken by two cooler air masses.
During ice ages, large parts of northern Europe including Scotland were covered in deep ice. Sea levels were lower because less water flowed into oceans as snow and ice built up on land. The last major cold period was the Pleistocene Ice Age, which started 1.8 million years ago and ended around 10,000 years ago. Natural causes of climate change include variations in Earth's orbit and axis, volcanic eruptions, and changes in solar activity, which can cause the climate to become colder or warmer over both short and long time scales.
Monsoon Rainforest is a type of seasonal tropical forest that experiences a long dry season followed by a wet season with heavy rainfall. Key points:
- Located between 10-25 degrees latitude, areas include India, Sri Lanka, Africa, South America.
- Hot and humid all year with high rainfall during wet season that can exceed 2000mm. Soil is poor and leached of nutrients.
- Supports diverse wildlife like birds, deer, elephants, snakes. Tall trees produce large amounts of oxygen through photosynthesis.
- Heavily impacted by human activities like deforestation, pollution, and climate change which disrupt rainfall patterns. Proper precautions needed during monsoon seasons.
Weather refers to short-term atmospheric conditions while climate describes average weather patterns over longer periods of time. Various instruments are used to measure and monitor weather elements like temperature, pressure, humidity, wind, and precipitation. Climate is influenced by factors such as latitude, distance from bodies of water, prevailing winds, ocean currents, altitude, and cloud cover. Tropical rainforests and deserts have unique climates that shape distinctive plant and animal adaptations for survival. Deforestation threatens rainforests and contributes to desertification.
The document discusses Earth's four major interacting spheres - the atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and geosphere. It provides details on each sphere, including that the atmosphere consists of four layers and is composed primarily of nitrogen and oxygen. The biosphere is defined as the life zone of Earth containing all living organisms. The hydrosphere contains all of Earth's water, including surface water, groundwater, atmospheric water vapor, and frozen water. The geosphere is the solid part of Earth, including rocks, minerals, and resources mined from it. It concludes that Earth system science studies how these four spheres continually interact and affect one another.
This document provides an overview of urban climate and the urban heat island effect. It discusses climate at different scales from macro to micro, and how cities create their own mesoclimate. Key points include:
- Urban areas experience higher temperatures than surrounding rural areas, creating an "urban heat island" effect. The temperature difference increases with city size.
- Cities warm up more during the day due to heat absorption and release more heat at night from man-made surfaces. This disrupts the normal diurnal temperature cycle.
- Surface temperatures measured from aerial/satellite images can be higher than air temperatures felt by humans. Different urban land uses like vegetation versus buildings impact local surface heating.
Tropical Geomorphology -weathering in Tropics - part 1- Chap 2Lalit Thakare
Tropical Geomorphology -weathering in Tropics
Deep weathering Profiles in Tropics
Factors Affecting Deep Weathering in Tropics
Laterites
solubility and mobility of the minerals in tropics
Drainage pattern & morphometric analyses of drainage basinsUjjavalPatel16
Drainage Pattern & Morphometric analyses of drainage basins.
In geomorphology, the patterns formed by the streams, rivers, and lakes in a particular drainage basin. Also known as drainage systems or river systems.
According to the configuration of the channels, drainage systems can fall into one of several categories known as drainage patterns. Drainage patterns depend on the topography & geology of the land.
Drainage basins: The total land surface drained by a system of stream leading to the same outflow.
Drainage system: The stream, tributaries, and other bodies of water by which a region is called drained.
Drainage divide: The boundary between adjacent drainage basins.
An area of land drained by a river and its tributaries.
It is also called the Catchment area.
Any precipitation which falls into the basin is collected and drains into the main river or its tributaries by runoff, throughflow or groundwater flow.
Its boundary marked by a ridge of high land called watershed.
Drainage basins have one main stream and many tributaries.
Each tributaries of main stream forms sub-drainage basin.
