This document discusses stratified medicine approaches for cancer treatment. It describes how cellular pathologists classify gene mutations in cancer, including whether they are germline or somatic, synonymous or non-synonymous, activating or inactivating. Certain mutations can predict treatment response or resistance. Key driver mutations are discussed for lung cancer, including EGFR mutations and ALK translocations. EGFR mutant cancers may respond to EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors, while ALK rearrangements are targeted by crizotinib. Histopathology plays an important role in mutation detection and molecular testing to guide targeted therapies.
This is a powerpoint presentation of Immunohistochemistry of lesions of prostate. This presentation will be helpful for postgraduate pathology students and practitioners alike. We are also on youtube. Please visit our channel at https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCwjkzK-YnJ-ra4HMOqq3Fkw
This is a powerpoint presentation of Immunohistochemistry of lesions of prostate. This presentation will be helpful for postgraduate pathology students and practitioners alike. We are also on youtube. Please visit our channel at https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCwjkzK-YnJ-ra4HMOqq3Fkw
Liquid Biopsy Overview, Challenges and New Solutions: Liquid Biopsy Series Pa...QIAGEN
A liquid biopsy is often described as a sensitive and specific blood test to detect circulating tumor cells (CTCs). CTCs, shed by both the primary and metastasized tumors, carry specific information about their origins and markers that will enable us to discover new diagnosis, prognosis and therapeutic targets. This slidedeck gives an overview of the recent progress in exploring the predictive potential of circulating biomarkers, including circulating tumor cells, circulating tumor DNA, microRNAs, long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) and exosomes. Addressing both biological and technical aspects, we detail the isolation and characterization of circulating biomarkers. Challenges and solutions are also featured.
Liquid Biopsy Overview, Challenges and New Solutions: Liquid Biopsy Series Pa...QIAGEN
A liquid biopsy is often described as a sensitive and specific blood test to detect circulating tumor cells (CTCs). CTCs, shed by both the primary and metastasized tumors, carry specific information about their origins and markers that will enable us to discover new diagnosis, prognosis and therapeutic targets. This slidedeck gives an overview of the recent progress in exploring the predictive potential of circulating biomarkers, including circulating tumor cells, circulating tumor DNA, microRNAs, long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) and exosomes. Addressing both biological and technical aspects, we detail the isolation and characterization of circulating biomarkers. Challenges and solutions are also featured.
Kinase inhibitors in cancer treatment research presentation for medical students.
This is a detailed presentation that includes an introduction, images, and references.
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Next-Generation Sequencing Clinical Research Milestones InfographicQIAGEN
DNA mutations have been implicated in several diseases, particularly cancer. NGS presents an ideal technology to efficiently profile the multitude of mutations in a high throughput manner. In 2001 the first draft of human genome was published. Since then many major milestones have been reached. Do you know when PIK3CA was identified in colon cancer? When was Olaparib for ovarian cancer treatment? This infographic traces the major clinical research milestones starting from the first draft of the human genome.
Role of human papillomavirus and tumor suppressor genesishita1994
Oral cancer is synonymous to Squamous Cell Carcinoma (SCC) of oral mucosal origin that accounts for more than 90% of all malignant presentations at the aforementioned anatomical sites.
More than 300,000 new cases worldwide are being diagnosed with oral SCC (OSCC) annually.
Approximately, 30,000 (US) & 40,000(EUROPE).
Oral cancer is estimated by the WHO to be the 8th most common cancer worldwide.
In India & other Asian countries, oral & oropharyngeal carcinomas (OCs) comprise up to half of all malignancies, with this particularly high prevalence being attributed to the influence of carcinogens & region-specific epidemiological factors, especially tobacco & betel quid chewing.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
263778731218 Abortion Clinic /Pills In Harare ,sisternakatoto
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These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Basavarajeeyam is a Sreshta Sangraha grantha (Compiled book ), written by Neelkanta kotturu Basavaraja Virachita. It contains 25 Prakaranas, First 24 Chapters related to Rogas& 25th to Rasadravyas.
