This document summarizes a model for understanding the progression of universities from monocultural to multicultural environments. It presents the Cultural Environment Transitions Model, which assists in understanding the process of institutional change. It also discusses the important role that student affairs departments can play in influencing and managing aspects of the campus environment to help build an inclusive, multicultural community. Finally, it introduces the concept of recognizing the dominant "White culture" that underlies many campus traditions and structures, and how acknowledging different cultural perspectives is an important part of creating a truly multicultural university environment.

1. Student Affairs Initiatives Toward
a Multicultural University
Kathleen Manning Higher Education and Student Affairs Program,
University of Vermont
Patrice Coleman-Boatwright Office of Student Life, Trenton State College
This article presents the Cultural versities from monocultural to multicultural
Environment Transitions Model elucidating a environments.
monoculturalism to multiculturalism Student affairs departments shape, manage,
continuum. The model assists one to and influence significant aspects of the univer-
understand institutional progress toward a sity environment: residence life, student unions,
multicultural environment. campus activities, career planning, and athletics.
Student affairs staff can directly influence the
formation of a multicultural environment, build
Diversity, a buzz word for the 1980s, promises an inclusive campus environment, and transform
to be a goal as well as a rallying cry for student institutional structures. As such, their impact on
affairs educators into the next century. By the the process of multiculturalism is particularly
year 2000, there will be more African American important to all participants in the institution.
and Latino students, learning-disabled persons,
and individuals from diverse backgrounds
GOALS OF MULTICULTURALISM
constituting college and university populations
than ever in the history of higher education The definition of multiculturalism (Strong,
(Hodgkinson, 1983, 1984; Smith, 1989). To date 1986, as quoted in Barr & Strong, 1988) is pro-
student affairs educators have used this infor- posed as a goal toward which higher education
mation in an effort to change practices so that institutions can grow.
students and professionals of color are being
actively recruited into higher education, repre- The multicultural organization is one which is genuinely com-
sented in campus programs, and encouraged to mitted todiverse representation of its membership; is sensitive
use campus services. to maintaining an open, supportive and responsive environ-
ment; is working toward and purposefully including elements
Although colleges and universities have gen- of diverse cultures in its ongoing operations; and . . . is au-
erated some successes from a strong recruitment thentic in its response to issues confronting it. (p. 85)
effort, retention of multicultural students, staff,
and administrators continues to elude solutions. This definition is useful in its emphasis on
Education and awareness training programs, communication, knowledge of different cul-
particularly within student affairs divisions, tures, and appreciation and celebration of dif-
have been initiated in an effort to increase re- ferences. An organization that is multicultural,
spect for and encourage the valuing of cultural understood as a dynamic interplay between and
differences. Years of such activity on some among cultures, can be productive, effective,
campuses have helped but have not completed and inclusive. Such an organization values the
the task of moving those colleges and uni- achievements and talents of all community
members as part of its ethical and moral purpose.
Kathleen Manning is an assistant professor and can be con-
tacted at the Higher Education and Student Affairs Program, CAMPUS CULTURES AND
University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405. Patrice WHITE CULTURE
Coleman-Boatwright is the executive assistant for the Dean
of Student Life at the Office of Student Life and can be A discussion of multiculturalism is incomplete
contacted at Trenton State College, Trenton, NJ 08650. without an explication of the ambiguous term
Journal of College Student Development / July 1991 / Vol. 32 367

2. culture. The word “culture” is susceptible to American (United States) culture. She referred
many definitions that are seriously contested and to the predominant culture as “White culture”
open to multiple meanings, disagreements. and because of its Eurocentric origins (see Table 1).
