Focusing on credibility and trust, as key elements is critical to evaluating negative campaign messages. At the very least this study offers insights into the transference of attitudes and actions regarding negative comparative statements supporting existing research on Learning Theory.
Credibility, reputation, identity, and image may be irreparably damaged from negative campaigning. This study provides useful insights for political advisors and the communications
industry to consider.
This document summarizes three experiments that tested the effects of subliminal priming on evaluations of politicians delivered over the Internet. In Experiment 1, subliminally presenting the word "RATS" led to more negative ratings of an unknown politician. Experiment 2 found that subliminally showing a photo of Bill Clinton weakened negative ratings of an unknown politician. Experiment 3, conducted during Gray Davis' recall referendum in California, found subliminal photos of Clinton affected Davis' ratings, primarily among independents. The results suggest subliminal priming can influence political evaluations and be conducted online in real world contexts.
Chapter 7 social influence and persuasionMaicaGuce
Social influence occurs when one person causes another to behave differently than they otherwise would through persuasion, threats, promises, or orders. There are many forms of open and covert social influence. Persuasion aims to change beliefs and attitudes through communication, while compliance involves gaining agreement through threats or promises. Extensive research on obedience to authority has found that people are highly compliant with orders from figures of authority, especially when the authority is nearby and insists they continue a troubling task.
This study examined how self-efficacy moderates the relationship between perceived terrorism risk and psychological outcomes/preparedness. It was predicted that higher self-efficacy would weaken the link between risk and distress, and strengthen the link between risk and preparedness. Preliminary results from an online survey of 211 adults found that self-efficacy moderated the relationship between risk perception and preparedness behaviors/knowledge, but not psychological outcomes. Specifically, higher self-efficacy was linked to a weaker relationship between perceived risk and preparedness. This provides partial support for the hypothesis and suggests interventions could focus on bolstering self-efficacy.
This community-based media project called "Let's Talk Billings" uses theater to address Montana's high suicide rate. Actors develop and perform an original play about suicide and depression. The study uses focus groups to evaluate how exposure to the play impacts audiences. Results show increases in participants' self-efficacy, recognition of suicide severity, and willingness to seek help. The experience provides social support that boosts coping skills for life stressors like suicide and depression.
Upon meeting someone new, people seek to reduce uncertainty about the other person through communication. Common strategies include asking questions to learn about their background, finding out information indirectly from others, or passive observation. Reducing uncertainty allows people to better predict another's behavior and feel more comfortable in the interaction.
The study examined how education about criminal risk factors and the age of the victim in a crime scenario influenced feelings of empathy, revenge, and hostility in college student participants. 58 students were randomly assigned to read either an educational brochure about risk factors or no brochure, and a scenario describing a school shooting with either adult or child victims. Participants then completed measures of empathy, revenge, and hostility. The results showed no significant differences between groups in these measures. This suggests that simply providing information in a brochure may not be an effective way to change perceptions of offenders.
Credibility, reputation, identity, and image may be irreparably damaged from negative campaigning. This study provides useful insights for political advisors and the communications
industry to consider.
This document summarizes three experiments that tested the effects of subliminal priming on evaluations of politicians delivered over the Internet. In Experiment 1, subliminally presenting the word "RATS" led to more negative ratings of an unknown politician. Experiment 2 found that subliminally showing a photo of Bill Clinton weakened negative ratings of an unknown politician. Experiment 3, conducted during Gray Davis' recall referendum in California, found subliminal photos of Clinton affected Davis' ratings, primarily among independents. The results suggest subliminal priming can influence political evaluations and be conducted online in real world contexts.
Chapter 7 social influence and persuasionMaicaGuce
Social influence occurs when one person causes another to behave differently than they otherwise would through persuasion, threats, promises, or orders. There are many forms of open and covert social influence. Persuasion aims to change beliefs and attitudes through communication, while compliance involves gaining agreement through threats or promises. Extensive research on obedience to authority has found that people are highly compliant with orders from figures of authority, especially when the authority is nearby and insists they continue a troubling task.
This study examined how self-efficacy moderates the relationship between perceived terrorism risk and psychological outcomes/preparedness. It was predicted that higher self-efficacy would weaken the link between risk and distress, and strengthen the link between risk and preparedness. Preliminary results from an online survey of 211 adults found that self-efficacy moderated the relationship between risk perception and preparedness behaviors/knowledge, but not psychological outcomes. Specifically, higher self-efficacy was linked to a weaker relationship between perceived risk and preparedness. This provides partial support for the hypothesis and suggests interventions could focus on bolstering self-efficacy.