Basavarajeeyam is an important text for ayurvedic physician belonging to andhra pradehs. It is a popular compendium in various parts of our country as well as in andhra pradesh. The content of the text was presented in sanskrit and telugu language (Bilingual). One of the most famous book in ayurvedic pharmaceutics and therapeutics. This book contains 25 chapters called as prakaranas. Many rasaoushadis were explained, pioneer of dhatu druti, nadi pareeksha, mutra pareeksha etc. Belongs to the period of 15-16 century. New diseases like upadamsha, phiranga rogas are explained.
Stratified Medicine in Cancer: The Role of Histopathologist
1. Presented By: Dr. Shubhi Saxena
Moderator: Dr. Surabhi Tyagi
STRATIFIED MEDICINE FOR CANCER:
The Role of Histopathologist
2. INTRODUCTION
• Cellular pathologists have been refining disease
classification for decades, with methods such as IHC and
in-situ hybridisation adopted to supplement morphological
assessment of tumours .
• Stratified Cancer Medicine involves predictive analysis:
The characterisation of tumours according to the presence
or absence of specific molecular abnormalities, to offer
appropriately targeted therapy and avoid unnecessary
treatment.
3. • Many cancer genomes have now been
sequenced and included as part of International
Cancer Genome Consortium.
• Cancer genome sequencing projects have
generated clinical and therapeutic relevance,
e.g. The identification of mutated BRAF
oncogene in half of malignant melanomas.
4. • The time from this discovery to the licensing of
the BRAF inhibitor Vemurafenib was
encouragingly short in drug development.
• Apart from the immuno-modulator
Ipilimumab, former represents the first
effective treatment for patients with advanced
melanomas.
5.
6. CLASSIFICATION OF GENE MUTATIONS IN CANCER
• According to TIMING :
Germline (Constitutional) - A mutation from
one parental gamete being transferred to all
cells by cell division.
Somatic (Acquired) - A mutation occuring
during DNA replication or division, present
only in a subset of cells.
7.
8. • EFFECT ON PROTEIN CODING :
Synonymous (Silent) – A nucleotide change resulting
in the same amino acid, due to redundancy in nucleotide
combinations coding for each amino acid, e.g. coding
DNA strands containing GTA and GTG would both
encode the amino acid valine.
Non-synonymous – A nucleotide change leading to a
different amino acid, e.g. DNA sequence GTA codes for
valine but a change to GAA would result in glutamic acid.
9. • EFFECT ON PROTEIN FUNCTION :
Activating (Gain of function) – A change leading to
enhanced effect of protein, e.g. The codon 600
BRAFV600E mutation leads to increased activity of
BRAF protein.
Inactivating – A change leading to
nonfunctional/reduced function protein, e.g. Codon 594
mutation in BRAF gene cause loss of kinase activity.
10. • FUNCTIONAL EFFECT :
Pathogenic – A mutation predicted to contribute to
initiation of tumor.
Nonpathogenic – A genetic abnormality that does not
appear to contribute to initiation of tumor.
11. • PREDICTION OF TREATMENT RESPONSE :
Sensitising – A mutation associated with treatment
response, e.g. L585R mutation in EGFR gene is predictive
of response to EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor drugs in
patients with Non small cell lung cancer (NSCLC).
Resistance – A mutation associated with treatment
resistance, e.g. T790M mutation in EGFR gene predicts
lack of response to EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor drugs in
patients with NSCLC.
12. • IMPORTANCE IN CARCINOGENESIS :
Driver – A mutation that is recurrent between different
tumours and is functionally linked to carcinogenesis, e.g.
KRAS mutation in colorectal cancers cause increased
activity of mutated KRAS protein leading to abnormal
cell proliferation.
Passenger – A mutation that does not appear to play a
role in initiation of cancer and is likely to have occurred
as a bystander effect due to genetic instability.
13. • Major challenges of the stratified medicine
approach include :
Tumour Heterogeneity
Treatment Resistance
14. Role of Histopathology also includes use of
specific molecular markers in specific
malignancies;
e.g. HER2 testing in breast cancer to
improve prognostic effect of Trastuzumab
(Herceptin, Roche).
