The document discusses substations, which are assemblies of equipment used to change characteristics of electric supply like voltage, current, frequency, and converting AC to DC. It defines substations and classifies them according to their service requirements like transformer, switching, power factor correction, and converting substations. It also classifies them according to their construction features like indoor, outdoor, underground, and pole-mounted substations. Transformer substations, which change voltage levels, make up most substations. Pole-mounted substations are the cheapest form of distribution substation.
A substation converts transmission voltages like 132kV to distribution voltages like 11kV and serves a local area. A grid station interconnects transmission circuits between regions and may contain transformers. While a substation steps down voltage, a grid station adjusts voltages as needed in the transmission grid network.
The document differentiates between substations and grid stations. It states that a substation is a conversion point between transmission and distribution voltages using transformers to serve a regional area. Substations are connected by transmission lines. A grid station interconnects two transmission circuits, often between regions, and may contain transformers. The interconnected network of grid stations forms the electrical grid.
1) Sub-stations are facilities that change characteristics of electric power such as voltage, frequency, and power factor. They receive power at one voltage and deliver it at another.
2) Sub-stations are classified based on their function (e.g. transformer, switching) and construction (e.g. indoor, outdoor). Transformer sub-stations change voltage levels while switching sub-stations perform switching without changing voltage.
3) Key equipment in sub-stations include transformers, circuit breakers, buses, insulators, and instrumentation transformers which step voltages/currents down for metering and protection. Proper layout and equipment are needed for safe and reliable power distribution.
1) Sub-stations are facilities that change characteristics of electric power supply like voltage, frequency, and current. They receive power at one voltage and deliver at another.
2) Sub-stations are classified by their service (e.g. transformer, switching) and construction (e.g. indoor, outdoor). Transformer sub-stations are the most common and change the voltage level.
3) Key equipment in sub-stations includes transformers, busbars, insulators, circuit breakers, and protection devices that allow safe transmission of power from high voltage lines to distribution networks.
Module 4 power generation & Economics - Substation vtu syllabusDrCVMOHAN
This document provides an overview of electrical substation equipment and components. It discusses key substation equipment like transformers, circuit breakers, protective relays, buses, surge arresters, insulators, conductors, and fuses. It also covers different types of substations including transmission, distribution, converter and collector substations. Classification of substations is discussed based on voltage levels, construction features, and applications.
The document discusses the components of electric power grids including power generation plants, transmission lines, transformers, and distribution systems. It describes different types of power generation such as fossil fuel, nuclear, hydroelectric, and renewable sources. Key components of the transmission and distribution system are described including step-up and step-down substations, overhead and underground transmission lines, and distribution lines. Diagrams illustrate one-line diagrams of power systems and characteristics of transmission lines.
1. The document discusses the equipment used in a 33/11 kV substation, including busbars to connect generators and feeders, insulators to support conductors and confine current, circuit breakers to open circuits during faults, protective relays to detect faults and trip circuit breakers, instrument transformers to step down voltages and currents for metering, meters for monitoring circuit quantities, transformers to step down transmission voltages to distribution levels, capacitor banks to improve power factor, isolating switches to disconnect parts of the system, and lightning arrestors to protect equipment from lightning strikes.
2. A 33/11 kV substation is an important link between the transmission and distribution networks that transforms power from higher transmission voltages to
A substation converts transmission voltages like 132kV to distribution voltages like 11kV and serves a local area. A grid station interconnects transmission circuits between regions and may contain transformers. While a substation steps down voltage, a grid station adjusts voltages as needed in the transmission grid network.
The document differentiates between substations and grid stations. It states that a substation is a conversion point between transmission and distribution voltages using transformers to serve a regional area. Substations are connected by transmission lines. A grid station interconnects two transmission circuits, often between regions, and may contain transformers. The interconnected network of grid stations forms the electrical grid.
1) Sub-stations are facilities that change characteristics of electric power such as voltage, frequency, and power factor. They receive power at one voltage and deliver it at another.
2) Sub-stations are classified based on their function (e.g. transformer, switching) and construction (e.g. indoor, outdoor). Transformer sub-stations change voltage levels while switching sub-stations perform switching without changing voltage.
3) Key equipment in sub-stations include transformers, circuit breakers, buses, insulators, and instrumentation transformers which step voltages/currents down for metering and protection. Proper layout and equipment are needed for safe and reliable power distribution.
1) Sub-stations are facilities that change characteristics of electric power supply like voltage, frequency, and current. They receive power at one voltage and deliver at another.
2) Sub-stations are classified by their service (e.g. transformer, switching) and construction (e.g. indoor, outdoor). Transformer sub-stations are the most common and change the voltage level.
3) Key equipment in sub-stations includes transformers, busbars, insulators, circuit breakers, and protection devices that allow safe transmission of power from high voltage lines to distribution networks.
