There are different components in the nucleus. A thin but distinct covering called the nuclear envelop, also known as the karyotheca, defines its perimeter. The solutes of the nucleus are dissolved in a clear fluid substance inside the envelope known as nucleoplasm, nuclear sap, or karyolymph. The nuclear matrix, a network of protein-containing fibrils, the chromatin, which is made up of finely entwined nucleoprotein filaments, and one or more spherical structures known as nucleoli are all suspended in the nucleoplasm (singular, nucleolus). The nucleus is devoid of microtubules and membranes. However, the nuclei of protozoans that form a mitotic spindle within the nuclear envelop contain microtubules. The nucleus is made up of 9–12% DNA, 5% RNA, 3% lipids, 15% simple basic proteins like histone or protamines, and 65% complex acid or neutral proteins. It also contains organic phosphates, inorganic salts or ions like Mg++, Ca++, and Fe++, as well as polymerases for the synthesis of DNA and RNA. Functions The nucleus serves as the cell's administrative hub. It performs the following primary purposes: By controlling the production of structural proteins, it keeps the cell alive. By directing the synthesis of enzymatic proteins, it controls cell metabolism. In addition to information about structure and metabolism, it also contains genetic material for the organism's behaviour, development, and reproduction. When necessary, it causes cell replication. It is where ribosome subunit formation takes place. By keeping only a select few genes active, it causes cell differentiation. It produces genetic changes that lead to evolution. The nuclear envelop separates the cytoplasm from the nucleoplasm. It is made up of an outer and an inner unit membrane. Each unit membrane is a trilaminar lipoprotein, similar to the plasma membrane, and is about 75Å thick. The inter membrane or perinuclear space, which divides the two unit membranes, is present between them. Its width is about 250Å. Ribosomes and polysomes are found in abundance on the outer, or cytoplasmic, surface of the outer membrane, which is also rough. These ribosomes continue to produce proteins. RER and the outer membrane occasionally blend together. As a result, the channels of the RER are continuous with the perinuclear space. Ribosomes are absent from the inner membrane of the nuclear envelope, but it has a thick layer called the nuclear lamina that is closely connected to its inner or nucleoplasmic surface. The nuclear lamina is a network of filaments that ranges in thickness from 30 to 100 nm and is made up of lamin A, B, and C proteins. The inner membrane is supported and given shape by the nuclear lamina. The majority of the chromosomes are kept outside the nucleus by this connection between chromatin and the inner membrane. During mitosis, it also affects how the nuclear envelope degrades and then reforms. Nuclear Pores: The nuclear pores, which regulate the passage of some molecules and parti

1. Structure of Nucleus
There is different components in the nucleus. A thin but distinct covering called the nuclear
envelop, also known as the karyotheca, defines its perimeter. The solutes of the nucleus
are dissolved in a clear fluid substance inside the envelope known as nucleoplasm,
nuclear sap, or karyolymph.
The nuclear matrix, a network of protein-containing fibrils, the chromatin, which is made up
of finely entwined nucleoprotein filaments, and one or more spherical structures known as
nucleoli are all suspended in the nucleoplasm (singular, nucleolus). The nucleus is devoid
of microtubules and membranes.
However, the nuclei of protozoans that form a mitotic spindle within the nuclear envelop
contain microtubules (Fig. 1).
Structure of Nucleus
1. Structure of Nucleus
2. Chemical Composition
3. Nuclear Envelope
4. Nucleoplasm
5. Nuclear Matrix
6. Chromatin
7. Nucleolus (Little Nucleus)
Chemical Composition
The nucleus is made up of 9–12% DNA, 5% RNA, 3% lipids, 15% simple basic proteins like
histone or protamines, and 65% complex acid or neutral proteins. It also contains organic

