Switchgear is electrical equipment used to control, protect, and isolate electrical systems. It includes components like fuses, switches, relays, and circuit breakers. There are three main types - low voltage, medium voltage, and high voltage. Circuit breakers use various mediums like air, sulfur hexafluoride gas, or oil to detect faults and quickly interrupt current to isolate issues and protect equipment. SF6 gas is commonly used due to its excellent insulating and arc quenching properties. Air blast circuit breakers use compressed air to extinguish arcs by forcing high velocity air jets onto the arc through nozzles.
Air Blast & SF6 Circuit Breaker Design and Construction anuphowlader1
A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to detect a fault condition and interrupt current flow.
Relays sense abnormal voltage and current conditions and send signals to circuit breakers to isolate faulty parts of a power system. Electromagnetic induction relays use eddy currents produced in a disc to generate torque. There are different types of overcurrent and directional relays. Distance relays use impedance, reactance, or mho principles. Transformer and feeder protection uses overcurrent, distance, or pilot wire schemes. Circuit breakers use oil, air, sulfur hexafluoride, or vacuum to extinguish arcs and open faulty circuits. Instrument transformers reduce high voltages and currents to safer, measurable levels for meters and relays.
A circuit breaker is a device that breaks an electrical circuit automatically or manually under normal, full load, or short circuit conditions. It contains two contacts that remain closed during normal operation. When a fault occurs, a trip coil is energized separating the contacts. An arc is struck during contact separation, allowing current to continue briefly. Circuit breakers must extinguish the arc quickly. Different types of circuit breakers use various methods and mediums like oil, air, vacuum, or sulfur hexafluoride gas to rapidly extinguish the arc. Circuit breakers are classified and selected based on the voltage level and intended application.
This document discusses circuit breakers and provides details about three main types:
1. Air-blast circuit breakers, which use compressed air to extinguish arcs by blowing them out.
2. Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) circuit breakers, which use SF6 gas to absorb electrons from arcs due to its high electronegativity and dielectric strength.
3. Vacuum circuit breakers, which interrupt arcs in a vacuum environment.
The document also provides construction details and operating principles for air-blast and SF6 circuit breakers. Air-blast breakers are advantageous for their speed and simpler design, while SF6 breakers can operate at higher voltages due to the gas's insulating
A circuit breaker is a device that breaks an electrical circuit automatically or manually under normal, full, or short circuit conditions. It contains two contacts that remain closed under normal operation but separate when a fault is detected, interrupting the current. When the contacts separate, an arc is struck but extinguished quickly by the circuit breaker. Common types of circuit breakers include oil, air blast, SF6, and vacuum circuit breakers. SF6 circuit breakers use sulfur hexafluoride gas to rapidly absorb electrons from the arc when contacts open, building insulation to extinguish the arc. They have advantages over oil circuit breakers like shorter arcing time, ability to interrupt larger currents, noiseless operation, and lower maintenance needs
A circuit breaker is a device that breaks an electrical circuit automatically or manually under normal, full, or short circuit conditions. It contains two contacts that remain closed under normal operation but separate when a fault is detected, interrupting the current. When the contacts separate, an arc is struck but continues the current flow. Circuit breakers must extinguish the arc quickly. There are different types of circuit breakers including oil, air blast, SF6, and vacuum that use various insulating mediums like oil, air, sulfur hexafluoride gas, or vacuum to rapidly extinguish the arc. SF6 circuit breakers are commonly used for high voltages as SF6 gas strongly absorbs electrons from the arc to build insulation and ext
The document discusses different types of circuit breakers, including air blast, vacuum, oil, and SF6 circuit breakers. It explains that a circuit breaker can make, carry, and break currents under normal and abnormal circuit conditions. The operating mechanism involves using stored energy to move a moving contact to open or close the circuit. When contacts separate during a fault, an arc is formed that must be quickly quenched for circuit interruption. Each breaker type uses a different medium, such as air, vacuum, oil or SF6 gas, to rapidly cool and extinguish the arc. Modern systems commonly use vacuum or SF6 breakers for their fast, reliable performance.
Air Blast & SF6 Circuit Breaker Design and Construction anuphowlader1
A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to detect a fault condition and interrupt current flow.
Relays sense abnormal voltage and current conditions and send signals to circuit breakers to isolate faulty parts of a power system. Electromagnetic induction relays use eddy currents produced in a disc to generate torque. There are different types of overcurrent and directional relays. Distance relays use impedance, reactance, or mho principles. Transformer and feeder protection uses overcurrent, distance, or pilot wire schemes. Circuit breakers use oil, air, sulfur hexafluoride, or vacuum to extinguish arcs and open faulty circuits. Instrument transformers reduce high voltages and currents to safer, measurable levels for meters and relays.
A circuit breaker is a device that breaks an electrical circuit automatically or manually under normal, full load, or short circuit conditions. It contains two contacts that remain closed during normal operation. When a fault occurs, a trip coil is energized separating the contacts. An arc is struck during contact separation, allowing current to continue briefly. Circuit breakers must extinguish the arc quickly. Different types of circuit breakers use various methods and mediums like oil, air, vacuum, or sulfur hexafluoride gas to rapidly extinguish the arc. Circuit breakers are classified and selected based on the voltage level and intended application.
This document discusses circuit breakers and provides details about three main types:
1. Air-blast circuit breakers, which use compressed air to extinguish arcs by blowing them out.
2. Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) circuit breakers, which use SF6 gas to absorb electrons from arcs due to its high electronegativity and dielectric strength.