This community-based media project called "Let's Talk Billings" uses theater to address Montana's high suicide rate. Actors develop and perform an original play about suicide and depression. The study uses focus groups to evaluate how exposure to the play impacts audiences. Results show increases in participants' self-efficacy, recognition of suicide severity, and willingness to seek help. The experience provides social support that boosts coping skills for life stressors like suicide and depression.
Upon meeting someone new, people seek to reduce uncertainty about the other person through communication. Common strategies include asking questions to learn about their background, finding out information indirectly from others, or passive observation. Reducing uncertainty allows people to better predict another's behavior and feel more comfortable in the interaction.
The study examined how education about criminal risk factors and the age of the victim in a crime scenario influenced feelings of empathy, revenge, and hostility in college student participants. 58 students were randomly assigned to read either an educational brochure about risk factors or no brochure, and a scenario describing a school shooting with either adult or child victims. Participants then completed measures of empathy, revenge, and hostility. The results showed no significant differences between groups in these measures. This suggests that simply providing information in a brochure may not be an effective way to change perceptions of offenders.
Chapter 8: Theories of Media Cognition and Information Processing (final vers...Toby Zhu
This document discusses various theories of how people process information from media and communications. It covers information processing theory, which views people as complex information processors. Schema theory explains how people organize information into mental frameworks. The elaboration likelihood model describes central and peripheral routes to persuasion. Transportation theory discusses how narratives can engage audiences. Neuroscience perspectives view information processing as biological and social.
This document summarizes research on the perception of influential messages related to dating. An analysis of 52 college students revealed confusion between terms like persuasion, manipulation, and coercion when applied to interpersonal relationships. The implications are that better defining these messages could help people understand and respond to them more purposefully. Further research is still needed to better distinguish different types of influence.
Effect of Anticipated Interactions on Connectedness, Likeability, Similarity,...Cassandra Chapa
This study examined how the type of feedback (positive or negative) from a stranger about a personal story shared online would influence perceptions of closeness, likability, similarity, and willingness to meet. Ninety-six undergraduates disclosed and received feedback on either an intimate or mundane story from an ostensible partner. Those who received positive feedback reported greater feelings of connection, likability, similarity, and willingness to meet compared to those who received negative feedback. However, the level of intimacy of the shared story did not significantly impact these perceptions. The results confirmed the hypothesis about the effect of feedback type but not the hypothesis about intimacy level.
This study examined the relationship between perceived attractiveness and intelligence. The researcher hypothesized that 1) attractive individuals would be perceived as more intelligent and 2) individuals who rate themselves as attractive would also rate themselves as above average in intelligence. Participants rated the attractiveness and perceived intelligence of photos of 23 individuals. While no correlation was found between attractiveness and intelligence ratings of photos, a significant positive correlation was found between self-rated attractiveness and intelligence. So the second hypothesis was supported but not the first. Limitations included using separate samples for attractiveness and intelligence ratings and not controlling for clothing in photos.
This document summarizes several theories of cognition, intrapersonal communication, and interpersonal communication. It discusses theories related to message design logics, communication accommodation, uncertainty reduction, expectancy violations, politeness theory, social exchange theory, the dialectical perspective, and communication privacy management. For each theory, it provides an overview of the key premises, assumptions, concepts, and predictions put forth by the theorists. The document is comprehensive in covering several important theories within the fields of cognition, intrapersonal communication, and interpersonal communication.
The document discusses the history and research on effective rehabilitation programs for sex offenders. It covers several key points:
1) Early research in the 1970s concluded rehabilitation programs did not work, but later research from the 1980s onward found that some programs can reduce recidivism, especially those targeting criminogenic needs.
2) Effective programs are based on principles like matching treatment intensity to offender risk level, targeting dynamic risk factors linked to reoffending, and delivering treatment in a way that considers offender characteristics.
3) Cognitive-behavioral programs that teach pro-social thinking skills and address criminal thinking have been shown to change antisocial behavior and reduce recidivism when applied correctly.