2. phosphates, inorganic salts or ions like Mg++, Ca++, and Fe++, as well as polymerases for
the synthesis of DNA and RNA.
Functions
The nucleus serves as the cell's administrative hub. It performs the following primary
purposes:
1. By controlling the production of structural proteins, it keeps the cell alive.
2. By directing the synthesis of enzymatic proteins, it controls cell metabolism.
3. In addition to information about structure and metabolism, it also contains genetic
material for the organism's behaviour, development, and reproduction. When
necessary, it causes cell replication.
4. It is where ribosome subunit formation takes place.
5. By keeping only a select few genes active, it causes cell differentiation.
6. It produces genetic changes that lead to evolution.
Nuclear Envelope
The nuclear envelop separates the cytoplasm from the nucleoplasm. It is made up of an
outer and an inner unit membrane. Each unit membrane is a trilaminar lipoprotein, similar to
the plasma membrane, and is about 75Å thick.
The inter membrane or perinuclear space, which divides the two unit membranes, is present
between them. Its width is about 250Å. Ribosomes and polysomes are found in abundance
on the outer, or cytoplasmic, surface of the outer membrane, which is also rough. These
ribosomes continue to produce proteins.
● Centriole
● Lysosomes
● Endoplasmic reticulum
RER and the outer membrane occasionally blend together. As a result, the channels of the
RER are continuous with the perinuclear space. Ribosomes are absent from the inner
membrane of the nuclear envelope, but it has a thick layer called the nuclear lamina that is
closely connected to its inner or nucleoplasmic surface.
The nuclear lamina is a network of filaments that ranges in thickness from 30 to 100 nm and
is made up of lamin A, B, and C proteins. The inner membrane is supported and given
shape by the nuclear lamina. The majority of the chromosomes are kept outside the nucleus
by this connection between chromatin and the inner membrane. During mitosis, it also
affects how the nuclear envelope degrades and then reforms (Fig. 2).

3. Ultra structure of nucleus
Nuclear Pores: The nuclear pores, which regulate the passage of some molecules and
particles, typically leave small openings in the nuclear envelope. The nuclear envelope's
inner and outer membranes combine to form the pores. Per nucleus, there could be
1000–10,000 pores.
A device known as the pore complex is attached to each nuclear pore, filling a sizeable
portion of the pore. The nearly cylindrical pore complex extends beyond the pore's rim over
the nuclear envelope and into both the cytoplasm and the nucleoplasm.
Two rings, called annuli, make up the pore complex; one is found at the cytoplasmic rim and
the other at the nucleoplasmic rim. Eight symmetrically arranged subunits make up each
annulus, which sends a spoke into the pore.
100 to 200 wide channel is enclosed by the spoke. The nucleus and cytoplasm can freely
exchange ions and small molecules the size of monosaccharides, disaccharides, or amino
acids.
The passage of larger molecules, including RNA, proteins, and ribosomal subunits, is indeed
regulated by the pore complexes. Some molecules, like the DNA in chromosomes, are also
blocked by the pore complexes.
Functions

4. 1. The nucleus's shape is preserved.
2. It preserves the nuclear material and keeps it separate from the cytoplasm.
3. By using active transport and out pocketing, it controls the movement of materials
into and out of the nucleus.
4. Ribosomal subunits created in the nucleolus, as well as tRNA and mRNA
synthesised on the chromosomes, can all exit through its pores.
Nucleoplasm
The transparent fluid substance in the nucleus is called nucleoplasm. It contains nucleoli and
chromatin fibres suspended in it. For the synthesis of DNA and RNA, it contains the building
blocks (nucleotides), the enzymes (polymerases), and the metal ions (Mn++, Mg++). Lipids
and proteins are also present.
The proteins that interact with the DNA molecules include basic histones and acidic or
neutral non-histones. Additionally, proteins are needed for the synthesis of ribosomal
subunits. Nuclear pores allow the RNAs (rRNAs, tRNAs, and mRNAs) and ribosomal
subunits synthesised in the nucleoplasm to enter the cytoplasm (Fig. 2).
Functions
1. It is where DNA, RNA, ribosomal subunits, ATP, and NAD are all synthesised.
2. It supports the chromatin, nucleoli, and nuclear matrix.
3. The nucleus gains turgidity as a result.
Nuclear Matrix
The nuclear matrix is made up of a web of tiny, crisscrossing protein-containing fibrils that
are joined to the nuclear envelope at their ends. It creates a kind of nuclear framework. Even
after the DNA and chromatin have been taken out, it is still present.
Functions
1. The nucleus's shape is maintained.
2. Nuclear matrix is where chromatin fibres are anchored.
3. The matrix is connected to the machinery for various nuclear processes like
transcription and replication.
4. Additionally, it has been linked to the transport of freshly formed RNA molecules
through the nucleus and to their processing.
Chromatin
In 1879, Flemming was the first to use the term "chromatin." The chromatin is found as tiny
filaments, or chromatin fibres, in an interphase (non-dividing) nucleus. The fibres cross each
other to resemble a diffuse network that is frequently referred to as the nuclear or chromatin
reticulum. The majority of the nucleus is taken up by chromatin.