This document describes 12 major climate regions of the world. It provides key characteristics for each climate type, including average temperatures, precipitation levels, geographic locations, and example biomes. The major climate types discussed are tropical humid, tropical wet and dry, arid, semiarid, Mediterranean, marine west coast, humid subtropical, humid continental, subarctic, tundra, ice cap, and highlands.
CAMBRIDGE AS GEOGRAPHY REVISION: HYDROLOGY AND FLUVIAL GEOMORPHOLOGY - 1.1 DR...George Dumitrache
A presentation of the first subchapter (Drainage Basin Systems) from the first chapter (Hydrology and Fluvial Geomorphology) of Revision for Geography AS Cambridge exam.
Farming can be viewed as a system with inputs, processes, outputs, and feedback. Physical inputs include water, land, and raw materials while human inputs are money, labor, and skills. Processes transform inputs into outputs, which can be positive like crops and meat or negative like waste. Feedback puts money and knowledge back into the system. There are different types of farming like arable, pastoral, and mixed, which can be commercial, subsistence, or plantations. Sustainable agriculture maximizes yields through techniques like crop rotation, irrigation, and limited chemicals. The Green Revolution increased food production but was expensive, water intensive, and relied heavily on chemicals, negatively impacting the environment and farmers.
The document describes the various climate areas within the temperate zone, including the marine climate area, continental climate area, semi-arid and arid climate areas, and subarctic climate area. It discusses key features of each area such as typical temperature and precipitation levels, dominant winds, seasonal patterns, vegetation types, landforms, and soil types. The temperate zone encompasses areas between 45 and 60 degrees latitude in both hemispheres and is characterized by four distinct seasons and a variety of climate influences including proximity to oceans and prevailing wind patterns.
This document discusses different types of natural landscapes and their climates. It describes equatorial rainforests, which have consistent hot temperatures and high rainfall. Tropical savannahs are open grasslands with scattered trees, found in Africa. Deserts have very little precipitation and vegetation is scarce. Mediterranean landscapes have hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters. Polar landscapes are the coldest on Earth with little precipitation falling as snow. Mountain landscapes have vegetation and climates that vary with altitude.
The atmosphere consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and trace amounts of other gases that make life possible on Earth. It protects the planet from harmful rays and meteorites. Weather occurs in the lower layer of the atmosphere, the troposphere, which extends up to 12 miles high and where temperatures decrease with altitude. Higher layers include the stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and outermost exosphere. Climate is associated with a place and includes daily, seasonal and yearly variations in elements like temperature, precipitation, humidity, pressure and wind. Factors influencing climate include latitude, altitude, land and ocean distribution, barriers and currents.
The document summarizes key aspects of Earth's atmosphere. It describes the five main layers - troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere. It explains that Earth's atmosphere protects the planet from extreme temperatures, the sun's harmful rays, and provides oxygen and protects from solar radiation. The layers are identified based on temperature changes, with the stratosphere containing the important ozone layer.
This document discusses global air circulation patterns driven by uneven heating of the atmosphere. It describes three main factors that influence winds: pressure gradient force, Coriolis force, and friction force. Unequal heating creates high and low pressure systems that drive winds according to these forces. The document outlines the major wind systems in different latitudes, including the trade winds near the equator; westerlies in mid-latitudes between subtropical highs and subpolar lows; and polar easterlies near the poles. Diagrams are provided showing typical January and July surface pressure patterns and winds in each region.
Fronts are boundaries between air masses and are a dominant feature of mid-latitudes. There are three main types of fronts: warm fronts, where warm air rises over cold air; cold fronts, where dense cold air pushes under warm air; and occluded fronts, where a cold front catches up to a warm front. Mid-latitude cyclones form along polar fronts due to divergence aloft and convergence at the surface, driving rotation and cloud formation. They typically intensify as cold fronts overtake warm fronts, then weaken as the low fills in.