interpretations (Clifford & Marcus, 1986). Cul- White culture characterizes the majority of
tures are formed from a confluence of history, American organizations and institutions (Katz,
past experience, human action, and tradition 1989). It is expressed in the symbols, religion,
(Bourdieu, 1977; Giddens, 1979, 1984). language, rituals, and organizational structures
The crux of the dilemma concerning the de- of colleges and universities. This representation
scriptions and definitions of culture is that the includes the presence of male symbolism in art
following question is rarely asked: Whose past, and architecture, predominance of Christian or
traditions, actions, and experience are embraced Christian-like ceremonies, use of standard
within our institutional structures, described in English and academically sanctioned writing
the study of history, transmitted through the cur- styles, and existence of bureaucracy. Institu-
ricula of schools, and represented in the art and tional policy reflects predominant culture values
architecture of campus environments? The cul- of power (i.e., held by elites, expert authority,
ture that has come to predominate through a and upper-management decision making). Rigid
variety of historical circumstances permeates or- time schedule of classes, meetings, and appoint-
ganizations and institutions such that many cam- ments, a parental style of club and organization
pus community members accept its monocul- advising, and housing assignment procedures
tural characteristics as a given or as the way that assume heterosexuality are additional ex-
things are done. This rarely questioned accep- amples of the predominant culture as it is ex-
tance conceals the fact that many cultures are pressed on campus.
possible and, in fact, do exist within institutions. The assumptions and characteristics of White
In an attempt to make visible the less visible, culture form the basis for ways of behaving and
Katz ( 1989) created a framework describing the operating in educational institutions. These
characteristics and processes of the predominant ways of operating become the norm or standard
TABLE 1
Components of White Culture: Values and Beliefs
Rugged Individualism Protestant Work Ethic
Individual is primary unit Working hard brings success
Individual has primary responsibility Progress and Future Orientation
Independence and autonomy highly valued and Plan for the future
rewarded Delayed gratification
Competition Value continual improvement and progress
Winning is everything Emphasis on Scientific Method
Win lose dichotomy Objective, rational, linear thinking
Action Orientation Cause and effect relationships
Master and control nature Quantitative analysis
Pragmatic utilitarian view of life Dualistic thinking
Decision Making Status and Power
Hierarchical Measured by economic possessions
Pyramid structure Credentials, titles, and positions
Majority rule when Whites have power Believe "own" system is best
Communication Family Structure
Standard English Nuclear family is the ideal social unit
Written tradition Man is the breadwinner and head of household
Direct eye contact Woman is primary caretaker of children
Control of emotions Patriarchal structure
Time Aesthetics
Adherence to rigid time schedule Women’ beauty based on blonde, blue-eyed, thin,
s
Time viewed as a commodity and young
History Music and art based on European cultures
Based on European immigrants’experiences
War romanticized
Reprinted and adapted from "The Sociopolitical Nature of Counseling" by J. Katz, 1985, The Counseling Psy-
chologist, 13 (4), p. 618.
368 Journal of College Student Development / July 1991 / Vol. 32

3. against which behavior is shaped and judged. work and that of Atkinson, Morten, and Sue
Traits, characteristics, and actions that differ (1989). These models promote individual devel-
from these accepted or sanctioned ways are con- opment from monoculturalism or ethnocentrism
sidered deviant, abnormal, and are, in general, through awareness, understanding, and appreci-
rejected as appropriate ways of being (Schaef, ation to multiculturalism.
1985). A great deal of time and effort during One could postulate that institutions go
the educational process is devoted to teaching through a parallel process so that through edu-
adherence to these cultural norms (Giroux, cation, awareness, and sensitivity, institutions
1988; Willis, 1977). can become multicultural. Such models can as-
People of color, women, international stu- sist student affairs educators to understand the
dents, physically challenged students, homosex- dynamics and complexities of institutional
uals, lesbians, and others who represent diverse change.
perspectives may feel disenfranchised and alien-
ated from an environment in which their way of
operating, life-style, or cultural characteristics CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT
are not the norm reflected in institutional sym- TRANSITIONS MODEL
bols, language, and behaviors (Heath, 1983).