15. MOLECULAR MARKER DISEASE TREATMENT
t(15;17) translocation Acute Promyelocytic
Leukaemia (APML)
ATRA - all trans retinoic
acid.
t(9;22) translocation
(Philadelphia
chromosome); BCR-ABL
fusion
KIT/PDGFRA Mutation
Chronic Myeloid
Leukaemia
GIST
Imatinib (tyrosine-kinase
inhibitor)
HER2 gene amplification Breast cancer , Metastatic
Gastric cancer
(Transtuzumab only)
Trastuzumab
Pertuzumab
16. MOLECULAR MARKER DISEASE TREATMENT
KRAS wild type ( lack of
mutation)
Metastatic colorectal
carcinoma
Cetuximab
Panitumumab
EGFR mutation
ALK gene rearrangement
Non small cell lung
carcinoma
Geftinib
Erlotinib
Crizotinib
BRAF codon 600
mutation, V600E
Malignant melanoma Vemurafenib
17. MUTATION DETECTION
• Molecular analysis protocols are developed for formalin
fixed paraffin embedded (FFPE) tumour tissues.
• Materials on glass slides are provided along with a
matched H&E stained section, with the % tumor nuclei
content assessed and oulined on slide.
• Macrodissection performed on slide mounted sections to
isolate and enrich the material of tumour nuclei and avoid
analysis of adjacent non neoplastic tissue; However, with
the development of more sensitive analysis techniques this
method is not required.
18. • Macrodissection is mandatory if tumor content of
section is assessed as <20% by pathologist.
• For current methods, mutation analysis for mutation
hotspots in upto 5 genes can be performed on DNA
extracted from 5 micron paraffin section with tumour
cellularity >50%.
• Each section can be expected to yield at least 150 ng
DNA, with inputs as low as 10 ng.
19. • For assesing the tumour content, the pathologist should
note the specimen dependent factors that may influence
the success in subsequent analysis, such as Necrosis,
Melanin pigment in melanoma, which inhibits PCR.
• Specimen handling during preanalytical phase has an
important imapct on outcome of mutation analysis, such
as use of clean microtome blade to prevent cross
contamination of DNA and tissue.
20. • Detection of gene amplification or
translocations may be performed in thin
sections on glass slide using in-situ
hybridisation, whereas detection of gene
mutation or fusion trancripts requires
extraction of nucleic acids and analysis using
PCR and sequencing-based methods.
21. SANGER
SEQUENCING
PYRO-
SEQUENCING
NEXT
GENERATION
SEQUENCING
METHOD Amplification and
sequencing of PCR
products by chain-
terminating dideoxy
nucleotides during in
vitro DNA replication
Sequencing by
synthesis: detection of
luminescence released
when pyrophosphate-
labelled nucleotide
molecule is
incorporated during
DNA replication.
Massively parallel
sequencing of millions
of amplified DNA
molecules.
DNA INPUT Low Low High (~500 ng)
SENSTIVITY Lowest High High
LIMIT OF
DETECTION
10-20 % 5 % 10 %
ADVANTAGES Identification of
known variants
Targeted mutation
detection, Fast method
Highest throughput
technology, whole
exome analysis.
DISADVANTAGES labour intensive, miss
low level variant.
High sequencing error
rate
Larger quantities of
DNA required
22. High Resolution DNA
Melting Analysis (HRM)
Single Stranded
Conformational
Polymorphism Analysis
(SSCP/SSCA)
METHOD Comparison of melting curves
of PCR products against
normal samples.
Heat denatured PCR products
compared with known samples
using Capillary
Electrophoresis.
DNA INPUT Low (~100 ng) Low (~100 ng)
SENSTIVITY Low High
LIMIT OF DETECTION 5 % 1-10%
ADVANTAGES Quick melting products
identify exact abnormality
Established technique, low
cost
DISADVANTAGES Nonspecific amplification lead
to missed cells
Temp., gel composition must
be controlled.