The document discusses air masses and fronts. It defines air masses as large bodies of air with uniform properties that form over land or water surfaces. There are four main types of air masses classified by their region of formation: maritime/continental and polar/tropical. Fronts are boundaries between unlike air masses. There are three main types of fronts: cold fronts, where cold air overtakes warm air; warm fronts, where warm air overtakes cold air; and occluded fronts, where a warm air mass is overtaken by two cooler air masses.
During ice ages, large parts of northern Europe including Scotland were covered in deep ice. Sea levels were lower because less water flowed into oceans as snow and ice built up on land. The last major cold period was the Pleistocene Ice Age, which started 1.8 million years ago and ended around 10,000 years ago. Natural causes of climate change include variations in Earth's orbit and axis, volcanic eruptions, and changes in solar activity, which can cause the climate to become colder or warmer over both short and long time scales.
Monsoon Rainforest is a type of seasonal tropical forest that experiences a long dry season followed by a wet season with heavy rainfall. Key points:
- Located between 10-25 degrees latitude, areas include India, Sri Lanka, Africa, South America.
- Hot and humid all year with high rainfall during wet season that can exceed 2000mm. Soil is poor and leached of nutrients.
- Supports diverse wildlife like birds, deer, elephants, snakes. Tall trees produce large amounts of oxygen through photosynthesis.
- Heavily impacted by human activities like deforestation, pollution, and climate change which disrupt rainfall patterns. Proper precautions needed during monsoon seasons.
Weather refers to short-term atmospheric conditions while climate describes average weather patterns over longer periods of time. Various instruments are used to measure and monitor weather elements like temperature, pressure, humidity, wind, and precipitation. Climate is influenced by factors such as latitude, distance from bodies of water, prevailing winds, ocean currents, altitude, and cloud cover. Tropical rainforests and deserts have unique climates that shape distinctive plant and animal adaptations for survival. Deforestation threatens rainforests and contributes to desertification.
The document discusses Earth's four major interacting spheres - the atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and geosphere. It provides details on each sphere, including that the atmosphere consists of four layers and is composed primarily of nitrogen and oxygen. The biosphere is defined as the life zone of Earth containing all living organisms. The hydrosphere contains all of Earth's water, including surface water, groundwater, atmospheric water vapor, and frozen water. The geosphere is the solid part of Earth, including rocks, minerals, and resources mined from it. It concludes that Earth system science studies how these four spheres continually interact and affect one another.
This document provides an overview of urban climate and the urban heat island effect. It discusses climate at different scales from macro to micro, and how cities create their own mesoclimate. Key points include:
- Urban areas experience higher temperatures than surrounding rural areas, creating an "urban heat island" effect. The temperature difference increases with city size.
- Cities warm up more during the day due to heat absorption and release more heat at night from man-made surfaces. This disrupts the normal diurnal temperature cycle.
- Surface temperatures measured from aerial/satellite images can be higher than air temperatures felt by humans. Different urban land uses like vegetation versus buildings impact local surface heating.
Tropical Geomorphology -weathering in Tropics - part 1- Chap 2Lalit Thakare
Tropical Geomorphology -weathering in Tropics
Deep weathering Profiles in Tropics
Factors Affecting Deep Weathering in Tropics
Laterites
solubility and mobility of the minerals in tropics
Drainage pattern & morphometric analyses of drainage basinsUjjavalPatel16
Drainage Pattern & Morphometric analyses of drainage basins.
In geomorphology, the patterns formed by the streams, rivers, and lakes in a particular drainage basin. Also known as drainage systems or river systems.
According to the configuration of the channels, drainage systems can fall into one of several categories known as drainage patterns. Drainage patterns depend on the topography & geology of the land.
Drainage basins: The total land surface drained by a system of stream leading to the same outflow.
Drainage system: The stream, tributaries, and other bodies of water by which a region is called drained.
Drainage divide: The boundary between adjacent drainage basins.
An area of land drained by a river and its tributaries.
It is also called the Catchment area.
Any precipitation which falls into the basin is collected and drains into the main river or its tributaries by runoff, throughflow or groundwater flow.
Its boundary marked by a ridge of high land called watershed.