This document presents a study exploring how media portrayals of drug behavior, specifically shows like Breaking Bad and Weeds, may influence societal perceptions of drug dealers. The researchers hypothesize that those who watch shows featuring drug behavior will view it more positively. The study uses Cultivation Theory as a framework, which proposes that extensive media exposure shapes viewers' social reality. An online survey collected data on participants' television viewing habits and attitudes towards drug behavior. The results will analyze whether exposure to certain shows correlates with more positive perceptions of drug dealing.
1) Several studies examined how cognitive dissonance impacts voters during political campaigns. When exposed to both positive and negative ads about a candidate they support, voters only recall the positive information. But for opposing candidates, only negative information is recalled.
2) Voting for a candidate increases the likelihood a voter will support them again to avoid dissonance with their previous choice. Those unable to vote are less committed.
3) Studies found participants subconsciously avoided information conflicting their views, showing how dissonance influences objective evaluation, even unconsciously.
4) A study spent more time with attitude-consistent than counter messages, confirming biases like selective exposure impact information processing.
Campus Environment Matters: A Survey of Student Cultural Diversity Awareness ...Qingjiang (Q. J.) Yao
This study examined how campus diversity, living environment diversity, media use, and other factors influence students' cultural diversity awareness, ethnic identity, brand identification with their university, and organizational citizenship behaviors at four Kansas public universities. The results showed that campus diversity, social media use, and taking diversity courses positively predicted cultural diversity awareness and ethnic identity. Informational media use, ethnic identity, and cultural diversity awareness predicted stronger brand identification. Brand identification and informational media use predicted greater organizational citizenship behaviors.
Affective Reactions Among Students Belonging to Ethnic Groups Engaged in Prio...UniversitasGadjahMada
The study aimed at investigating any bias in the perceptions of young people from two ethnic groups who were not directly involved in an ethnic conflict. Assuming that such perception bias only happens in the members of ethnic groups who were involved in the conflict and in those who became the victims of the other group’s transgression. Therefore, we predicted that the subjects from the Dayaknese group would evaluate the photos of their own group members more positively compared to their perception of the Madurese photos. Meanwhile, there would be no bias among Madurese students in evaluating both Dayak and Madura photos. An experimental approach was carried out using photos of neutral faces of Dayaknese and Madurese people. Each photo was presented with negative or positive words. The participants of the study comprised 111 students who represented Madurese and Dayaknese ethnic groups, as well as Javanese who had not been involved in the conflict serving as the control group. They were asked to evaluate the photos in terms of the negativity and positivity of each picture. A two-way ANOVA supported the hypothesis that the Dayaknese evaluated their own groups better than the other ethnic groups, while the Madurese did not.
This document discusses and summarizes two communication theories: cognitive dissonance theory and agenda-setting theory. Cognitive dissonance theory proposes that people feel psychological discomfort from holding conflicting beliefs or thoughts, and are motivated to resolve that conflict. Agenda-setting theory suggests that news media influences public perception by choosing which issues to focus on and how prominently to cover them. The document provides examples and discusses how these theories could be useful for communication professionals in addressing cognitive dissonance and understanding media influence.
The document discusses the results of a study on the effects of exercise on memory and thinking abilities in older adults. The study found that regular exercise can help reduce the decline in thinking abilities that often occurs with age. Older adults who exercised regularly performed better on cognitive tests and brain scans showed they had greater activity in important areas for memory and learning compared to less active peers.
The Heber Decoder is establishing itself as the leading global provider of scientific nutritional information and education. A subscription provides access to cutting-edge research outcomes and expert commentary to strategically position subscribers as leaders in nutrition. The Heber Decoder is guided by Dr. David Heber, a renowned nutrition researcher, and will serve as an online "center of excellence" communicating the latest advances in integrated nutrition.
The document discusses priorities for climate change research funding, including developing interdisciplinary systems approaches, understanding ocean acidification impacts, and strengthening Arctic and ocean research through cyber-linked sensors and studying topics like carbon cycling, circulation, and coastal ecosystems. Key funding agencies mentioned are NSF and USGCRP.
Presentation by Dave Briggs, Digital Enabler and Conference Chair at the PSFBuzz North East social media conference for local government, 7 July 2009, Newcastle. A Public Sector Forums conference.
This study examined the effects of emotion-based arguments on attitude change according to social judgment theory. 105 undergraduate students were randomly assigned to read either an emotional or logical argument regarding funding for disabled persons and complete pre- and post-argument attitude measures. The study found that logical arguments produced greater attitude change than emotional arguments, contrary to the first hypothesis. The second hypothesis, that those with higher ego-involvement would experience less attitude change, was also not supported. Limitations included a small sample size and validity questions around the attitude measures.