3. Vacuum circuit breakers, which interrupt arcs in a vacuum environment.
The document also provides construction details and operating principles for air-blast and SF6 circuit breakers. Air-blast breakers are advantageous for their speed and simpler design, while SF6 breakers can operate at higher voltages due to the gas's insulating
A circuit breaker is a device that breaks an electrical circuit automatically or manually under normal, full, or short circuit conditions. It contains two contacts that remain closed under normal operation but separate when a fault is detected, interrupting the current. When the contacts separate, an arc is struck but extinguished quickly by the circuit breaker. Common types of circuit breakers include oil, air blast, SF6, and vacuum circuit breakers. SF6 circuit breakers use sulfur hexafluoride gas to rapidly absorb electrons from the arc when contacts open, building insulation to extinguish the arc. They have advantages over oil circuit breakers like shorter arcing time, ability to interrupt larger currents, noiseless operation, and lower maintenance needs
A circuit breaker is a device that breaks an electrical circuit automatically or manually under normal, full, or short circuit conditions. It contains two contacts that remain closed under normal operation but separate when a fault is detected, interrupting the current. When the contacts separate, an arc is struck but continues the current flow. Circuit breakers must extinguish the arc quickly. There are different types of circuit breakers including oil, air blast, SF6, and vacuum that use various insulating mediums like oil, air, sulfur hexafluoride gas, or vacuum to rapidly extinguish the arc. SF6 circuit breakers are commonly used for high voltages as SF6 gas strongly absorbs electrons from the arc to build insulation and ext
The document discusses different types of circuit breakers, including air blast, vacuum, oil, and SF6 circuit breakers. It explains that a circuit breaker can make, carry, and break currents under normal and abnormal circuit conditions. The operating mechanism involves using stored energy to move a moving contact to open or close the circuit. When contacts separate during a fault, an arc is formed that must be quickly quenched for circuit interruption. Each breaker type uses a different medium, such as air, vacuum, oil or SF6 gas, to rapidly cool and extinguish the arc. Modern systems commonly use vacuum or SF6 breakers for their fast, reliable performance.
The document summarizes the key aspects of a six-month industrial training on circuit breakers. It describes the components and operating principles of various types of circuit breakers, including oil, air blast, SF6, and vacuum circuit breakers. It explains how circuit breakers are able to detect faults and break circuits manually or automatically to protect electrical networks and connected devices.
A circuit breaker is a device that breaks an electrical circuit automatically or manually under normal, full, or short circuit conditions. When a fault occurs, the trip coil is energized and separates the contacts, extinguishing the arc through various methods. Common types of circuit breakers include oil, air blast, SF6, and vacuum. Oil circuit breakers use oil as an insulating medium but have disadvantages like fire risk. Vacuum circuit breakers use vacuum as the insulating medium and have the highest insulation strength. SF6 circuit breakers use sulfur hexafluoride gas which effectively absorbs electrons to extinguish arcs and are commonly used for high power and voltage applications.
The document discusses the 220KV/132KV/33KV Bodhgaya Grid Substation (GSS) in Bihar, India. It contains details about the substation's layout and components. The substation has three sections: a 220KV switchyard, 132KV switchyard, and 33KV switchyard. It uses various types of transformers, circuit breakers, capacitors, and other equipment to step down electricity from 220KV and 132KV to 33KV for distribution. The document provides information on how these components work and their purposes in the substation's power transmission system.
The document discusses different types of circuit breakers including air blast, vacuum, oil, and SF6 circuit breakers. It explains that a circuit breaker consists of two contacts - a fixed contact and a moving contact. The moving contact opens and closes the circuit using stored energy. It also describes how each type of circuit breaker extinguishes the electric arc that forms during opening of the contacts using different mediums like air, vacuum, oil or SF6 gas. The document concludes that vacuum and SF6 circuit breakers are commonly used today due to their reliable and fast operation.
Circuit breakers are switching devices that can make, carry and break currents under normal and abnormal circuit conditions. They contain moving contacts that open and close using stored energy to interrupt faults. Different types of circuit breakers use various methods to extinguish electric arcs that form during opening, such as inserting insulating mediums like oil, vacuum, air or SF6 gas. Modern high voltage circuit breakers commonly use SF6 gas or vacuum due to their fast interruption times and reliable operations.
Circuit breakers are used to switch and interrupt load currents and fault currents. They must carry fault currents without failing. Modern high speed circuit breakers have tripping times between 3 to 8 cycles. The total clearing time is the sum of the opening time and arcing time. Circuit breakers are classified by the medium they use - oil, air, vacuum, or SF6. SF6 circuit breakers are widely used for higher voltages as SF6 is an excellent insulating and arc quenching gas. Vacuum circuit breakers can interrupt small currents without overvoltages and have long operational lifetimes. Circuit breakers use various mechanisms like hand, spring, motor, solenoid or pneumatic to quickly open and close contacts
I am sharing 'CIRCUIT BREAKER PPT' with you.pptxAjitAntil1
The document discusses different types of circuit breakers, their operating principles, and advantages/disadvantages. It describes how circuit breakers break the circuit when a fault occurs to prevent damage. The main types discussed are oil, vacuum, SF6, and CO2 circuit breakers. SF6 circuit breakers are highlighted as having advantages over oil circuit breakers due to being compact, reliable, and having longer life without fire hazards or gas generation.