Module 4 power generation & Economics - Substation vtu syllabusDrCVMOHAN
This document provides an overview of electrical substation equipment and components. It discusses key substation equipment like transformers, circuit breakers, protective relays, buses, surge arresters, insulators, conductors, and fuses. It also covers different types of substations including transmission, distribution, converter and collector substations. Classification of substations is discussed based on voltage levels, construction features, and applications.
The document discusses the components of electric power grids including power generation plants, transmission lines, transformers, and distribution systems. It describes different types of power generation such as fossil fuel, nuclear, hydroelectric, and renewable sources. Key components of the transmission and distribution system are described including step-up and step-down substations, overhead and underground transmission lines, and distribution lines. Diagrams illustrate one-line diagrams of power systems and characteristics of transmission lines.
1. The document discusses the equipment used in a 33/11 kV substation, including busbars to connect generators and feeders, insulators to support conductors and confine current, circuit breakers to open circuits during faults, protective relays to detect faults and trip circuit breakers, instrument transformers to step down voltages and currents for metering, meters for monitoring circuit quantities, transformers to step down transmission voltages to distribution levels, capacitor banks to improve power factor, isolating switches to disconnect parts of the system, and lightning arrestors to protect equipment from lightning strikes.
2. A 33/11 kV substation is an important link between the transmission and distribution networks that transforms power from higher transmission voltages to
Introduction to electric power transmission and distributionABDULRAHMANALGHANIM
The document provides an overview of electric power transmission and distribution systems. It discusses how electric power is generated at power stations and stepped up to high voltages for transmission through networks of transmission lines. It then explains how power is stepped down at substations for distribution through primary and secondary distribution networks to reach customers. The key components and classifications of distribution systems are also outlined.
The document provides an overview of topics that will be covered in an electrical distribution systems course over two weeks. Key topics include distribution system elements and configurations, electrical load characteristics, voltage regulation, protection and circuit design, distribution transformers, and power factor correction. Students will be assessed based on timely completion and submission of weekly assignments. The document also defines different voltage classes according to IEEE and IEC standards and describes components of typical electrical distribution networks including substations, transmission lines, and voltage step-down transformers.
The document provides an overview of electrical power systems including:
- Generation of power at high voltages, transmission over long distances at even higher voltages, and distribution to customers at lower voltages through transmission and distribution networks.
- Components of transmission and distribution systems including conductors, supports, cross arms, and insulators.
- A key diagram of an indoor 11kV/400V substation showing transformer, circuit breakers, and connections to high and low voltage systems.
- Introduction to smart grids which aim to better integrate renewable energy sources and enable two-way power flows.
This document provides information about substations, including:
1. Substations are facilities used to change characteristics of electric power supply like voltage, frequency, or converting AC to DC. They are located between generation/transmission and distribution.
2. Substations are classified by their function (transformer, switching, power factor correction etc.) and construction (indoor, outdoor, underground etc.).
3. Key equipment in substations includes transformers, busbars, circuit breakers, insulators, and protection devices. Instrument transformers like PTs and CTs are also used.
4. Distribution systems distribute power from substations to consumers using feeders, distributors, and service mains. Distribution systems are classified by supply type
The document discusses the layout and components of AC power generation, transmission, and distribution systems. It begins with an overview of the general layout, which includes generation at central stations, high voltage transmission via overhead lines, step-down substations, secondary transmission via underground cables or overhead lines, and primary and secondary distribution at lower voltages. It then covers the different types of power systems and network configurations, as well as the various AC distribution systems including single and multi-phase wiring configurations. Finally, it discusses distribution components such as feeders, distributors, and service mains, and compares radial and ring-main distribution layouts.
This document discusses the key components and types of AC power transmission systems. It begins with an introduction that describes how electrical energy generated at power plants is transmitted through transmission lines to consumers. It then provides a single line diagram showing the steps of increasing voltage for transmission and decreasing it for distribution. The main types of transmission line systems are described as single phase, two phase, and three phase AC systems, as well as DC systems. Finally, the key elements of transmission lines are outlined, including conductors, transformers, insulators, support towers, and protective devices.
The document provides an overview of the 33/11kV Phidim substation located in Phidim, Panchthar district, Nepal. It was established in 2058 BS by Nepal Electricity Authority. The substation steps down electricity from the national 33kV grid to 11kV to supply power to local areas. It is responsible for controlling energy exchange, load shedding, fault analysis and improving the transmission system. The substation layout, single line diagram, and organizational structure are presented. Key equipment used includes transformers, circuit breakers, isolators, lightning arrestors, and insulators.
High voltage electricity refers to electrical potential large enough to cause injury or damage. In certain industries, high voltage refers to voltage above a certain threshold. Equipment and conductors that carry high voltage warrant special safety requirements and procedures.