23. AMPLIFICATION
REFRACTORY MUTATION
SYSTEM
FRAGMENT LENGTH
ANALYSIS
METHOD Selective amplification of
sequences containing defined
mutation
DNA fragment length analysed
against size to detect deletions
and insertions
DNA INPUT High (~500 ng) Low (~100 ng)
SENSTIVITY Highest High
LIMIT OF DETECTION <1-8 % 1-2 %
ADVANTAGES Fast and sensitive Fast and sensitive
DISADVANTAGES Detects predefined hotspot
mutations
Cannot be used to detect point
mutations
24. REQUIREMENT OF MOLECULAR PATHOLOGY
REPORT
• Dates
• Patient information
• Information about request - nature of sample, tissue and
tumour type, percentage content tumour nuclei as assessed by
referring pathologist, clinical indication for analysis.
• Information about analysis - Technique used, scope of
test, senstivity/limit of detection.
• Results
• Contact information
26. LUNG CANCER
Two major types of key driver mutations in pulmonary
adenocarcinoma :
• EGFR mutations
• ALK translocations
Novel targets also identified and linked to drugs in
development includes KIF5B-RET and ROS.
Progress in pulmonary squamous cell carcinoma is not
so promising.
27.
28. • EGFR IN LUNG CANCER :
- Epidermal growth factor receptor gene (ERBB1
or HER1)
- Responsible for cell membrane bound epidermal
growth receptor.
- Mutations in above determines response to
tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) erlotinib and
gefitinib in non small cell lung cancer (NSCLC).
29. - 90% EGFR mutations are located in tyrosine
kinase-binding domain (Exons 18-21).
- The mutant EGFR protein activates cellular
pathways implicated in cancer cell growth,
survival and migration.
- The most common ACTIVATING mutations
are exon 19 deletions and codon 858 missense
mutation in exon 21 (L585R).
30.
31. - The most common RESISTANCE mutations is
EGFR T790M, others include amplification or
overexpression of MET, PIK3CA mutation and
transformation.
- Histologically features are adenocarcinoma of any
growth pattern esp. papillary or micropapillary
pattern, but with exception of Mucinous carcinoma.
- Less common occur in neuroendocrine,
mucoepidermoid and adenoid cystic carcinoma.
32.
33. • Mutant EGF receptors are targeted using
small molecule inhibitor drugs, which act
inside the cell against the internal
tyrosine kinase domain of receptor called
as tyrosine kinase inhibitors like
erlotinib (Tarceva) and gefitinib (Iressa).
34. • EML4-ALK IN LUNG CANCER :
- It is a fusion gene derived from inversion
affecting chromosome 2 and leading to fusion
of EML4 (echinoderm microtubule-associated
protein-like 4) gene with ALK (anaplastic
lymphoma kinase) gene.
- Fusion gene is found in adenocarcinoma more
commonly than squamous cell carcinoma.
35. - Alternative ALK fusion partners are TRK-fused
gene TFG, nucleophosmin gene NPM1 and
kinesin family member 5B gene, KIF5B.
- ALK gene rearrangements generally occurs of
EGFR or KRAS mutations.
- Fusion gene encodes a fusion protein leading to
ALK signaling which causes increased cell
proliferation.
36.
37. • More frequent in –
Never Smokers
Younger age at onset of disease
Adenocarcinoma
Females
38. Crizotinib (Xalkori, Pfizer)
• ALK/MET inhibitor
• Multitargeted small molecule TKI
• Administered orally
• Inhibits ALK phosphorylation and signal transduction.
• Licensed for use in NSCLC by FDA in 2011.
• Also used as :
– Treatment of aggressive and resistant forms of
anaplastic large cell lymphoma carrying t(2;5)
translocation involving NPM1 and ALK.
– Neuroblastoma in pediatric population.
39.
40. BREAST CANCER
• Ascertaining the status of HER2 in invasive
breast cancer has now become the standard of
care.
• It is achieved using immuno-histochemical
assessment of protein expression.
• In-situ hybridization (confirmation of gene
amplificarion) is reserved only in case of
equivocal immuno-histochemistry results.