A circuit breaker is a device used to protect electrical circuits from damage caused by short circuits or overloads. It functions by automatically opening a circuit when excess current is detected. When a fault occurs, the circuit breaker detects it and uses stored mechanical energy to separate its contacts, interrupting the current. This creates an electric arc that must be contained and extinguished in a controlled way before the contacts can be re-closed to restore power. Common circuit breaker components detect faults, open contacts, extinguish arcs through techniques like lengthening or splitting it, and reclose contacts once faults have cleared.
A circuit breaker is an automatically-operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit.
Its basic function is to detect a fault condition and, by interrupting continuity, to immediately discontinue electrical flow.
Presentation on 132/33KV BSPTCL(Bodhgaya Substation)Rahul Prajapati
The document provides information about the 132/33kV Bodhgaya substation in Bihar, India. It discusses key components of the substation including three transformers ranging from 50-160 MVA, lightning arrestors, current and potential transformers, circuit breakers using oil, air, SF6 and vacuum technologies, isolators, capacitor banks, fuses, and bus couplers connecting generators and feeders to main and spare bus bars. The substation is part of the transmission network operated by Bihar State Power Transmission Company Limited.
This document provides information about various types of circuit breakers. It begins with listing the group members and then discusses the introduction, definition, working principle, components, and types of circuit breakers. The main types discussed are oil circuit breakers, vacuum circuit breakers, air blast circuit breakers, SF6 circuit breakers, miniature circuit breakers, and earth leakage circuit breakers. It provides details on the working, advantages, and disadvantages of each type.
This document discusses different types of circuit breakers including high resistance, low resistance, SF6, and minimum oil circuit breakers. It provides details on their construction, working principles, and advantages. The high resistance method works by increasing the arc resistance to reduce current. The low resistance method uses AC current zero crossings to extinguish arcs. SF6 breakers use sulfur hexafluoride gas to absorb electrons in arcs. Minimum oil breakers use a small amount of oil and pressure to quickly extinguish arcs.
Circuit breakers are used to protect electrical networks and equipment. They contain movable contacts that open to interrupt the current flow during faults. When the contacts separate, an arc is formed due to ionization. Various methods are used to quench the arc, including using oil, vacuum, air blast, or SF6 gas to rapidly increase the dielectric strength between contacts and extinguish the arc. Common types of circuit breakers include oil, vacuum, air blast, and SF6 gas circuit breakers, which vary based on the medium used to quench arcs and interrupt current.
It describes about the circuit breaker and components and types of high voltage circuit breaker. It also explains about the working principle of the circuit breaker.
The document discusses different types of circuit breakers, including air blast, vacuum, oil, and SF6 circuit breakers. It explains that a circuit breaker breaks a circuit manually or automatically under various load conditions. The operating mechanism involves two contacts that separate when a trip coil is energized during a fault. Different circuit breakers use various mediums like oil, air, vacuum, or SF6 gas to quench the arc formed during contact separation. Modern circuit breakers widely use vacuum or SF6 breakers due to their reliable and fast operation.
The document discusses circuit breakers used in substations. It describes the functions of circuit breakers, which include switching circuits under normal and abnormal conditions. It provides details on the construction of 33kV and 132kV SF6 circuit breakers, noting they consist of three metal clad breaker poles with separate contact systems. SF6 breakers are preferred due to being maintenance-free, reliable, and performing switching duties without excessive over voltages. The document explains the working principles of circuit breakers, including their electrical and mechanical characteristics during operation. Control circuits and alarms/indications are also summarized.
Switchgear and protection lecture 2 type of circuit breakers and applicationsanuphowlader1
A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to detect a fault condition and interrupt current flow.
Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then must be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household appliance up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city.
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC2SvKI7eepP241VLoui1D5A
The document summarizes the key aspects of a six-month industrial training on circuit breakers. It describes the components and operating principles of various types of circuit breakers, including oil, air blast, SF6, and vacuum circuit breakers. It explains how circuit breakers are able to detect faults and break circuits manually or automatically to protect electrical networks and connected devices.
A circuit breaker is a device that breaks an electrical circuit automatically or manually under normal, full, or short circuit conditions. When a fault occurs, the trip coil is energized and separates the contacts, extinguishing the arc through various methods. Common types of circuit breakers include oil, air blast, SF6, and vacuum. Oil circuit breakers use oil as an insulating medium but have disadvantages like fire risk. Vacuum circuit breakers use vacuum as the insulating medium and have the highest insulation strength. SF6 circuit breakers use sulfur hexafluoride gas which effectively absorbs electrons to extinguish arcs and are commonly used for high power and voltage applications.
The document discusses the 220KV/132KV/33KV Bodhgaya Grid Substation (GSS) in Bihar, India. It contains details about the substation's layout and components. The substation has three sections: a 220KV switchyard, 132KV switchyard, and 33KV switchyard. It uses various types of transformers, circuit breakers, capacitors, and other equipment to step down electricity from 220KV and 132KV to 33KV for distribution. The document provides information on how these components work and their purposes in the substation's power transmission system.
The document discusses different types of circuit breakers including air blast, vacuum, oil, and SF6 circuit breakers. It explains that a circuit breaker consists of two contacts - a fixed contact and a moving contact. The moving contact opens and closes the circuit using stored energy. It also describes how each type of circuit breaker extinguishes the electric arc that forms during opening of the contacts using different mediums like air, vacuum, oil or SF6 gas. The document concludes that vacuum and SF6 circuit breakers are commonly used today due to their reliable and fast operation.