Detail of the insulators (the vertical string of discs) and conductor vibration dampers (the weights attached directly to the cables) on a 275,000 volt suspension pylon near Thornbury, South Gloucestershire, England. In some countries, pylons for high and extra-high voltage are usually designed to carry two or more electric circuits. For double circuit lines in Germany, the “Danube” towers or more rarely, the “fir tree” towers, are usually used. If a line is constructed using pylons designed to carry several circuits, it is not necessary to install all the circuits at the time of construction. Medium voltage circuits are often erected on the same pylons as 110 kV lines. Paralleling circuits of 380 kV, 220 kV and 110 kV-lines on the same pylons is common. Sometimes, especially with 110 kV-circuits, a parallel circuit carries traction lines for railway electrification
This document provides an overview of EHV AC and DC transmission. It discusses:
1) The construction of EHV AC and DC transmission links, including the components of AC systems and the types of DC links.
2) The limitations and advantages of AC and DC transmission. AC faces challenges with reactive power and stability over long distances, while DC has benefits of lower losses and greater power control.
3) The principal applications of AC and DC transmission, with DC preferred for long distance, asynchronous connections, and submarine cables due to its advantages over AC in these scenarios.
This document provides information about distribution substations, including their location, types, and key equipment. It discusses how substations are used to reduce transmission voltages and supply power to local distribution areas. The main types of substations covered are generating, primary grid, distribution, transformer, switching, power factor correction, frequency change, and converting substations. Key equipment found in substations includes power transformers, circuit breakers, buses, protective relays, and capacitors.
APEPDCL is the electricity distribution company that serves five districts in Andhra Pradesh, with its headquarters in Visakhapatnam. It distributes power at 33kV and 11kV levels. The document discusses the types of substations based on their nature, service, operating voltage, and design. It specifically describes the 33/11kV substation in Jaggampeta, which receives power at 33kV from two sources and distributes it at 11kV to industrial, agricultural and domestic customers in the area. Key equipment in the substation include lightning arresters, capacitive voltage transformers, and current transformers.
The document is a report on high voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission systems submitted for a Bachelor of Technology degree. It discusses the history and development of HVDC transmission, the basic principles of AC/DC conversion using converter stations, harmonic filtering, HVDC control methods, different types of HVDC links, economic considerations, applications of HVDC systems, and advantages of HVDC over AC transmission for long distance bulk power transmission.
Vocational Training Report ( Sealdah Power House)shovandey07
The document provides information about the power distribution system at Sealdah Power House in Kolkata, India. It describes the key components of the power house including transformers, switchgear, bus bars, isolators, circuit breakers, and protective relays. The power house receives 6KV high voltage from CESC which is stepped down to 415V by transformers before being distributed to Sealdah railway station for lighting, equipment, and facilities. There is also a backup diesel generator at one of the substations in case of outages.
The document discusses substations, their components, and an experiment on power system design. It defines substations as parts of the electrical generation and distribution system that transform voltage levels. There are four main types: transmission substations connect transmission lines; distribution substations transfer power from transmission to distribution networks; collector substations collect power from distributed generation sources; and switching substations switch currents without transformers. The key components discussed are busbars to distribute current, circuit breakers for protection, transformers, conductors, isolators, and insulators. The experiment aims to study these concepts through observation and calculations.
This presentation provides an overview of substations, including their classification, components, and functions. It discusses the different types of substations such as transformer substations, pole-mounted substations, and underground substations. Transformer substations are classified as step-up, primary grid, secondary, and distribution substations based on their voltage levels. Pole-mounted substations are constructed on poles for distribution. Underground substations are used in congested areas with limited space. The presentation also describes key equipment in substations like circuit breakers, transformers, isolators, and their protective functions.
The document discusses electrical power distribution systems. It describes how power is generated at high voltages, stepped up further for transmission over long distances via transmission lines, then stepped down via substations for distribution to consumers. Key components of the distribution system include feeders that distribute power from substations, distributors that feed consumers, and service mains that connect distributors to meters. Distribution can be overhead, underground, radial, ring-based, or interconnected. Substations transform voltages and may be transmission, distribution, or switching types.
This document discusses the distribution of a transmission line project among group members and provides background information on electricity distribution in Pakistan. It outlines the members of the group working on the transmission line distribution project and their registration numbers. It then provides an introduction to transmission and distribution lines. The document continues by describing the basic concepts of energy transmission and providing historical context of electricity in Pakistan. It outlines the various organizations involved in electricity production and distribution in Pakistan. Finally, it describes the layout of Pakistan's power system and classifications of transmission lines.
That part of power system which distributes electric power for local use is known as DISTRIBUTION.
Electric power distribution is the final stage in the delivery of electricity. Electricity is carried from the transmission system to individual consumers. Distribution substations connect to the transmission system and lower the transmission voltage to medium voltage ranging between 2 kV and 33 kV with the use of transformers. Primary distribution lines carry this medium voltage power to distribution transformers located near the customer's premises. Distribution transformers again lower the voltage to the utilization voltage used by lighting, industrial equipment and household appliances. Often several customers are supplied from one transformer through secondary distribution lines. Commercial and residential customers are connected to the secondary distribution lines through service drops.