Drainage basins have one main stream and many tributaries.
Each tributaries of main stream forms sub-drainage basin.
This document describes 12 major climate regions of the world. It provides key characteristics for each climate type, including average temperatures, precipitation levels, geographic locations, and example biomes. The major climate types discussed are tropical humid, tropical wet and dry, arid, semiarid, Mediterranean, marine west coast, humid subtropical, humid continental, subarctic, tundra, ice cap, and highlands.
CAMBRIDGE AS GEOGRAPHY REVISION: HYDROLOGY AND FLUVIAL GEOMORPHOLOGY - 1.1 DR...George Dumitrache
A presentation of the first subchapter (Drainage Basin Systems) from the first chapter (Hydrology and Fluvial Geomorphology) of Revision for Geography AS Cambridge exam.
Farming can be viewed as a system with inputs, processes, outputs, and feedback. Physical inputs include water, land, and raw materials while human inputs are money, labor, and skills. Processes transform inputs into outputs, which can be positive like crops and meat or negative like waste. Feedback puts money and knowledge back into the system. There are different types of farming like arable, pastoral, and mixed, which can be commercial, subsistence, or plantations. Sustainable agriculture maximizes yields through techniques like crop rotation, irrigation, and limited chemicals. The Green Revolution increased food production but was expensive, water intensive, and relied heavily on chemicals, negatively impacting the environment and farmers.
The document describes the various climate areas within the temperate zone, including the marine climate area, continental climate area, semi-arid and arid climate areas, and subarctic climate area. It discusses key features of each area such as typical temperature and precipitation levels, dominant winds, seasonal patterns, vegetation types, landforms, and soil types. The temperate zone encompasses areas between 45 and 60 degrees latitude in both hemispheres and is characterized by four distinct seasons and a variety of climate influences including proximity to oceans and prevailing wind patterns.
This document discusses different types of natural landscapes and their climates. It describes equatorial rainforests, which have consistent hot temperatures and high rainfall. Tropical savannahs are open grasslands with scattered trees, found in Africa. Deserts have very little precipitation and vegetation is scarce. Mediterranean landscapes have hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters. Polar landscapes are the coldest on Earth with little precipitation falling as snow. Mountain landscapes have vegetation and climates that vary with altitude.
The atmosphere consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and trace amounts of other gases that make life possible on Earth. It protects the planet from harmful rays and meteorites. Weather occurs in the lower layer of the atmosphere, the troposphere, which extends up to 12 miles high and where temperatures decrease with altitude. Higher layers include the stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and outermost exosphere. Climate is associated with a place and includes daily, seasonal and yearly variations in elements like temperature, precipitation, humidity, pressure and wind. Factors influencing climate include latitude, altitude, land and ocean distribution, barriers and currents.
The document summarizes key aspects of Earth's atmosphere. It describes the five main layers - troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere. It explains that Earth's atmosphere protects the planet from extreme temperatures, the sun's harmful rays, and provides oxygen and protects from solar radiation. The layers are identified based on temperature changes, with the stratosphere containing the important ozone layer.
Deze presentatie van Gera van Os en mij geeft een overzicht over de stand van de bodemkwaliteit en het bodembeheer in de landbouw, met name gericht op Flevoland. Daarnaast brengen we context aan: de invloed van de grondmarkt op intensivering van de landbouw, en wat dat betekent voor het bodembeheer. Teaser: we relativeren de alarmistische verhalen, maar geven ook aan dat er wel werk aan de winkel is.
The document provides an overview of Iceland's geology, including its position at the junction of tectonic plates and the influence of the Iceland hotspot. Key points discussed include Iceland's volcanism, rift zones, and glacial landscapes. Diagrams show Iceland's crustal structure and maps depict volcanic zones, hot springs locations, and glacial features like ablation moraines. Subglacial eruptions are highlighted as shaping Iceland's terrain during ice ages.