Circuit breakers are switching devices that can make, carry and break currents under normal and abnormal circuit conditions. They contain moving contacts that open and close using stored energy to interrupt faults. Different types of circuit breakers use various methods to extinguish electric arcs that form during opening, such as inserting insulating mediums like oil, vacuum, air or SF6 gas. Modern high voltage circuit breakers commonly use SF6 gas or vacuum due to their fast interruption times and reliable operations.
Circuit breakers are used to switch and interrupt load currents and fault currents. They must carry fault currents without failing. Modern high speed circuit breakers have tripping times between 3 to 8 cycles. The total clearing time is the sum of the opening time and arcing time. Circuit breakers are classified by the medium they use - oil, air, vacuum, or SF6. SF6 circuit breakers are widely used for higher voltages as SF6 is an excellent insulating and arc quenching gas. Vacuum circuit breakers can interrupt small currents without overvoltages and have long operational lifetimes. Circuit breakers use various mechanisms like hand, spring, motor, solenoid or pneumatic to quickly open and close contacts
I am sharing 'CIRCUIT BREAKER PPT' with you.pptxAjitAntil1
The document discusses different types of circuit breakers, their operating principles, and advantages/disadvantages. It describes how circuit breakers break the circuit when a fault occurs to prevent damage. The main types discussed are oil, vacuum, SF6, and CO2 circuit breakers. SF6 circuit breakers are highlighted as having advantages over oil circuit breakers due to being compact, reliable, and having longer life without fire hazards or gas generation.
A circuit breaker is a device used to protect electrical circuits from damage caused by short circuits or overloads. It functions by automatically opening a circuit when excess current is detected. When a fault occurs, the circuit breaker detects it and uses stored mechanical energy to separate its contacts, interrupting the current. This creates an electric arc that must be contained and extinguished in a controlled way before the contacts can be re-closed to restore power. Common circuit breaker components detect faults, open contacts, extinguish arcs through techniques like lengthening or splitting it, and reclose contacts once faults have cleared.
A circuit breaker is an automatically-operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit.
Its basic function is to detect a fault condition and, by interrupting continuity, to immediately discontinue electrical flow.
Presentation on 132/33KV BSPTCL(Bodhgaya Substation)Rahul Prajapati
The document provides information about the 132/33kV Bodhgaya substation in Bihar, India. It discusses key components of the substation including three transformers ranging from 50-160 MVA, lightning arrestors, current and potential transformers, circuit breakers using oil, air, SF6 and vacuum technologies, isolators, capacitor banks, fuses, and bus couplers connecting generators and feeders to main and spare bus bars. The substation is part of the transmission network operated by Bihar State Power Transmission Company Limited.
This document provides information about various types of circuit breakers. It begins with listing the group members and then discusses the introduction, definition, working principle, components, and types of circuit breakers. The main types discussed are oil circuit breakers, vacuum circuit breakers, air blast circuit breakers, SF6 circuit breakers, miniature circuit breakers, and earth leakage circuit breakers. It provides details on the working, advantages, and disadvantages of each type.
This document discusses different types of circuit breakers including high resistance, low resistance, SF6, and minimum oil circuit breakers. It provides details on their construction, working principles, and advantages. The high resistance method works by increasing the arc resistance to reduce current. The low resistance method uses AC current zero crossings to extinguish arcs. SF6 breakers use sulfur hexafluoride gas to absorb electrons in arcs. Minimum oil breakers use a small amount of oil and pressure to quickly extinguish arcs.
Circuit breakers are used to protect electrical networks and equipment. They contain movable contacts that open to interrupt the current flow during faults. When the contacts separate, an arc is formed due to ionization. Various methods are used to quench the arc, including using oil, vacuum, air blast, or SF6 gas to rapidly increase the dielectric strength between contacts and extinguish the arc. Common types of circuit breakers include oil, vacuum, air blast, and SF6 gas circuit breakers, which vary based on the medium used to quench arcs and interrupt current.
It describes about the circuit breaker and components and types of high voltage circuit breaker. It also explains about the working principle of the circuit breaker.
The document discusses different types of circuit breakers, including air blast, vacuum, oil, and SF6 circuit breakers. It explains that a circuit breaker breaks a circuit manually or automatically under various load conditions. The operating mechanism involves two contacts that separate when a trip coil is energized during a fault. Different circuit breakers use various mediums like oil, air, vacuum, or SF6 gas to quench the arc formed during contact separation. Modern circuit breakers widely use vacuum or SF6 breakers due to their reliable and fast operation.
The document discusses circuit breakers used in substations. It describes the functions of circuit breakers, which include switching circuits under normal and abnormal conditions. It provides details on the construction of 33kV and 132kV SF6 circuit breakers, noting they consist of three metal clad breaker poles with separate contact systems. SF6 breakers are preferred due to being maintenance-free, reliable, and performing switching duties without excessive over voltages. The document explains the working principles of circuit breakers, including their electrical and mechanical characteristics during operation. Control circuits and alarms/indications are also summarized.
Switchgear and protection lecture 2 type of circuit breakers and applicationsanuphowlader1
A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to detect a fault condition and interrupt current flow.
Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then must be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household appliance up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city.