Design of substation (with Transformer Design) SayanSarkar55
This ppt is made for the subject Machine Design. Here the basic types, equipment, designs of substation is described with the preocess and calculation of designing a transformer also.
A substation receives power transmitted at high voltage from a generating station and transforms the voltage to a level appropriate for local use. It consists of transformers, switches, circuit breakers and other equipment to step up or step down voltages. Typical components include busbars to carry current, disconnectors and circuit breakers to connect and disconnect circuits, current and voltage transformers to detect and transform measurements, earthing switches for safety, and surge arrestors to protect from surges. Substations can be classified by their function, such as transformer or industrial substations, or by their control method, such as manual, automatic or supervisory control.
Introduction to electric power transmission and distributionABDULRAHMANALGHANIM
The document provides an overview of electric power transmission and distribution systems. It discusses how electric power is generated at power stations and stepped up to high voltages for transmission through networks of transmission lines. It then explains how power is stepped down at substations for distribution through primary and secondary distribution networks to reach customers. The key components and classifications of distribution systems are also outlined.
The document provides an overview of topics that will be covered in an electrical distribution systems course over two weeks. Key topics include distribution system elements and configurations, electrical load characteristics, voltage regulation, protection and circuit design, distribution transformers, and power factor correction. Students will be assessed based on timely completion and submission of weekly assignments. The document also defines different voltage classes according to IEEE and IEC standards and describes components of typical electrical distribution networks including substations, transmission lines, and voltage step-down transformers.
The document provides an overview of electrical power systems including:
- Generation of power at high voltages, transmission over long distances at even higher voltages, and distribution to customers at lower voltages through transmission and distribution networks.
- Components of transmission and distribution systems including conductors, supports, cross arms, and insulators.
- A key diagram of an indoor 11kV/400V substation showing transformer, circuit breakers, and connections to high and low voltage systems.
- Introduction to smart grids which aim to better integrate renewable energy sources and enable two-way power flows.
This document provides information about substations, including:
1. Substations are facilities used to change characteristics of electric power supply like voltage, frequency, or converting AC to DC. They are located between generation/transmission and distribution.
2. Substations are classified by their function (transformer, switching, power factor correction etc.) and construction (indoor, outdoor, underground etc.).
3. Key equipment in substations includes transformers, busbars, circuit breakers, insulators, and protection devices. Instrument transformers like PTs and CTs are also used.
4. Distribution systems distribute power from substations to consumers using feeders, distributors, and service mains. Distribution systems are classified by supply type
The document discusses the layout and components of AC power generation, transmission, and distribution systems. It begins with an overview of the general layout, which includes generation at central stations, high voltage transmission via overhead lines, step-down substations, secondary transmission via underground cables or overhead lines, and primary and secondary distribution at lower voltages. It then covers the different types of power systems and network configurations, as well as the various AC distribution systems including single and multi-phase wiring configurations. Finally, it discusses distribution components such as feeders, distributors, and service mains, and compares radial and ring-main distribution layouts.
This document discusses the key components and types of AC power transmission systems. It begins with an introduction that describes how electrical energy generated at power plants is transmitted through transmission lines to consumers. It then provides a single line diagram showing the steps of increasing voltage for transmission and decreasing it for distribution. The main types of transmission line systems are described as single phase, two phase, and three phase AC systems, as well as DC systems. Finally, the key elements of transmission lines are outlined, including conductors, transformers, insulators, support towers, and protective devices.
The document provides an overview of the 33/11kV Phidim substation located in Phidim, Panchthar district, Nepal. It was established in 2058 BS by Nepal Electricity Authority. The substation steps down electricity from the national 33kV grid to 11kV to supply power to local areas. It is responsible for controlling energy exchange, load shedding, fault analysis and improving the transmission system. The substation layout, single line diagram, and organizational structure are presented. Key equipment used includes transformers, circuit breakers, isolators, lightning arrestors, and insulators.
High voltage electricity refers to electrical potential large enough to cause injury or damage. In certain industries, high voltage refers to voltage above a certain threshold. Equipment and conductors that carry high voltage warrant special safety requirements and procedures.
Detail of the insulators (the vertical string of discs) and conductor vibration dampers (the weights attached directly to the cables) on a 275,000 volt suspension pylon near Thornbury, South Gloucestershire, England. In some countries, pylons for high and extra-high voltage are usually designed to carry two or more electric circuits. For double circuit lines in Germany, the “Danube” towers or more rarely, the “fir tree” towers, are usually used. If a line is constructed using pylons designed to carry several circuits, it is not necessary to install all the circuits at the time of construction. Medium voltage circuits are often erected on the same pylons as 110 kV lines. Paralleling circuits of 380 kV, 220 kV and 110 kV-lines on the same pylons is common. Sometimes, especially with 110 kV-circuits, a parallel circuit carries traction lines for railway electrification
This document provides an overview of EHV AC and DC transmission. It discusses:
1) The construction of EHV AC and DC transmission links, including the components of AC systems and the types of DC links.