The norms around which the college was organ- The following Cultural Environment Transitions
ized (e.g., admissions standards, sanctioned be- Model (see Table 2) depicts institutional strug-
havior. disciplinary procedures, and financial gle with issues of diversity. The model, a chron-
expectations) are at odds with what feels ological though not necessarily contiguous pro-
"normal" for students of diverse perspectives. cess, is not a definitive way of explaining,
For example, Latino students may have learned predicting, and controlling environments but is
to switch (i.e., be proficient with the use of a means to assist institutional members to define
cultural patterns, behaviors, and language from and work toward the goals of multiculturalism.
their own and other cultures), but this balancing At each step and plateau of the model, com-
act is achieved with varying degrees of success. munity participants can recognize initiatives
People from diverse cultures may believe that (upper half of the model) and indicators (lower
there is no one with whom they can identify. half of the model) that characterize their
Feelings of isolation, alienation, invisibility, and institution’ receptivity to the goals of multi-
s
attitudes that they are not welcomed are proba- culturalism. An organization in which racial
ble reactions for these students. Students of color slurs and violent attacks are tolerated with little
often comment that there is no place on campus recourse available can be located at the mono-
where they can feel psychologically or physi- cultural end of the continuum. When switching
cally safe (Fleming, 1984). The reality of a pre- by predominant and nondominant culture ad-
dominant culture on campus can create a hostile ministrators is encouraged, role modeling is
and potentially dangerous environment. The readily available for students of color, and power
moral imperative of remedying this situation is distributed equitably throughout the institu-
takes on an increased urgency as the number of tion; the organization is closer to the multicultu-
diverse students increases. Student affairs edu- ral end of the continuum.
cators frustrated with the slow pace of change The Cultural Environment Transitions Model
toward multiculturalism are facing the realiza- assumes that organizational growth occurs as
tion that racism, sexism, and other forms of members of the community acquire knowledge
oppression are cyclical and recurrent unless ap- about other cultures, gain experience with peo-
proached through ethical, developmental, and ple different from themselves, and are chal-
educational initiatives. lenged with structural and systemic change
through this effort. Essentially, the status quo
changes. Changes in policies, administrative
BEYOND INDIVIDUAL AWARENESS procedures, and language are indicators of or-
ganizational growth toward multiculturalism.
The current educational and awareness training Representative numbers of multicultural staff,
sessions conducted on campuses take advantage judicious use of symbols, and inclusion of di-
of individual awareness models. Examples of verse cultural styles indicate an increased level
these models can be seen in Jefferson’ (1986)
s of expression of diverse cultures. The model
Journal of College Student Development / July 1991 / Vol. 32 369

4. 370

5. shows organizational progression from mono- rooted in long-term organizational development
culturalism, through a period in which some to achieve multiculturalism.
college members are aware but unable to effect The second 90° step (see Table 2, II) in the
change in the institution, into a time of openly model is a towering one up which few institu-
expressed conflict, through organizational re- tions have ventured. It is a turning point or quan-
birth reflective of multicultural goals, and, fi- tum leap of sorts after which the organizational
nally, into a state of multiculturalism that is structures are transformed. A critical mass of
systemic and institutional. These stages do not understanding and awareness precludes partici-
necessarily follow one another in an orderly pants from settling for anything less than fully
fashion. Rather, commitment or retreat by insti- inclusive practices. Social justice and egalitari-
tutional participants, particularly university anism are institutionalized and systemic.
leaders, can influence a university so that stages The period leading up to this second step is
are skipped, a period of regression can occur, one from which student affairs educators and
or a renewal of multiculturalism is established college administrators regularly retreat. The
symbolically through personnel changes. cusp through which institutions must travel is
A true state of multiculturalism is hard won characterized by conflict, abandonment of past
through efforts, dramatic change, and compro- well-practiced ways of operating, and acknowl-
mises. Past practices, institutionalized to be- edgment of the discrepancies between intentions
come "the way things are done here," serve to and reality.
promote oppression. Organizational structures
built on monocultural norms are difficult to pen- THE INEVITABILITY OF CONFLICT
etrate by anyone outside the predominant cul-
ture; new groups receive limited resources be- Institutions must confront the conflict present at
cause of previously established allocation the second step of the model to progress toward
procedures. Selection procedures rarely for- multiculturalism. Power relationships, role def-
mally recognize the contributions of people who initions, and priorities shift, both in a revolu-
possess a perspective different from the institu- tionary and evolutionary sense, as multiple
tional norm. The institutional structure and ex- cultural perspectives become prevalent, recog-
clusionary practices inherent in that structure are nized, and valued. Conflict, viewed from a
formidable. multicultural perspective, is not a negative pro-
The process of increasing communication to cess to be avoided but is positive, growth pro-
intensely honest and effective levels as well as ducing, and essential to achieving the goals of
acquiring skills not formally valued in the insti- multiculturalism.