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC2SvKI7eepP241VLoui1D5A
Redefining brain tumor segmentation: a cutting-edge convolutional neural netw...IJECEIAES
Medical image analysis has witnessed significant advancements with deep learning techniques. In the domain of brain tumor segmentation, the ability to
precisely delineate tumor boundaries from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
scans holds profound implications for diagnosis. This study presents an ensemble convolutional neural network (CNN) with transfer learning, integrating
the state-of-the-art Deeplabv3+ architecture with the ResNet18 backbone. The
model is rigorously trained and evaluated, exhibiting remarkable performance
metrics, including an impressive global accuracy of 99.286%, a high-class accuracy of 82.191%, a mean intersection over union (IoU) of 79.900%, a weighted
IoU of 98.620%, and a Boundary F1 (BF) score of 83.303%. Notably, a detailed comparative analysis with existing methods showcases the superiority of
our proposed model. These findings underscore the model’s competence in precise brain tumor localization, underscoring its potential to revolutionize medical
image analysis and enhance healthcare outcomes. This research paves the way
for future exploration and optimization of advanced CNN models in medical
imaging, emphasizing addressing false positives and resource efficiency.
A review on techniques and modelling methodologies used for checking electrom...nooriasukmaningtyas
The proper function of the integrated circuit (IC) in an inhibiting electromagnetic environment has always been a serious concern throughout the decades of revolution in the world of electronics, from disjunct devices to today’s integrated circuit technology, where billions of transistors are combined on a single chip. The automotive industry and smart vehicles in particular, are confronting design issues such as being prone to electromagnetic interference (EMI). Electronic control devices calculate incorrect outputs because of EMI and sensors give misleading values which can prove fatal in case of automotives. In this paper, the authors have non exhaustively tried to review research work concerned with the investigation of EMI in ICs and prediction of this EMI using various modelling methodologies and measurement setups.
Batteries -Introduction – Types of Batteries – discharging and charging of battery - characteristics of battery –battery rating- various tests on battery- – Primary battery: silver button cell- Secondary battery :Ni-Cd battery-modern battery: lithium ion battery-maintenance of batteries-choices of batteries for electric vehicle applications.
Fuel Cells: Introduction- importance and classification of fuel cells - description, principle, components, applications of fuel cells: H2-O2 fuel cell, alkaline fuel cell, molten carbonate fuel cell and direct methanol fuel cells.
Optimizing Gradle Builds - Gradle DPE Tour Berlin 2024Sinan KOZAK
Sinan from the Delivery Hero mobile infrastructure engineering team shares a deep dive into performance acceleration with Gradle build cache optimizations. Sinan shares their journey into solving complex build-cache problems that affect Gradle builds. By understanding the challenges and solutions found in our journey, we aim to demonstrate the possibilities for faster builds. The case study reveals how overlapping outputs and cache misconfigurations led to significant increases in build times, especially as the project scaled up with numerous modules using Paparazzi tests. The journey from diagnosing to defeating cache issues offers invaluable lessons on maintaining cache integrity without sacrificing functionality.
KuberTENes Birthday Bash Guadalajara - K8sGPT first impressionsVictor Morales
K8sGPT is a tool that analyzes and diagnoses Kubernetes clusters. This presentation was used to share the requirements and dependencies to deploy K8sGPT in a local environment.
Harnessing WebAssembly for Real-time Stateless Streaming PipelinesChristina Lin
Traditionally, dealing with real-time data pipelines has involved significant overhead, even for straightforward tasks like data transformation or masking. However, in this talk, we’ll venture into the dynamic realm of WebAssembly (WASM) and discover how it can revolutionize the creation of stateless streaming pipelines within a Kafka (Redpanda) broker. These pipelines are adept at managing low-latency, high-data-volume scenarios.
International Conference on NLP, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning an...gerogepatton
International Conference on NLP, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning and Applications (NLAIM 2024) offers a premier global platform for exchanging insights and findings in the theory, methodology, and applications of NLP, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, and their applications. The conference seeks substantial contributions across all key domains of NLP, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, and their practical applications, aiming to foster both theoretical advancements and real-world implementations. With a focus on facilitating collaboration between researchers and practitioners from academia and industry, the conference serves as a nexus for sharing the latest developments in the field.
TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING TECHNIQUE FOR COMMUNICATION SYSTEMHODECEDSIET
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a method of transmitting multiple signals over a single communication channel by dividing the signal into many segments, each having a very short duration of time. These time slots are then allocated to different data streams, allowing multiple signals to share the same transmission medium efficiently. TDM is widely used in telecommunications and data communication systems.
### How TDM Works
1. **Time Slots Allocation**: The core principle of TDM is to assign distinct time slots to each signal. During each time slot, the respective signal is transmitted, and then the process repeats cyclically. For example, if there are four signals to be transmitted, the TDM cycle will divide time into four slots, each assigned to one signal.
2. **Synchronization**: Synchronization is crucial in TDM systems to ensure that the signals are correctly aligned with their respective time slots. Both the transmitter and receiver must be synchronized to avoid any overlap or loss of data. This synchronization is typically maintained by a clock signal that ensures time slots are accurately aligned.
3. **Frame Structure**: TDM data is organized into frames, where each frame consists of a set of time slots. Each frame is repeated at regular intervals, ensuring continuous transmission of data streams. The frame structure helps in managing the data streams and maintaining the synchronization between the transmitter and receiver.
4. **Multiplexer and Demultiplexer**: At the transmitting end, a multiplexer combines multiple input signals into a single composite signal by assigning each signal to a specific time slot. At the receiving end, a demultiplexer separates the composite signal back into individual signals based on their respective time slots.