2) The limitations and advantages of AC and DC transmission. AC faces challenges with reactive power and stability over long distances, while DC has benefits of lower losses and greater power control.
3) The principal applications of AC and DC transmission, with DC preferred for long distance, asynchronous connections, and submarine cables due to its advantages over AC in these scenarios.
This document provides information about distribution substations, including their location, types, and key equipment. It discusses how substations are used to reduce transmission voltages and supply power to local distribution areas. The main types of substations covered are generating, primary grid, distribution, transformer, switching, power factor correction, frequency change, and converting substations. Key equipment found in substations includes power transformers, circuit breakers, buses, protective relays, and capacitors.
APEPDCL is the electricity distribution company that serves five districts in Andhra Pradesh, with its headquarters in Visakhapatnam. It distributes power at 33kV and 11kV levels. The document discusses the types of substations based on their nature, service, operating voltage, and design. It specifically describes the 33/11kV substation in Jaggampeta, which receives power at 33kV from two sources and distributes it at 11kV to industrial, agricultural and domestic customers in the area. Key equipment in the substation include lightning arresters, capacitive voltage transformers, and current transformers.
The document is a report on high voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission systems submitted for a Bachelor of Technology degree. It discusses the history and development of HVDC transmission, the basic principles of AC/DC conversion using converter stations, harmonic filtering, HVDC control methods, different types of HVDC links, economic considerations, applications of HVDC systems, and advantages of HVDC over AC transmission for long distance bulk power transmission.
Vocational Training Report ( Sealdah Power House)shovandey07
The document provides information about the power distribution system at Sealdah Power House in Kolkata, India. It describes the key components of the power house including transformers, switchgear, bus bars, isolators, circuit breakers, and protective relays. The power house receives 6KV high voltage from CESC which is stepped down to 415V by transformers before being distributed to Sealdah railway station for lighting, equipment, and facilities. There is also a backup diesel generator at one of the substations in case of outages.
The document discusses substations, their components, and an experiment on power system design. It defines substations as parts of the electrical generation and distribution system that transform voltage levels. There are four main types: transmission substations connect transmission lines; distribution substations transfer power from transmission to distribution networks; collector substations collect power from distributed generation sources; and switching substations switch currents without transformers. The key components discussed are busbars to distribute current, circuit breakers for protection, transformers, conductors, isolators, and insulators. The experiment aims to study these concepts through observation and calculations.
This presentation provides an overview of substations, including their classification, components, and functions. It discusses the different types of substations such as transformer substations, pole-mounted substations, and underground substations. Transformer substations are classified as step-up, primary grid, secondary, and distribution substations based on their voltage levels. Pole-mounted substations are constructed on poles for distribution. Underground substations are used in congested areas with limited space. The presentation also describes key equipment in substations like circuit breakers, transformers, isolators, and their protective functions.
The document discusses electrical power distribution systems. It describes how power is generated at high voltages, stepped up further for transmission over long distances via transmission lines, then stepped down via substations for distribution to consumers. Key components of the distribution system include feeders that distribute power from substations, distributors that feed consumers, and service mains that connect distributors to meters. Distribution can be overhead, underground, radial, ring-based, or interconnected. Substations transform voltages and may be transmission, distribution, or switching types.
This document discusses the distribution of a transmission line project among group members and provides background information on electricity distribution in Pakistan. It outlines the members of the group working on the transmission line distribution project and their registration numbers. It then provides an introduction to transmission and distribution lines. The document continues by describing the basic concepts of energy transmission and providing historical context of electricity in Pakistan. It outlines the various organizations involved in electricity production and distribution in Pakistan. Finally, it describes the layout of Pakistan's power system and classifications of transmission lines.
That part of power system which distributes electric power for local use is known as DISTRIBUTION.
Electric power distribution is the final stage in the delivery of electricity. Electricity is carried from the transmission system to individual consumers. Distribution substations connect to the transmission system and lower the transmission voltage to medium voltage ranging between 2 kV and 33 kV with the use of transformers. Primary distribution lines carry this medium voltage power to distribution transformers located near the customer's premises. Distribution transformers again lower the voltage to the utilization voltage used by lighting, industrial equipment and household appliances. Often several customers are supplied from one transformer through secondary distribution lines. Commercial and residential customers are connected to the secondary distribution lines through service drops.
Design of substation (with Transformer Design) SayanSarkar55
This ppt is made for the subject Machine Design. Here the basic types, equipment, designs of substation is described with the preocess and calculation of designing a transformer also.