5. Simply put, the chromatin fibres are very long chromosomes. A chromatin fibre typically has
a diameter of 100Å. A fibre that is thicker than 100 appears to be coiled or folded, whereas a
fibre that is thinner than 100 appears to contain less protein. Chromatin fibres typically have
a diameter of 250Å.
The chromatin fibres condense and tightly coil to form short, thick rod-like bodies known as
chromosomes during cell division. This diffuse network of chromatin material exhibits light
and dark stained regions after staining. The chromosomes transform back into chromatin
fibres following cell division.
The majority of the chromatin fibres spread out in the nucleoplasm, uncoil, and extend.
These are the interphase nucleus's true chromatin, or euchromatin. They have a light stain.
The chromosomal regions that stain darker than others are referred to as heterochromatin.
Even in the interphase, they continue to be compacted and coiled. The chromosomes'
heterochromatin represents their largely dormant regions. Compared to euchromatin, it
contains more RNA and less DNA.
There are not many mutations in this region. Here, very little to no mRNA is produced. Most
of the highly repeated DNA in heterochromatin is never or very infrequently transcribed.
There are two types of heterochromatin: constitutive and facultative.
Constitutive heterochromatin's is inactivated forever and is always in a condensed state. It
can be found near the centromere of a chromosome, at the ends of chromosomes
(telomeres), in some regions of euchromatin, and next to the nuclear envelope, among other
locations.
Facultative heterochromatin is inactivated and partially condensed. In female mammals, one
X chromosome is compressed to form the heterochromatic Barr body. Nucleosomes: In
1974, Kornberg and Thomas suggested that a chromatin fibre is made up of a series of
related subunits known as nucleosomes (Fig. 3).
Nucleosome

6. A DNA strand surrounds a core particle that makes up the nucleosome. Eight histone
molecules, two of each histone H2A, H2B, H3, and H4, make up the core particle. The 140
nucleotides of the DNA strand are arranged in 112 or 134 turns around the core. A 60
nucleotide-long DNA linker connects each nucleosome to the one before it.
Together, a nucleosome and a linker make up a chromatosome, which has an average
length of 200 nucleotides. Each DNA linker has a molecule of histone H1, which is used to
pack nucleosomes tightly together. A chromatin fibre is essentially a chain of nucleosomes,
each of which is about 100Å in width and 140Å in length.
The lowest level of chromatin organisation is represented by nucleosomes. In electron
micrographs, chromatin fibre measures about 250 nm thick. which implies that the
100-nanometer-thick chromatin fibre is either packed in solenoids with six nucleosomes per
turn or is organised into a cluster, or super bead, with six nucleosomes, increasing the DNA
packing by five times.
The H1 histone protein keeps the thicker filament in place. The nucleosome structure of
chromatin does not contain the non-histone proteins. Prokaryotes do not produce
nucleosomes.
Functions
1. When cells divide, the chromatin fibres shape chromosomes.
Nucleolus (Little Nucleus)
F. Fontana found the nucleolus in eel skin slime in the year 1781. Most cells have it in their
nuclei, but muscle and sperm cells lack it completely or barely notice it. Though it can take
on other shapes, it is typically spherical.
Different species have varying numbers of nucleoli in their nuclei. At specific locations on
specific chromosomes, known as the nucleolar organisers or nucleolar organiser regions
(NORs), the nucleoli, which vanish during cell division, are formed again before the
chromosomes become diffuse.
The nucleolus' position within the nucleus is frequently eccentric. The nucleolus, a dense,
somewhat rounded, dark-staining organelle, does, however, occupy a particular location on
the chromosome. There is no limiting membrane in it. The ions in calcium keep it whole.
There are four of them.
1. Fibrillar Region or Nucleolonema- It has fuzzy fibrils with a diameter of 50 to 100Å. The
long rRNA precursor molecules are represented by the fibrils at an early stage of processing,
before the processing enzymes have severed segments from them.
2. Granular Region- It contains spherical, electron-dense particles with a fizzy outline that
range in diameter from 150 to 200Å. The ribosomal subunits (rRNA + ribosomal proteins)
that make up the granules are almost prepared to be transported to the cytoplasm.

7. 3. Amorphous Region or Pars Amorpha- The proteinaceous matrix, in which the granular
and fibrillar regions are suspended, lacks any structure.
4. Nucleolar Chromatin- It is made up of chromatin fibres that are 100 thick. These latter
ones make up a segment of the nucleolar chromosome that winds its way through the
granular and fibrillar regions of the nucleolus. This component has numerous copies of the
DNA that controls the production of ribosomal RNA. The nucleoplasm contains the
remaining portion of the nucleolar chromosome.
Functions
1. In the nucleolus, rRNA is created and stored.
2. Ribosomal proteins that it receives from the cytoplasm are also stored there. By
encasing the rRNA in ribosomal proteins, it creates ribosomal subunits.
3. The nuclear pores allow the ribosomal subunits to exit and enter the cytoplasm.
When necessary, the subunits here combine to form ribosomes. Therefore, the
nucleolus is where the ribosomes necessary for protein synthesis are found.
4. Cell division also involves the nucleolus.