### Types of TDM
1. **Synchronous TDM**: In synchronous TDM, time slots are pre-assigned to each signal, regardless of whether the signal has data to transmit or not. This can lead to inefficiencies if some time slots remain empty due to the absence of data.
2. **Asynchronous TDM (or Statistical TDM)**: Asynchronous TDM addresses the inefficiencies of synchronous TDM by allocating time slots dynamically based on the presence of data. Time slots are assigned only when there is data to transmit, which optimizes the use of the communication channel.
### Applications of TDM
- **Telecommunications**: TDM is extensively used in telecommunication systems, such as in T1 and E1 lines, where multiple telephone calls are transmitted over a single line by assigning each call to a specific time slot.
- **Digital Audio and Video Broadcasting**: TDM is used in broadcasting systems to transmit multiple audio or video streams over a single channel, ensuring efficient use of bandwidth.
- **Computer Networks**: TDM is used in network protocols and systems to manage the transmission of data from multiple sources over a single network medium.
### Advantages of TDM
- **Efficient Use of Bandwidth**: TDM all
Using recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) for pavements is crucial to achieving sustainability. Implementing RCA for new pavement can minimize carbon footprint, conserve natural resources, reduce harmful emissions, and lower life cycle costs. Compared to natural aggregate (NA), RCA pavement has fewer comprehensive studies and sustainability assessments.
1. Switchgear
A switchgear is a devices associated with control,
metering and regulating of electrical power systems.
In other words systems used for switching, controlling
and protecting the electrical power circuits and different
types of electrical equipment are known as switchgear.
It is used to protect, isolate, and protect electrical
equipment from fault currents.
2. • Switchgear includes fuses, switches, relays, isolators,
circuit breaker, potential and current transformer,
indicating device, lightning arresters, etc. that protects
electrical hardware from faulty conditions.
• Automated protective switchgear consists of a relay
and circuit breaker.
• The relay acts whenever there is a fault. The relay
closes the faulty circuit and disconnects the disrupted
line.
• Relays provide that the faulty part remains isolated
while the healthy part continues to function as usual.
3. Functions of Switchgear
• The main functions of this equipment include the following.
• It protects the equipment from short-circuits & fault currents.
• This device gives isolation to the circuits from power supplies.
• It increases the availability of the system by allowing more than one
source to feed a load.
• It can open & close the electrical circuits under the conditions of
normal & abnormal.
• In normal conditions, it can operate manually so it ensures the
safety of the operator & also proper electrical energy utilization.
• In abnormal conditions, it operates mechanically. Once a fault
happens this device detects the fault & detaches the damaged part
in the power system. So it protects the power system from damage.
• Switchgear Types
4.
5. Types of Switchgear
• switchgear are three categories :
• High Voltage (H.V.) Switchgear
• Medium Voltage (MV) Switchgear
• Low Voltage (LV) Switchgear
• LV Switchgear
• This switchgear range up to 1 kV.
• It used at low voltage circuit breakers, offload electrical
isolators, earth leakage circuit breakers, switches,
miniature circuit breakers (MCB), moulded case circuit
breakers (MCCB), and H.R.C. fuses.
• LV switchgear is present in the LV distribution board. It
consists of incomers, sub-incomer, and feeders.
6. MV switchgear
• An MV switchgear can operate between 3kv to
36 kV.
• MV switchgear operates tasks like interrupting
short circuit current, switching capacitive
winds and inductive currents, performing the
usual On/Off switching function, etc.
7. • Faults are of two type
• 1. Short circuit fault- current
• 2 Open circuit fault
• Classification of short circuited Faults
• Three phase faults (with or without earth connection)
• Two phase faults (with or without earth connection)
• Single phase to earth faults Classification of Open
Circuit Faults
• Single Phase open Circuit
• Two phase open circuit
• Three phase open circuit
8. isolator
• An isolator is a switch used to isolate a
section of a circuit from any energised
conductors, by presenting a visible break in
the circuit.
9. air break switch
• An “air break switch' is a switchgear device that
uses air as the dielectric. Air Break Switches
(ABS) are widely used as both is isolation or
switching points
• The switch whose contacts open in the air and
quenching of an arc achieves
by compressed air, such
type of switch is called an
air break switch.
. The maximum voltage for
the switches is up to 35kV .
11. • SF6 (sulphur hexa fluoride) gas has excellent dielectric, arc
quenching, chemical and other physical properties which have
proved its superiority over other arc quenching mediums such as oil
or air.
• Working Principle of SF6 Circuit Breaker
• In the normal operating conditions, the contacts of the breaker are
closed.
• When the fault occurs in the system, the contacts are pulled apart,
and an arc is struck between them. The displacement of the moving
contacts is synchronised with the valve which enters the high-
pressure SF6 gas in the arc interrupting chamber at a pressure of
about 16kg/cm^2.
• The SF6 gas absorbs the free electrons in the arc path and forms
ions which do not act as a charge carrier.
• These ions increase the dielectric strength of the gas and hence the
arc is extinguished.
• This process reduces the pressure of the SF6 gas up to 3kg/cm^2
thus; it is stored in the low-pressure reservoir.
• This low-pressure gas is pulled back to the high-pressure reservoir
for re-use.