A substation receives power transmitted at high voltage from a generating station and transforms the voltage to a level appropriate for local use. It consists of transformers, switches, circuit breakers and other equipment to step up or step down voltages. Typical components include busbars to carry current, disconnectors and circuit breakers to connect and disconnect circuits, current and voltage transformers to detect and transform measurements, earthing switches for safety, and surge arrestors to protect from surges. Substations can be classified by their function, such as transformer or industrial substations, or by their control method, such as manual, automatic or supervisory control.
KuberTENes Birthday Bash Guadalajara - K8sGPT first impressionsVictor Morales
K8sGPT is a tool that analyzes and diagnoses Kubernetes clusters. This presentation was used to share the requirements and dependencies to deploy K8sGPT in a local environment.
6th International Conference on Machine Learning & Applications (CMLA 2024)ClaraZara1
6th International Conference on Machine Learning & Applications (CMLA 2024) will provide an excellent international forum for sharing knowledge and results in theory, methodology and applications of on Machine Learning & Applications.
A review on techniques and modelling methodologies used for checking electrom...nooriasukmaningtyas
The proper function of the integrated circuit (IC) in an inhibiting electromagnetic environment has always been a serious concern throughout the decades of revolution in the world of electronics, from disjunct devices to today’s integrated circuit technology, where billions of transistors are combined on a single chip. The automotive industry and smart vehicles in particular, are confronting design issues such as being prone to electromagnetic interference (EMI). Electronic control devices calculate incorrect outputs because of EMI and sensors give misleading values which can prove fatal in case of automotives. In this paper, the authors have non exhaustively tried to review research work concerned with the investigation of EMI in ICs and prediction of this EMI using various modelling methodologies and measurement setups.
A SYSTEMATIC RISK ASSESSMENT APPROACH FOR SECURING THE SMART IRRIGATION SYSTEMSIJNSA Journal
The smart irrigation system represents an innovative approach to optimize water usage in agricultural and landscaping practices. The integration of cutting-edge technologies, including sensors, actuators, and data analysis, empowers this system to provide accurate monitoring and control of irrigation processes by leveraging real-time environmental conditions. The main objective of a smart irrigation system is to optimize water efficiency, minimize expenses, and foster the adoption of sustainable water management methods. This paper conducts a systematic risk assessment by exploring the key components/assets and their functionalities in the smart irrigation system. The crucial role of sensors in gathering data on soil moisture, weather patterns, and plant well-being is emphasized in this system. These sensors enable intelligent decision-making in irrigation scheduling and water distribution, leading to enhanced water efficiency and sustainable water management practices. Actuators enable automated control of irrigation devices, ensuring precise and targeted water delivery to plants. Additionally, the paper addresses the potential threat and vulnerabilities associated with smart irrigation systems. It discusses limitations of the system, such as power constraints and computational capabilities, and calculates the potential security risks. The paper suggests possible risk treatment methods for effective secure system operation. In conclusion, the paper emphasizes the significant benefits of implementing smart irrigation systems, including improved water conservation, increased crop yield, and reduced environmental impact. Additionally, based on the security analysis conducted, the paper recommends the implementation of countermeasures and security approaches to address vulnerabilities and ensure the integrity and reliability of the system. By incorporating these measures, smart irrigation technology can revolutionize water management practices in agriculture, promoting sustainability, resource efficiency, and safeguarding against potential security threats.
DEEP LEARNING FOR SMART GRID INTRUSION DETECTION: A HYBRID CNN-LSTM-BASED MODELgerogepatton
As digital technology becomes more deeply embedded in power systems, protecting the communication
networks of Smart Grids (SG) has emerged as a critical concern. Distributed Network Protocol 3 (DNP3)
represents a multi-tiered application layer protocol extensively utilized in Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition (SCADA)-based smart grids to facilitate real-time data gathering and control functionalities.
Robust Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) are necessary for early threat detection and mitigation because
of the interconnection of these networks, which makes them vulnerable to a variety of cyberattacks. To
solve this issue, this paper develops a hybrid Deep Learning (DL) model specifically designed for intrusion
detection in smart grids. The proposed approach is a combination of the Convolutional Neural Network
(CNN) and the Long-Short-Term Memory algorithms (LSTM). We employed a recent intrusion detection
dataset (DNP3), which focuses on unauthorized commands and Denial of Service (DoS) cyberattacks, to
train and test our model. The results of our experiments show that our CNN-LSTM method is much better
at finding smart grid intrusions than other deep learning algorithms used for classification. In addition,
our proposed approach improves accuracy, precision, recall, and F1 score, achieving a high detection
accuracy rate of 99.50%.