4. Bodem: komt voort uit het substraat (gesteente en reliëf) en ontwikkelt
zich onder invloed van tijd, hydrologie, klimaat, vegetatie en fauna. Door
bodemvorming (rijping) ontstaan bodemhorizonten .
Zonder menselijke invloed ontstaat
natuurlandschap.
Door ingrepen van de mens in het
natuurlandschap, ontstaat
cultuurlandschap
5. Bodemvorming
http://www.geologievannederland.nl/ondergrond/bodems/bodemvorming-uitgediept
Een bodem is het resultaat van factoren en processen die
zich afspelen in de loop van de tijd. Die factoren zijn:
1. klimaat: temperatuur en/of vochtigheid (voorwaarde voor verwering)
2. samenstelling van het moedermateriaal: verschillende moedermaterialen
resulteren in geheel andere bodems,
3. tijd: verschillen bij 1 en 2 leiden tot meer of minder tijd nodig voor
ontwikkeling van een bodem
4. reliëf/drainage: waterinfiltratie of oppervlakte-afstroom
5. vegetatie: planten zorgen voor voedingsstoffen en humus in de bodem,
terwijl de regenwaterinfiltratie wordt geremd door regenwateropvang door
bladeren
6. biologische activiteit, zoals graafgangen van wormen, muizen of mollen, die
de bodem poreus maken
7. antropogene (menselijke) invloeden, bijvoorbeeld jarenlange bemesting van
landbouwgronden
10. In Nederland veel eerdgrond
• Moerige grond met minerale
componenten
• Moerig = organisch materiaal
(overwegend door mensen
opgebracht, maar ook veen)
• minerale componenten = zand,
silt of klei
• naast eerdgrond ook podzolen,
bruine bosbodem en bodems die
verband houden met de hoge
grondwaterspiegel
• Bodems in Nederland zijn
overwegend ontstaan uit van
elders aangevoerde sedimenten.
Deze sedimenten vormen het
moedermateriaal
13. Vruchtbaarheid bodem
• Chemische vruchtbaarheid= de hoeveelheid
voedingstoffen die van nature in een bodem zitten. Bij
klei is dit heel goed, bij zand slecht.
Een ideale grondsoort is dus een mengsel van klei en
zand of heel fijn zand.
• Fysische vruchtbaarheid van de bodem=
bodemstructuur:
de volumeverhouding tussen water, grond en lucht.
Ideaal is als deze verhouding ongeveer 1:1:1 is. Zand
benadert dit ideaal, maar klei bij lange na niet: te
weinig lucht.
15. ►Klimaten
- tropisch regenwoudklimaat
- savanne klimaat
►Natuurlijke begroeiing
- tropisch regenwoud
- savanne
- woestijnsteppe
►Geschiktheid voor landbouw
- veel bacteriewerking door hoge
temperatuur en veel neerslag;
weinig humusvorming. Veel
uitspoeling. Rode kleur door ijzer
en aluminium. Niet vruchtbaar.
lage chemische vruchtbaarheid
- traditionele landbouw =
zwerflandbouw
Is hier sprake van een grote of kleine uitspoeling?
Grote uitspoeling door een hoog neerslagoverschot
De tropische zone
► Bodems
- Latosolen
17. ►Klimaten
-woestijnklimaat
<250mm neerslag
Hoge neerslagvariabiliteit
►Natuurlijke begroeiing
-woestijn (zand, grind, rots en
zout)
-woestijnsteppe
►Geschiktheid voor landbouw
-Woestijnbodem: weinig
humus; geen inspoeling en
uitspoeling: opstijging van
water in de bodem door hitte.
-Steppebodem: veel en lang
gras: dikke laag humus. Wordt
ook wel zwarte aarde bodem
genoemd.