12. Properties of Sulphur hexafluoride
Circuit Breaker
• It possesses very good insulating and arc quenching properties. These properties
are
•
It is colourless, odourless, non-toxic, and non-inflammable gas.
• SF6 gas is extremely stable and inert, and its density is five times that of air.
• It has high thermal conductivity better than that of air and assists in better cooling
current carrying parts.
• SF6 gas is strongly electronegative, which means the free electrons are easily
removed from discharge by the formation of negative ions.
• It has a unique property of fast recombination after the source energising spark is
removed. It is 100 times more effective as compared to arc quenching medium.
• Its dielectric strength is 2.5 times than that of air and 30% less than that of the
dielectric oil. At high pressure the dielectric strength of the gas increases.
• Moisture is very harmful to SF6 circuit breaker. Due to a combination of humidity
and SF6 gas, hydrogen fluoride is formed (when the arc is interrupted) which can
attack the parts of the circuit breakers.
13. Advantage of SF6 circuit breaker
• SF6 gas has excellent insulating, arc extinguishing compare to others.
• The gas is non-inflammable and chemically stable. Their decomposition
products are non-explosive and hence there is no risk of fire or explosion.
• Electric clearance is very much reduced because of the high dielectric
strength of SF6.
• Its performance is not affected due to variations in atmospheric condition.
• It gives noiseless operation, and there is no over voltage problem because
the arc is extinguished at natural current zero.
• There is no reduction in dielectric strength because no carbon particles are
formed during arcing.
• It requires less maintenance and no costly compressed air system is required.
• SF6 performs various duties like clearing short-line faults, switching, opening
unloaded transmission lines, and transformer reactor, etc. without any
problem.
14. Disadvantages of SF6 circuit breakers
• SF6 gas is suffocating to some extent. In the case of
leakage in the breaker tank, the SF6 gas being heavier
than air and hence SF6 are settled in the surroundings
and lead to the suffocation of the operating personnel.
• The entrance of moisture in the SF6 breaker tank is very
harmful to the breaker, and it causes several failures.
• The internal parts need cleaning during periodic
maintenance under clean and dry environment.
• The special facility requires for transportation and
maintenance of quality of gas.
15. AIR BLAST CIRCUIT BREAKER
• Air Circuit Breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch
that uses air to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused
by excess current from an overload or short circuit.
• Its primary function is to interrupt current flow after a fault is
detected.
• Gasses such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen, freon or hydrogen are
used as the arc interrupting medium, compressed air is the
accepted circuit breaking medium for gas blast circuit breakers.
• it uses a high-pressure air as the arc quenching medium.
• In this type of circuit breaker when the contacts are separated,
high-pressure air is forced on the arc through a nozzle.
16. Types of ABCB
• Air blast circuit breakers are classified on the
basis the direction of air blast to the arc. They
are classified into :
• Axial Blast Type – air blast is directed along
the arc path.
• Cross Blast Type – air blast is directed at right
angles to the arc path.
• Radial Blast Type – air blast is directed radially
17. • circuit breaker compressed air is stored in a tank
and released through a nozzle to produce a high-
velocity jet; this is used to extinguish the arc. Air
blast circuit breakers are used for indoor services
in the medium high voltage field and medium
rupturing capacity. Generally up to voltages of 15
KV. The air blast circuit breaker is now employed
in high voltage up to 220 KV lines.
Radial Blast
18. • the flow of air is longitudinal along the arc.
• Air blast circuit breaker are single blast or
double blast(radial blast circuit ).
• Breaking employing double blast breakers as
the air flows radially into the nozzle or space
between the contacts.
• The fixed and moving contacts are kept in a
closed position by spring pressure under
normal operating conditions. The air reservoir
tank is connected to the arc chamber through
an air valve, which is opened by a triple
impulse.
19. Axial Blast
•
• Under Normal Condition
• The fixed and moving contacts are held in a closed position with the help of spring pressure. There
is an air reservoir connected to the arcing chamber through an air valve.
• The air valve controls the flow of air into the arcing chamber. The valve is closed under normal
conditions.
• Under Faulty Condition
• When a fault occurs a tripping impulse is produced which causes the opening of the air valve.
• Since the air valve connects the air reservoir and the arcing chamber, a high-pressure air
enters the arcing chamber. This air pushes away the moving contact against the spring
pressure.
• The moving contact is separated and an arc is struck. At the same time, high-pressure air
blast flows along the arc and takes away the ionized gases along with it. Consequently, the
arc is extinguished and the current flow is interrupted.
20. • The contacts are separated, and an arc is developed between them.
The air flowing at a great speed axially along the arc cause removal
of heat from the edge of the arc and the diameter of the arc
reduced to a very small value at current zero.
• The flow of fresh air removes the hot gasses between the contact
space and rapidly build up the dielectric strength between them.
21. Cross Blast Air Circuit Breaker
• an arc blast is directed at right angles to the arc.
• A moving contact arm is operated in close spaces to
draw an arc which is forced by a transverse blast of air
into the splitter plates, thereby lightening it to the
point when it cannot restrike after zero current.
22. Advantages of Air Blast Circuit
Breaker:
• It eliminates the risk of fire
• Operating speed is high
• Requires less maintenance
• Suitable for frequent operation
• Short and consistent arcing time
• Cheap if using air as medium
https://youtu.be/yQ1BhEZQA9o
23. Drawback of Air Blast Circuit Breaker
• it is necessary to maintain correct pressure all
the times.
• In largest installation of a plant with two or
more compressors required.