Embedded machine learning-based road conditions and driving behavior monitoringIJECEIAES
Car accident rates have increased in recent years, resulting in losses in human lives, properties, and other financial costs. An embedded machine learning-based system is developed to address this critical issue. The system can monitor road conditions, detect driving patterns, and identify aggressive driving behaviors. The system is based on neural networks trained on a comprehensive dataset of driving events, driving styles, and road conditions. The system effectively detects potential risks and helps mitigate the frequency and impact of accidents. The primary goal is to ensure the safety of drivers and vehicles. Collecting data involved gathering information on three key road events: normal street and normal drive, speed bumps, circular yellow speed bumps, and three aggressive driving actions: sudden start, sudden stop, and sudden entry. The gathered data is processed and analyzed using a machine learning system designed for limited power and memory devices. The developed system resulted in 91.9% accuracy, 93.6% precision, and 92% recall. The achieved inference time on an Arduino Nano 33 BLE Sense with a 32-bit CPU running at 64 MHz is 34 ms and requires 2.6 kB peak RAM and 139.9 kB program flash memory, making it suitable for resource-constrained embedded systems.
Introduction- e - waste – definition - sources of e-waste– hazardous substances in e-waste - effects of e-waste on environment and human health- need for e-waste management– e-waste handling rules - waste minimization techniques for managing e-waste – recycling of e-waste - disposal treatment methods of e- waste – mechanism of extraction of precious metal from leaching solution-global Scenario of E-waste – E-waste in India- case studies.
1. The present-day electrical power system is a.c. i.e. electric power is generated, transmitted and distributed in the form of alternating
current. The electric power is produced at the power stations which are located at favourable places, generally quite away from the
consumers. It is delivered to the consumers through a large network of transmission and distribution. At many places in the line of the
power system, it may be desirable and necessary to change some characteristic (e.g. voltage, a.c. to d.c., frequency, p.f. etc.) of electric
supply. This is accomplished by suitable apparatus called substation.
For example, generation voltage (11 kV or 6·6 kV) at the power station is stepped up to high voltage (say 220 kV or 132 kV) for
transmission of electric power. The assembly of apparatus (e.g. transformer etc.) used for this purpose is the sub-station. Similarly, near
the consumers localities, the voltage may have to be stepped down to utilization level. This job is again accomplished by a suitable
apparatus called substation.
Yet at some places in the line of the power system, it may be desirable to convert large quantities of a.c. power to d.c. power e.g. for
traction, electroplating, *d.c. motors etc. This job is again performed by suitable apparatus (e.g. ignitron) called sub-station. It is clear that
type of equipment needed in a sub-station will depend upon the service requirement.
Need of Substation
2. The assembly of apparatus used to change some characteristic (e.g. voltage, a.c. to d.c., frequency, p.f. etc.) of electric supply is
called a sub-station.
Definition of Substation
3. Classification of Sub-Stations
Two most important ways of classifying are according to (1) service requirement and (2) constructional features.
1. According to service requirement. A sub-station may be called upon to change voltage level or improve power factor or convert
a.c. power into d.c. power etc. According to the service requirement, sub-stations may be classified into :
Transformer sub-stations. Sub-stations which change the voltage level of electric supply are called transformer sub-stations. Most of
the sub-stations in the power system are of this type.
Switching sub-stations. These sub-stations do not change the voltage level. They simply perform the switching operations of power
lines.
Power factor correction sub-stations. Those sub-stations which improve the power factor of the system are called power factor
correction sub-stations. Such sub-stations are generally located at the receiving end of transmission lines. These sub-stations generally
use synchronous condensers.
Frequency changer sub-stations. Those sub-stations which change the supply frequency are known as frequency changer sub-
stations.
Converting sub-stations. These sub-stations receive a.c. power and convert it into d.c. power with suitable apparatus (e.g. ignitron) to
supply for such purposes as traction, electroplating, electric welding etc.
Industrial sub-stations. Those sub-stations which supply power to individual industrial concerns are known as industrial sub-stations.
4. 2. According to constructional features. A sub-station has many components (e.g. circuit breakers, switches, fuses, instruments etc.)
which must be housed properly to ensure continuous and reliable service. According to constructional features, the sub-stations are
classified as :
(i) Indoor sub-station (ii) Outdoor sub-station (iii) Underground sub-station (iv) Pole-mounted sub-station
(ii) Indoor sub-stations. A substation in which the apparatus is equipped inside the substation building is called indoor substation. For
voltages up to 11 kV, the equipment of the sub-station is installed indoor. However, when the atmosphere is contaminated with
impurities, these sub-stations can be erected for voltages upto 66 kV.
(ii) Outdoor sub-stations. For voltages beyond 66 kV, equipment is invariably installed outdoor. It is because for such voltages, the
clearances between conductors and the space required for switches, circuit breakers and other equipment becomes so great that it is not
economical to install the equipment indoor.
(iii) Underground sub-stations. In thickly populated areas, the space available for equipment and building is limited and the cost of land is
high. Under such situations, the sub-station is created underground.