Welk deel van deze foto ↑ bestaat uit
natuurlandschap, de voorgrond of
de achtergrond? de voorgrond
De aride zone
19. ►Klimaten
-gematigd zeeklimaat
-steppeklimaat
►Natuurlijke begroeiing
-zomergroen loofwoud
-grassteppe (prairie, pampa,
poesta)
►Geschiktheid voor landbouw
-Bruine bosbodem: redelijk
vruchtbaar: meer humus en
minder uitspoeling dan
podzol.
hoge tot zeer hoge chemische
vruchtbaarheid
-groeiseizoen lang genoeg
Graanschuur van de wereld
Waar is de chemische vruchtbaarheid het
hoogst, in de steppe of in het zomergroen
loofwoud? In de steppe
De gematigde zone
21. ►Klimaten
-landklimaat, lage
wintertemperaturen,
kort groeiseizoen
►Natuurlijke begroeiing
-naaldwoud
►Geschiktheid voor landbouw
-Lage chemische vruchtbaarheid
Vrijwel geen landbouw, alleen
bosbouw
Is hier sprake van een grote of kleine uitspoeling?
Grote uitspoeling door een hoog neerslagoverschot
De boreale zone
23. ►Klimaten
-toendraklimaat
-poolklimaat
Kort groeiseizoen, lage
temperaturen
►Natuurlijke begroeiing
-toendra (gras, heide, struiken)
-geen begroeiing, (sneeuw, ijs,
kaal)
►Geschiktheid voor landbouw
-Lage fysische vruchtbaarheid
(permafrost)
Traditionele = extensieve
Landbouw veehouderij
In welke jaargetijden zijn dit soort voertuigen noodzakelijk? voorjaar en najaar
De polaire zone
25. ►Klimaten
-subtropisch klimaat, kenmerken
van een gematigd zeeklimaat en
een tropisch klimaat
►Natuurlijke begroeiing
-naald- en loofbos
-lage struiken en bomen
-steppe
►Geschiktheid voor landbouw
- Bodems: weinig uitspoeling:
roodgeel van kleur. Niet
vruchtbaar. Lage chemische
vruchtbaarheid
-Traditionele = kleinschalig
landbouw
-Moderne = grootschalige
landbouw
Zie hoofdstuk 2!
De subtropische zone
26. Cultuurlandschap
Natuurlandschap + ontginning/gebruik/exploitatie =
cultuurlandschap
Ontginning/gebruik/exploitatie sterk afhankelijk van
mogelijkheden als gevolg van:
• natuurlandschap
• Klimaat (lengte groeiseizoen, teelt methodes,..)
• reliëf
• bevolkingsdruk
• geld
• andere zaken?
27. Landbouw verklaard: natuur als
productiefactor
Bodem is als natuurlijke (geo)factor nog steeds een
belangrijk uitgangspunt als je een landschap wil
verklaren. Maar we zijn niet langer afhankelijk van
de natuur als het gaat om landbouw in een
landschapszone. Bodem moet je zien als
productiefactor die naast andere productiefactoren
het soort landbouw verklaart.
Productiefactoren:
• Natuur
• Kapitaal
• Arbeid
31. Evenwichten binnen het systeem raken
verstoord; landschappen veranderen
Als gevolg van:
• Milieurampen (Invloed mens)
• Natuurrampen (geen of indirecte invloed
mens)
• combinatie gebeurtenissen
32. Mileurampen
De mens verstoort de natuur dusdanig dat er
rampen optreden. Ecosystemen verdwijnen en
landschappen ondervinden schade.
34. Landdegradatie
Aantasting van de kwaliteit van het natuurlijke
landschap (= natuurlijke vegetatie en bodem);
meestal door menselijke activiteit
• door omzetting van natuurgrond in cultuurgrond
(bijvoorbeeld plantages ipv. Tropisch regenwoud)
• Aantasting van het landschap kan ook worden
veroorzaakt door bodemdegradatie;
bodemerosie, verwoestijning of verzilting.
Hierdoor verandert het landschap
35. Oorzaken en relatieve grootte van de afname
van bodemkwaliteit per werelddeel
Afname van bodemkwaliteit door andere
landbouwactiviteiten hangt vaak samen met
mismanagement. In Noord- en Midden Amerika is
het de combinatie van de druk om veel te produceren
in combinatie met exploitatie van kwetsbare gronden.