Personality, Regulatory Focus, and Political Ideology PaperJennifer Burke
This study investigated the relationships between extroversion-introversion, regulatory focus (prevention vs. promotion focus), and political ideology. 98 college students completed surveys measuring these variables. Results showed that extroversion correlated with promotion focus, such that more extroverted participants also scored higher on promotion focus. Extroversion also correlated with stronger conservative ideologies. However, the correlation between regulatory focus and political ideology was not significant when controlling for personality type. This suggests personality influences regulatory focus and political views in a multidimensional way rather than a simple unidimensional relationship.
The Elaboration Likelihood Model Developed By Petty And...Lakeisha Jones
The document discusses three theories of persuasion illustrated in the film Swing Kids: cognitive dissonance theory, social judgment theory, and elaboration likelihood model. Cognitive dissonance theory is shown through a character who stands by his principles rather than rationalize inconsistent behaviors. Social judgment theory is demonstrated through a character who rationalizes his behaviors and changes his attitudes. The elaboration likelihood model is portrayed through a character who spends time rationalizing his actions and denying free will regarding his behaviors.
Communication For Change: A Short Guide to Social and Behavior Change (SBCC) ...CChangeProgram
Many theories and models have been used to guide health and development communication work . This PowerPoint presentation provides more detailed background on the theories and models leading to Social and Behavior Change Communication (SBCC).
Chapter 8: Theories of Media Cognition and Information Processing (final vers...Toby Zhu
This document discusses various theories of how people process information from media and communications. It covers information processing theory, which views people as complex information processors. Schema theory explains how people organize information into mental frameworks. The elaboration likelihood model describes central and peripheral routes to persuasion. Transportation theory discusses how narratives can engage audiences. Neuroscience perspectives view information processing as biological and social.
This document summarizes research on the perception of influential messages related to dating. An analysis of 52 college students revealed confusion between terms like persuasion, manipulation, and coercion when applied to interpersonal relationships. The implications are that better defining these messages could help people understand and respond to them more purposefully. Further research is still needed to better distinguish different types of influence.
Effect of Anticipated Interactions on Connectedness, Likeability, Similarity,...Cassandra Chapa
This study examined how the type of feedback (positive or negative) from a stranger about a personal story shared online would influence perceptions of closeness, likability, similarity, and willingness to meet. Ninety-six undergraduates disclosed and received feedback on either an intimate or mundane story from an ostensible partner. Those who received positive feedback reported greater feelings of connection, likability, similarity, and willingness to meet compared to those who received negative feedback. However, the level of intimacy of the shared story did not significantly impact these perceptions. The results confirmed the hypothesis about the effect of feedback type but not the hypothesis about intimacy level.
This study examined the relationship between perceived attractiveness and intelligence. The researcher hypothesized that 1) attractive individuals would be perceived as more intelligent and 2) individuals who rate themselves as attractive would also rate themselves as above average in intelligence. Participants rated the attractiveness and perceived intelligence of photos of 23 individuals. While no correlation was found between attractiveness and intelligence ratings of photos, a significant positive correlation was found between self-rated attractiveness and intelligence. So the second hypothesis was supported but not the first. Limitations included using separate samples for attractiveness and intelligence ratings and not controlling for clothing in photos.
This document summarizes several theories of cognition, intrapersonal communication, and interpersonal communication. It discusses theories related to message design logics, communication accommodation, uncertainty reduction, expectancy violations, politeness theory, social exchange theory, the dialectical perspective, and communication privacy management. For each theory, it provides an overview of the key premises, assumptions, concepts, and predictions put forth by the theorists. The document is comprehensive in covering several important theories within the fields of cognition, intrapersonal communication, and interpersonal communication.
The document discusses the history and research on effective rehabilitation programs for sex offenders. It covers several key points:
1) Early research in the 1970s concluded rehabilitation programs did not work, but later research from the 1980s onward found that some programs can reduce recidivism, especially those targeting criminogenic needs.
2) Effective programs are based on principles like matching treatment intensity to offender risk level, targeting dynamic risk factors linked to reoffending, and delivering treatment in a way that considers offender characteristics.
3) Cognitive-behavioral programs that teach pro-social thinking skills and address criminal thinking have been shown to change antisocial behavior and reduce recidivism when applied correctly.