(iv) Pole-mounted sub-stations. This is an outdoor sub-station with equipment installed overhead on H-pole or 4-pole structure. It is the
cheapest form of sub-station for voltages not exceeding 11kV (or 33 kV in some cases). Electric power is almost distributed in localities
through such substations.
6. Transformer Sub-Stations
The majority of the sub-stations in
the power system are concerned with
the changing of voltage level of
electric supply. These are known as
transformer sub-stations because
transformer is the main component
employed to change the voltage
level. Depending upon the purpose
served, transformer sub-stations may
be classified into:
(i) Step-up sub-station
(ii) Primary grid sub-station
(iii) Secondary sub-station
(iv) Distribution sub-station
7. Pole-Mounted Sub-Station
It is a distribution sub-station
placed overhead on a pole. It is
the cheapest form of sub-station
as it does not involve any building
work. (i) shows the layout of pole-
mounted sub-station whereas Fig.
(ii) shows the schematic
connections. The transformer and
other equipment are mounted on
H-type pole (or 4-pole structure).
8. The 11 kV line is connected to the transformer (11kV/400 V) through gang isolator
and fuses. The lightning arresters are installed on the H.T. side to protect the sub-
station from lightning strokes. The transformer steps down the voltage to 400V, 3-
phase, 4-wire supply. The voltage between any two lines is 400V whereas the
voltage between any line and neutral is 230 V. The oil circuit breaker (O.C.B.)
installed on the L.T. side automatically isolates the transformer from the consumers
in the event of any fault. The pole-mounted sub-stations are generally used for
transformer capacity upto 200 kVA. The following points may be noted about pole-
mounted sub-stations :
(i) There should be periodical check-up of the dielectric strength of oil in the
transformer and O.C.B.
(ii) In case of repair of transformer or O.C.B., both gang isolator and O.C.B. should
be shut off.
Pole-Mounted Sub-Station
9. Equipment in a Transformer Sub-Station
1. Bus-bars
2. Insulators
3. Isolating switches
4. Circuit breaker
5. Power Transformers
6. Instrument transformers (i) Current transformer (C.T.) (ii) Potential transformer (P.T.)
7. Metering and Indicating Instruments
10. Bus-bars
Bus-bars are copper or aluminium bars (generally of rectangular x-section) and operate at constant voltage. The incoming and
outgoing lines in a sub-station are connected to the bus-bars. The most commonly used bus-bar arrangements in sub-stations are:
(i) Single bus-bar arrangement
(ii) Single bus-bar system with sectionalisation
(iii) Double bus-bar arrangement
Insulators
11. Instrument transformers. The lines in sub-stations operate at high voltages and carry current of thousands of amperes. The
measuring instruments and protective devices are designed for low voltages (generally 110 V) and currents (about 5 A).
(i) Current transformer (C.T.). A current transformer in essentially a step-up transformer which steps down the current to a
known ratio. The primary of this transformer consists of one or more turns of thick wire connected in series with the line. The
secondary consists of a large number of turns of fine wire and provides for the measuring instruments and relays a current
which is a constant fraction of the current in the line. Suppose a current transformer rated at 100/5 A is connected in the line
to measure current. If the current in the line is 100 A, then current in the secondary will be 5A. Similarly, if current in the line
is 50A, then secondary of C.T. will have a current of 2·5 A. Thus the C.T. under consideration will step down the line current
by a factor of 20.
(ii) Voltage transformer. It is essentially a step down transformer and steps down the voltage to a known ratio. The primary
of this transformer consists of a large number of turns of fine wire connected across the line. The secondary winding
consists of a few turns and provides for measuring instruments and relays a voltage which is a known fraction of the line
voltage. Suppose a potential transformer rated at 66kV/110V is connected to a power line. If line voltage is 66kV, then
voltage across the secondary will be 110 V.
12. Key Diagram of 11 kV/400 V Indoor Sub-Station
Fig. shows the key diagram of a typical 11 kV/400 V indoor sub-station.
The key diagram of this sub-station can be explained as under :
(i) The 3-phase, 3-wire 11 kV line is tapped and brought to the gang
operating switch installed near the sub-station. The G.O. switch consists
of isolators connected in each phase of the 3-phase line.
(ii) From the G.O. switch, the 11 kV line is brought to the indoor sub-
station as underground cable. It is fed to the H.T. side of the transformer
(11 kV/400 V) via the 11 kV O.C.B. The transformer steps down the
voltage to 400 V, 3-phase, 4-wire.
(iii) The secondary of transformer supplies to the bus-bars via the main
O.C.B. From the busbars, 400 V, 3-phase, 4-wire supply is given to the
various consumers via 400 V O.C.B. The voltage between any two
phases is 400 V and between any phase and neutral it is 230 V. The
single phase residential load is connected between any one phase and
neutral whereas 3- phase, 400 V motor load is connected across 3-
phase lines directly.
(iv) The CTs are located at suitable places in the sub-station circuit and
supply for the metering and indicating instruments and relay circuits.