Er wordt soms niet gekozen voor optimale
landbouwmethodes. Dit om winst te maximaliseren.
Denk aan slechte vormen van irrigatie ipv. de
duurdere druppelirrigatie, monocultuur, te ruime
inzet pesticiden of braak laten liggen grond bij crisis.
Overbeweiding speelt in Australië een grote rol. De
combinatie van een aride gebied en de enorme
veestapel bewerkstelligt dit. In Afrika ook veel
overbeweiding in aride gebieden. Echter hier speelt
veeteelt toch een kleinere
rol (veel minder vee) dan in Australië. Leidt in aride
gebieden tot bodemerosie en/of verwoestijning.
Ontbossing is het grootst in Azië en Zuid-Amerika. De
regenwouden worden gekapt waardoor de kwaliteit
van de bodem snel achteruit gaat. Leidt in humide
gebieden met relief tot wegspoelen van de vruchtbare
toplaag
36. Bodemdegradatie
Afname van de kwaliteit van de toplaag van de
bodem waardoor de productiecapaciteit afneemt.
Processen:
• Verwoestijning
• bodemerosie (verdwijnen vruchtbare toplaag)
– in aride gebieden door wind
– in humide gebieden door water (mondiaal het meest
voorkomend)
• Verzilting
– In gebieden waar de verdamping groter is dan de
nuttige neerslag
37. Op hellingen
waar vegetatie
is verdwenen
spoelt de
humus-
houdende
bovenlaag van
de bodem weg.
Dit heet…
In zeer droge
gebieden kan
door het
verdampen
van (grond)water
een zoutkorst
ontstaan.
Dit heet……
bodemerosie
verzilting
Aantasting van de kwaliteit van de bodem;
bodemdegradatie
In uitgestrekte
vlakke gebieden
wordt de
vruchtbare
bovenlaag wordt
weggeblazen
door de wind na
droogte en
braakligging.
Hierboven de VS
in de “dustbowl”;
bodemerosie
Haal je in
kwetsbare droge
gebieden de
vegetatie weg,
dan droogt de
bodem uit en
wordt hard. Water
kan niet meer
infiltreren. Het
gebied verandert
in een woestijn-
achtig milieu….
Verwoestijning
38. Bodemerosie veroorzaakt door
verkeerde landbouw methodes
1. Wanneer de grond na de oogst
voor kortere of langere tijd braak
ligt.
2. Op hellingen wordt er loodrecht op
de hoogtelijnen wordt geploegd.
3. Ontbossing van hellingen
Natuurlijke factoren versterken dit proces!
Relief neerslag Grondsoort
Steile helling
veroorzaakt
snelle
afstroming van
regenwater en
erosie
- neerslag na de
oogst
- regenbuien
met een hoge
intensiteit
- grote druppels
- kleihoudende
grond ‘slaat
dicht’ en
voorkomt
infiltratie
- Te droge
grond
Bodemerosie op hellingen
39. Verband bevolkingsdruk en
bodemdegradatie
Dichtbevolkte gebieden:
a. de ruimte waar landbouw kan plaatsvinden wordt
beperkt. Daardoor neemt de kans toe dat landbouw
plaatsvind op minder geschikte hellingen.
b. De vraag naar landbouwproducten wordt zo groot de
grond te intensief wordt gebruikt met als gevolg
uitputting.
c. Gebieden worden ontbost om akkers aan te leggen.
Kwetsbare gronden verliezen aan kwaliteit.
d. Het gebied waar boeren hun vee kunnen laten grazen
wordt kleiner. Het gevaar van overbeweiding met als
gevolg desertificatie neemt toe.
40. Fragiel evenwicht
• snelle kringloop van
voedingsstoffen
• dunne voedingsrijke
bodem
• Bij kap van woud snelle
uitputting
43. 1
2
3
4
5
6
1 Water wordt door gegraven geulen gespoeld
2 Water infiltreert
3 Veel water wordt niet door planten
opgenomen waardoor het grondwater
stijgt.