This document presents a study exploring how media portrayals of drug behavior, specifically shows like Breaking Bad and Weeds, may influence societal perceptions of drug dealers. The researchers hypothesize that those who watch shows featuring drug behavior will view it more positively. The study uses Cultivation Theory as a framework, which proposes that extensive media exposure shapes viewers' social reality. An online survey collected data on participants' television viewing habits and attitudes towards drug behavior. The results will analyze whether exposure to certain shows correlates with more positive perceptions of drug dealing.
1) Several studies examined how cognitive dissonance impacts voters during political campaigns. When exposed to both positive and negative ads about a candidate they support, voters only recall the positive information. But for opposing candidates, only negative information is recalled.
2) Voting for a candidate increases the likelihood a voter will support them again to avoid dissonance with their previous choice. Those unable to vote are less committed.
3) Studies found participants subconsciously avoided information conflicting their views, showing how dissonance influences objective evaluation, even unconsciously.
4) A study spent more time with attitude-consistent than counter messages, confirming biases like selective exposure impact information processing.
Campus Environment Matters: A Survey of Student Cultural Diversity Awareness ...Qingjiang (Q. J.) Yao
This study examined how campus diversity, living environment diversity, media use, and other factors influence students' cultural diversity awareness, ethnic identity, brand identification with their university, and organizational citizenship behaviors at four Kansas public universities. The results showed that campus diversity, social media use, and taking diversity courses positively predicted cultural diversity awareness and ethnic identity. Informational media use, ethnic identity, and cultural diversity awareness predicted stronger brand identification. Brand identification and informational media use predicted greater organizational citizenship behaviors.
Affective Reactions Among Students Belonging to Ethnic Groups Engaged in Prio...UniversitasGadjahMada
The study aimed at investigating any bias in the perceptions of young people from two ethnic groups who were not directly involved in an ethnic conflict. Assuming that such perception bias only happens in the members of ethnic groups who were involved in the conflict and in those who became the victims of the other group’s transgression. Therefore, we predicted that the subjects from the Dayaknese group would evaluate the photos of their own group members more positively compared to their perception of the Madurese photos. Meanwhile, there would be no bias among Madurese students in evaluating both Dayak and Madura photos. An experimental approach was carried out using photos of neutral faces of Dayaknese and Madurese people. Each photo was presented with negative or positive words. The participants of the study comprised 111 students who represented Madurese and Dayaknese ethnic groups, as well as Javanese who had not been involved in the conflict serving as the control group. They were asked to evaluate the photos in terms of the negativity and positivity of each picture. A two-way ANOVA supported the hypothesis that the Dayaknese evaluated their own groups better than the other ethnic groups, while the Madurese did not.
This document discusses and summarizes two communication theories: cognitive dissonance theory and agenda-setting theory. Cognitive dissonance theory proposes that people feel psychological discomfort from holding conflicting beliefs or thoughts, and are motivated to resolve that conflict. Agenda-setting theory suggests that news media influences public perception by choosing which issues to focus on and how prominently to cover them. The document provides examples and discusses how these theories could be useful for communication professionals in addressing cognitive dissonance and understanding media influence.
The document discusses the results of a study on the effects of exercise on memory and thinking abilities in older adults. The study found that regular exercise can help reduce the decline in thinking abilities that often occurs with age. Older adults who exercised regularly performed better on cognitive tests and brain scans showed they had greater activity in important areas for memory and learning compared to less active peers.
The Heber Decoder is establishing itself as the leading global provider of scientific nutritional information and education. A subscription provides access to cutting-edge research outcomes and expert commentary to strategically position subscribers as leaders in nutrition. The Heber Decoder is guided by Dr. David Heber, a renowned nutrition researcher, and will serve as an online "center of excellence" communicating the latest advances in integrated nutrition.
The document discusses priorities for climate change research funding, including developing interdisciplinary systems approaches, understanding ocean acidification impacts, and strengthening Arctic and ocean research through cyber-linked sensors and studying topics like carbon cycling, circulation, and coastal ecosystems. Key funding agencies mentioned are NSF and USGCRP.
Presentation by Dave Briggs, Digital Enabler and Conference Chair at the PSFBuzz North East social media conference for local government, 7 July 2009, Newcastle. A Public Sector Forums conference.