tution is a long one. This process is fraught with Little in history would lead a person to believe
false starts, pitfalls, and blind alleys. The Cul- that the transformation from one culture to many
tural Environment Transitions Model depicts cultures occurs through a voluntary relinquish-
this dynamic process, which requires constant ment of the privileges and prestige of being the
educational processes and vigilance to reward dominant culture. Change is resisted on many
nondominant cultural styles, structure, and levels. Individually, practices that base perfor-
behaviors. mance rewards on mastery of a dominant culture
The steps (see Table 2, I and II) in the model management style recreate a dominant culture
can be perceived as steep 90° angles that com- structure. Institutionally, practices that perpetu-
munity members must scale. The plateaus are ate university sagas and fail to recount the ac-
not flat but can be viewed metaphorically like complishments of women and people of color
the rolling deck of a ship: slippery, difficult to further reinforce a dominant culture perspective.
traverse, and often treacherous. Hard-won This resistance to multiculturalism can be vio-
movement along the continuum is difficult to lent and traumatic, such as the hiring and firing
sustain. The all-pervasive presence of the dom- of people who do not conform. The maintenance
inant culture in the organizational structure of the dominant culture structure can also occur
works against progress toward multiculturalism. less overtly by development of a reputation for
These realities are not causes for discourage- exclusionary practices that discourage diverse
ment but, rather, sources of understanding about applicants.
the need for empowerment, policy making, and The reality of conflict during cultural transfor-
goal advancement. These processes must be mation raises substantial issues for student affairs
Journal of-College Student Development / July 1991 / Vol. 32 371

6. practice. Conflict management such as room- language can change from a dominant perspec-
mate changes emphasize diffusion. The unful- tive (e.g., military and violent metaphors) to
filled promises of student protests follow a prac- more empowering language (e.g., emphasizing
tice of avoidance. These conflict management talent development of all rather than using su-
practices of diffusion and avoidance must be perlatives to describe a few). Expectations of
abandoned in lieu of opportune confrontation staff and student employees can include the
and true conflict resolution. These include the goals of multiculturalism. Advocacy work
use of social contracts and interventions that would be distributed throughout the campus
build community and interaction among cul- rather than focused on work by culturally di-
tures. verse people.
Student affairs educators have a significant
role in prompting the institution beyond the re-
active responses and conflict diffusion ap- COMPONENTS OF A MULTICULTURAL
proaches that are currently the modus operandi. INSTITUTION: VALUES AND BELIEFS
This reactive approach has been useful in spur-
In an effort to visualize and clarify what a multi-
ring institutions toward a new form of effica-
cultural environment might look like, Katz’ s
cious intervention. Unfortunately, these inter-
(1989) model of White culture (Table 1) was
ventions fall short of empowering people toward
adapted by the authors to reflect and identify
the goals of multiculturalism. Renewed efforts
major characteristics of a multicultural environ-
must propel community members from a level
ment (Table 3). These characteristics serve as a
of complacency and status quo to dissatisfaction
with the current representation of one culture guide and should not be construed as a definitive
description of all multicultural institutions.
within the campus power and administrative
structures. The many styles valued and respected within
a multicultural environment enjoin that all par-
The system as a whole must change when ticipants become adept at switching (e.g., com-
there is a presence of enough people willing to municating with people of all backgrounds and
and demanding change. A critical mass of stu-
experiences, using a variety of languages and
dents of color, significant accumulation of cul-
expressions, adopting multiple cultures and per-
tural knowledge by White administrators, and
spectives). The responsibility for adaptation and
adoption of an attitude that one culture can no
adjustment should not be the sole obligation of
longer be viewed as the best or only one repre-
the culturally diverse but shared by all members
sented in the power and administrative struc- of the institution. Concurrently, the presence of
tures are all triggers for dramatic change. An different voices and points of view necessitate
intolerable incident that triggers students’ de-
that the campus become a less hostile environ-
mands for change cannot be easily ignored by
ment for nonmajority students, faculty, and ad-
student affairs educators who have incorporated
ministrators.