• Air compressor needs to be maintained.
• it costly for low voltage as compared to oil or
air break circuit breaker.
• It produces a noise when the air is discharged
24. Reactor
• A reactor is a coil wired in series between two points in a power system
To minimize inrush current, voltage notching effects, and voltage spikes.
Reactors may be tapped so that the voltage across them can be changed to
compensate for a change in the load that the motor is starting.
1 dry-type are used
low-voltage applications.
2 oil-immersed are used
high-voltage applications.
Reactors may be used as line or
load reactors.
25. • A line reactor (an electrical reactor or a choke) is a
variable frequency drive (VFD) accessory that consists
of a coil of wire that forms a magnetic field as current
flows through it.
• This magnetic field limits the rate of rising of the
current, thus reducing harmonics and protecting the
drive from power system surges and transients.
• The reactors are normally classified according to their
modes of application.
• Shunt Reactor
• Current Limiting and Neutral Earthing Reactor
• Damping Reactor,
• Tuning Reactor
• Earthing Transformer
• Arc Suppression Reactor and Smoothing Reactor.
26. Inrush Current
• Inrush Current
• Many electrical devices
draw high currents at startup
or have very low impedance
• to the flow of current.
• This inrush current can cause voltage sags that trip out other
equipment.
• Many full-voltage motor starters use reactors to increase the
impedance and limit the inrush current.
• Large capacitor banks used to correct for low power factor have very
low impedance when the capacitor bank is first switched ON, and the
capacitors begin charging.
• Low impedance means that the flow of current is very high.
• A reactor can be added in series to increase the reactance. The
increased reactance increases the impedance and reduces the inrush
current
27. Reduced Notching
• When impedance in the form of a reactor is added in series
with an SCR controller, the notch voltage is distributed
across the new impedance and the impedance already
existing in the feeder lines.
• The added impedance reduces the notch depth and widens
the notch width.
• the reactor eliminate the extra zero crossovers that cause
problems.
• Higher impedance may cause problems with sensitive
equipment because the wider notch may be seen as a loss
of voltage.
• Lower impedance may not reduce the notch depth enough
to eliminate the problems.
28. Reactors
• Reactors are installed in a circuit to introduce
inductance for motor starting, combined with a
capacitor to make a filter, controlling the current,
and paralleling transformers.
• Current-limiting reactors are installed to limit the
amount of current that can flow in a circuit when
a short circuit occurs.
• two Types: iron cores and those with no magnetic
materials in the windings. air cooled or oil
immersed
29. Current Limiting Reactor
• A current limiting reactor is used when the prospective short-circuit
current in a distribution or transmission system is calculated to exceed
the interrupting rating of the associated switchgear.
• Current Limiting Reactors are connected in series with the power system
essentially to damp the short circuit fault current. During normal
operation, a continuous current flows through the reactor.
• CLR reduce the available short circuit current by providing additional the
impedance in the fault circuit.
30.
31. Current Limiting Reactors
• The main motive of using current limiting reactors is to reduce
short-circuit currents.
• They can also be used to protect other system components from
high current levels.
• To limit the inrush current when starting a large motor.
• A line reactor is an inductor wired between a power source and a
load.
• In addition to the current limiting function, the device serves to
filter out spikes of current and may also reduce injection of
harmonic currents into the power supply.
• The most common type is designed for three-phase electric power,
in which three isolated inductors are each wired in series with one
of the three line phases.
• Line reactors are generally installed in motor driven equipment to
limit starting current, and may be used to protect Variable-
frequency drives and motors
33. Classification of Reactors
• There are three types of reactors:
(1) generator reactors: The reactors are located
in series with each of the generators. current
flowing into a fault
F from the generator
is limited.
34. Disadvantages:
• In the event of a fault occurring on a feeder, the voltage
at the remaining healthy feeders also may lose
synchronism requiring resynchronization later.
• A constant voltage drop in the reactors and also power
loss, even during normal operation.
35. Feeder reactors
• Feeder reactors: In this method of protection, each feeder is
equipped with a series reactor.
• In the event of a fault on any feeder the fault current drawn is
restricted by the reactor.
Disadvantages: 1 Voltage drop and power loss still occurs in the
reactor for a feeder fault.
the voltage drop occurs only in that particular
feeder reactor.
2 Feeder reactors do not offer any protection for bus
bar faults.
3 series reactors inherently
create voltage drop, system
voltage regulation will be impaired
(weaker). Used in special case such
as for short feeders of large cross-section.
36. Bus bar reactors
• In both the above methods, the reactors carry
full load current under normal operation.
• The c disadvantage are constant voltage drops
and power loss can be avoided by dividing the
bus bars into sections and interconnect the
sections through protective reactors.
• There are two ways of doing this: Ring system
and Tie bar system.
37. • Ring system: In this method, each feeder is fed by one
generator. Very little power flows across the reactors during
normal operation. Hence the voltage drop and power loss are
negligible. If a fault occurs on any feeder, only the generator
to which the feeder is connected will feed the fault and other
generators are required to feed the fault through the reactor
38. • Tie bar system: This is an improvement over the ring
system. Current fed into a fault has to pass through
two reactors in series between sections.
• advantage is that additional generation may be
connected to the system without requiring changes
in the existing reactors.
• disadvantage is that this system requires an
additional bus bar system, the tie bar.
Editor's Notes
It is used to protect, isolate, and protect electrical equipment from fault currents.