4 Door kleine openingen wordt
het grondwater omhoog gezogen.
5 Het grondwater dat kleine
hoeveelheden zout bevat
verdampt en het zout blijft
achter.
6 Na verloop van tijd
ontstaat een zoutkorst
►capillaire werking van de grond
Verzilting
44. Beregenen is een andere irrigatietechniek
met vergelijkbare gevolgen
Bedenk dat net als bij geulirrigatie
-een groot deel van het water direct verdampt
-veel water infiltreert enzovoort enzovoort
Verzilting
45. Door middel van druppelirrigatie
wordt er net zoveel water naar de
plantenwortel geleid als deze kan
opnemen.
Er zal vrijwel geen water infiltreren
of verdampen.
Het grondwater zal nauwelijks stijgen.
Dit is de beste manier van irrigatie
maar vraagt wel om een investering
in techniek.
Verzilting
48. Landdegradatie is het gevolg van menselijk handelen.
Echter, sommige natuurlijke omstandigheden zorgen ervoor
dat bepaalde gebieden kwetsbaarder zijn dan andere.
Hoe kwetsbaar zijn de landschapszones?
49. Hoe kwetsbaar zijn de landschapszones?
Niet elke landschapszone is even gevoelig voor landdegradatie.
Van nature zijn gebieden met een grote droogte of veel reliëf of
een hoge neerslagintensiteit extra gevoelig. Wanneer de mens in
zulke gebieden te intensief landbouw gaat bedrijven gaat het fout.
50. Hoe kwetsbaar zijn de landschapszones?
Waar de bodem rijk is aan voedingsstoffen en het klimaat
voldoende vocht verschaft, zal het plantendek na
beschadiging redelijke herstelkansen hebben. Maar in de
gevoelige gebieden, die vaak gekenmerkt worden door arme
bodems, blijft na beschadiging van de vegetatie herstel uit
met alle gevolgen van dien.
51. 1. GB 226C: de blauwe gebieden
2. Een combinatie van menselijke en natuurlijke factoren:
reliëf
vooral op hellingen
klimaat
lage neerslag frequentie; de grond is droog, slechte infiltratie
grote neerslagintensiteit; grond krijgt ineens veel te verwerken
Bodem
fijne stoffige structuur; slechte infiltratie
lemige bodem; slaat dicht bij krachtige regens
dunne losse laag op een harde ondergrond
Vegetatie
vaak het ontbreken van vegetatie door ontbossing, braakligging
Mens
arm; gebrek aan middelen, roofbouw/bodemuitputting
gebrek aan kennis; slechte landbouwmethodes
52. Hazard management:
omgaan met rampen: voor en na
Hoe een land/regio omgaat met
rampen hangt af van:
• Kennis
• open/gesloten samenleving
• Houding van mensen en(bij)geloof
• Geld
Maatregelen (vooraf) om de
gevolgen van rampen te
beperken
1. onderzoek/modellen maken
2. Waarschuwingssystemen
3. Rampenplannen
4. Bouwtechnische maatregelen
5. verzekeringen tegen
natuurrampen
53. Duo opdracht
Atlas op tafel
1. In welk(e) land(en) is het wegspoelen van de
humushoudende bovenlaag een groot
probleem
2. Welke kaart?
3. Wat zijn de oorzaken en mogelijk
overeenkomsten tussen landen waar dit een
groot probleem is?
Editor's Notes
factoren die de elementen vormen van de verschillende ecosystemen op Aarde
Ondergrond=substraat
Let op! Indeling in natuurlijke en menselijke factoren
Geofactoren zitten in “natuur”. De geofactor “mens”zit in arbeid en kapitaal. Behalve kapitaal en arbeid gaat het bij geofactor mens ook over bevolkingsomvang, bevolkingsdichtheid, andere manieren van bodemgebruik(steden, industrietereinen, enz.) en meer.