celebration of differences into their everyday
The multicultural environment is not a perfect
language and behavior.
place. The diverse preferences and perspectives
Although certain incidents (e.g., student pro- represented in its cultures characterize the envi-
test) precipitate revolutionary action, the insti- ronment as chaotic and difficult to administer. In
tution works toward change through multi- homogeneous organizations where people have
culturalism that exists in pockets and individual similar backgrounds and cultural styles, some
offices. For example, efforts on the part of a level of agreement and consensus is ensured.
particular administrator can result in a depart- Already a long process, building consensus in a
ment or program that has staff (dominant and multicultural organization is a practiced art.
nondominant cultures) who provide inclusive
services and programs. Individual student affairs
educators, regardless of the campus climate to- SUMMARY
ward multiculturalism, can change their behav-
iors that are incongruent with diverse perspec- Multicultural institutions are more complex than
tives. Changes occur as individuals share power organizations relying on a majority worldview.
and engage in dialogue about topics previously The expression of diverse opinions, varieties of
not discussed (Freire, 1970, 1985). Additionally, learning styles, and multiple perspectives pro-
the college’ objectives and goals can be rewrit-
s vide more opportunities for misunderstandings,
ten to reflect inclusive practices. Institutional communication errors, and style clashes. The
372 Journal of College Student Development / July 1991 / Vol. 32

7. TABLE 3
Components of Multicultural Institution
Individual and Community Work Ethic
Win/win situations Stopping out, flextime, maternity/paternity leaves
Consensus Productivity among elderly
Autonomy and interrelatedness valued Decision-Making Approach
Acceptance of coexistence with environment Collaborative efforts valued
Communication Nonbureaucratic organizational structure (e.g., proj-
Ability to communicate with more than one culture ect groups, flat structure)
Variety of communication modes and styles utilized Time
(i.e., oral traditions, storytelling, use of symbols, Flexibility in time schedules (e.g., staggered work
silence) day, job sharing)
Multilingual Holidays
Language reflecting fewer military and competitive Diversity of religions activities recognized and cele-
metaphors brated (e.g., Kwanzaa)
Status and Power Thinking Styles
Power distributed equitably throughout system Metaphoric
Belief that shared power enhances everyone's Overlapping boundaries recognized
power Global
Advancement and recognition based on diverse Qualitative and quantitative research methods
perspectives one brings to situation Religion
Belief that differing styles and modes of operating Life viewed in many ways (e.g., generative, cycli-
can obtain same or better results cal) other than linear and finite
Blurring of gender role boundaries Aesthetics
Profit motive not sole measure of success Value in life transitions
Less emphasis on aggressiveness Diversity represented in art and architecture
History Cooperation
All American cultures represented Win/win situations
Family Structures Consensus
Single parent families Action Orientation
Extended family involved in child rearing Coexistence with nature
Lesbian parenting Lateral changes viewed positively
Same-sex life partners Small is valued
awareness training currently conducted at many personal styles, and culture, all involved can
colleges and universities that focuses on indi- reach a level of success and achievement for
vidual awareness and education must proceed to themselves as well as the institution.
more advanced stages of intercultural commu- Student affairs educators have the capacity to
nication, group awareness, and systemic change. profoundly influence the initiation and fulfill-
ment of multiculturalism within their areas of
Implications responsibility as well as throughout the campus
as a whole. Through management of major pro-
In addition to the human rights and moral pur- grams on campus (e.g., residence life, financial
poses inherent in the multicultural movement, aid, campus activities), profound influence on
student affairs initiatives toward awareness and the choices of university symbols (e.g., major
change in the structure of the university serve a speakers, leadership awards), and input, if not
practical purpose. As universities become more decision making, about cultural representation
multicultural, they also become more effective, in everyday campus life (e.g., staff hiring, dining
highly productive institutions where all mem- hall food, student union decor), student affairs
bers are affirmed and fulfilled (Katz, 1989). Het- staff have significant windows of opportunity
erogeneous institutions with varied perspectives to influence and shape a multicultural campus
encourage more creativity, effectiveness, and environment.
problem solving. Such institutions are more in-
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