41. • In last few years, there is rapid increase in use
of gene expression profiling in breast cancer to
provide risk stratification in addition to
traditional histopathological parameters like
grade, vascular invasion and lymph node
involvement.
42.
43.
44. MELANOMA
• BRAF gene encodes a serine/threonine kinase, an enzyme
activated by phosphorylation which is responsible for
transferring phosphate groups to other proteins to
modulate their functions that is part of RAS kinase
family.
• 90% mutation are in codon 600 (V600E).
• BRIM3 trials shows that untreated melanoma stages
IIIC/IV with V600E mutations have overall improved
progression free survival with vemurafenib as compared
to dacarbazine therapy.
45. • Unexpected finding was increased risk of
cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma in patients
receiving vemurafenib due to paradoxical
stimulation of cellular pathway in epidermal
cells containing wild type BRAF.
• The MEK pathway also shows overactivity in
melanomas harbouring BRAF mutations.
46.
47. CHALLENGES OF THE APPROACH
• Involved with molecular analysis of FFPE
material leads to cross-linking and degradation of
DNA into fragments >200 base pairs in length
due to over-fixation and under-fixation of
specimens.
• There is a need for optimal standardized sample
handling protocols in the pre analytical phase to
extract maximum diagnostic potential from DNA
extracted from FFPE tumor samples.
48. • Today’s chemotherapy like kinase inhibitors halt
tumor growth rather than killing existing cells.
• Therefore, patients experience a temporary
response to therapy with subsequent development
of resistance.
• This increases the need to develop a different
treatment strategy.
49. • Due to tumor heterogeneity, there is increased
requirement to track mutational profile using
longitudinal tissue sampling i.e. to assess
mutational status of multiple genes at the same
time rather than consecutive manner.
50. • Recent retrospective study of pre and post
treatment biopsies in EGFR mutation positive
NSCLC patients, demonstrated new molecular
abnormalities like resistance mutation of T790M,
conferring in post treatment biopsy samples.
51. • Pathology departments must be adequately
resourced for sample preparations,
macrodissection and any testing performed
within the cellular pathology department.
• Equally important is the reliability of output of
testing.
52. PROGRESS
• DNA based predictive analysis of solid tumors
is currently carried out on individual genes in a
sequential manner for particular licensed
therapy.
• Cancer research UK in 2011- phase 1 is dealing
with routine delivery of mutational analysis of
4-5 key genes in different solid tumors like
breast, colorectal, lung, ovarian, prostate and
malignant melanoma.
53. CONCLUSION
• The characterisation of tumor genomes to
identify oncogenic drivers and therapeutic
targets is having a significant in management
of people having cancers with important
implications for histopathologists.
54. • Mutation testing performed on nucleic acids
extracted from tumor has focused on minimal
invasive techniques for treatment like LIQUID
BIPOSIES, using free circulating tumor DNA
fragments isolated from plasma.
55. • There is a need to move from a single gene
mutation test to simultaneous assessment of a
panel of inter related biomarkers like
assessment of EGFR and EML4-ALK provide
information about two different licensed
treatment options.
56. • Since Histopathology is the gold standard for
classification of disease, predictive molecular
analysis must become fully integrated in
cancer diagnosis and prognostication in
histopathology.
57. KEY POINTS
1. The characterisation of tumor genomes by
histopathologists, to identify oncogenic drivers and
therapeutic targets is having significant impact in
management of cancer.
2. Some DNA based tests linked to licensed treatment are :
HER2 amplification in breast cancer, KRAS mutation in
metastatic colorectal cancer, BRAF mutation in
advanced malignant melanoma, EGFR mutation and
ALK translocation in pulmonary adenocarcinoma.
58. 3. Molecular analysis can be performed in FFPE
tumor tissue.
4. Detection of gene amplification or translocation
may be performed in thin sections on glass slide
using in-situ hybridization, whereas detection of
gene mutation requires extraction of nucleic acids
and analysis using PCR and sequencing method.
59. 5. Major challenges of the stratified medicine
include tumor heterogeneity and tumor
resistance.
6. Higher throughput next generation sequencing
technology is enabling a broader scope of
analysis.