This study examined the effects of emotion-based arguments on attitude change according to social judgment theory. 105 undergraduate students were randomly assigned to read either an emotional or logical argument regarding funding for disabled persons and complete pre- and post-argument attitude measures. The study found that logical arguments produced greater attitude change than emotional arguments, contrary to the first hypothesis. The second hypothesis, that those with higher ego-involvement would experience less attitude change, was also not supported. Limitations included a small sample size and validity questions around the attitude measures.
Personality, Regulatory Focus, and Political Ideology PaperJennifer Burke
This study investigated the relationships between extroversion-introversion, regulatory focus (prevention vs. promotion focus), and political ideology. 98 college students completed surveys measuring these variables. Results showed that extroversion correlated with promotion focus, such that more extroverted participants also scored higher on promotion focus. Extroversion also correlated with stronger conservative ideologies. However, the correlation between regulatory focus and political ideology was not significant when controlling for personality type. This suggests personality influences regulatory focus and political views in a multidimensional way rather than a simple unidimensional relationship.
The Elaboration Likelihood Model Developed By Petty And...Lakeisha Jones
The document discusses three theories of persuasion illustrated in the film Swing Kids: cognitive dissonance theory, social judgment theory, and elaboration likelihood model. Cognitive dissonance theory is shown through a character who stands by his principles rather than rationalize inconsistent behaviors. Social judgment theory is demonstrated through a character who rationalizes his behaviors and changes his attitudes. The elaboration likelihood model is portrayed through a character who spends time rationalizing his actions and denying free will regarding his behaviors.
Communication For Change: A Short Guide to Social and Behavior Change (SBCC) ...CChangeProgram
Many theories and models have been used to guide health and development communication work . This PowerPoint presentation provides more detailed background on the theories and models leading to Social and Behavior Change Communication (SBCC).
The document discusses campaign design and theories that can inform it. It explains that campaigns should understand why people behave as they do. It also outlines several theories that influence behavior, such as the health belief model, stages of change model, and theory of reasoned action. The document also discusses different types of campaign models and important factors for effective campaigning such as clear goals and innovative messaging. It notes the importance of monitoring and evaluation and avoiding negative campaign tactics.
The document summarizes a study that investigated whether emotional closeness to the target of an upward physical appearance comparison moderates the effectiveness of self-help strategies for reducing body dissatisfaction. Sixty-three female undergraduate students recalled a recent upward appearance comparison and were guided through one of three self-help strategies: cultivating compassion, favorable social comparison, or distraction. Results showed that emotional closeness to the comparison target did not impact the effectiveness of the interventions on subsequent measures of body image and affect. The study contributes to understanding how social relationships influence responses to strategies for managing body dissatisfaction.
Discuss the concept that attitude and opinion change were consider.docxlynettearnold46882
Discuss the concept that attitude and opinion change were considered to be measures of personal. This was because they were assumed to be enduring. Is this assumption still applicable today? Why and how? .(chapter 8)
Attitude is an action toward or away from an attitude object. An opinion is the way people express their attitude or believe. This could be verbalized while attitudes possessed positive and negative drive value. Tow major of research was done by Hovland and Janis address Laswell model of interpersonal communication who says what to whom in what channel with what effect or outcome. In 1953, this was looking for cause and effect and how one elicits change on another.
Hovland, Kelly, and Janis argued attitude and opinion are enduring. They used three steps in order to determine whether attitude change occurred or not. They include attention, comprehension, and acceptance. Not every message that will catch people’s attention. When the message is complicated, it is hard to comprehend and understand. To make the change, individual should accept changes to avoid any regret later. To overcome this regrets we need to work hard to make sure that we carry out the right decisions and which we are comfortable in.
A research on persuasion involves four parts that are communicator, message, audience and response. Credibility goes hand in hand with the communicator's ability to persuade someone. People tend to do dangerous things when in a group than individually. Persuasion is more successful when the individuals are personally convinced r influenced by an absolute choice. Humans are expected to be active in a given task if they are more involved in the persuasion. Someone with an interest in something is more likely to be persuading over time. Using less effort than that who lacks in Personal Influence. The message and credibility are some of the main factors that affect the rate of influencing persons into something.
In the two-step flow of communication, an individual fundamentally influences the other. The media will be more efficient in eliciting change than any other channel. Its influence is indirect rather than direct. Opinion leaders also play a great role in persuading groups of people. It is out of the persuasion that the public makes a choice based on how convinced they are about these choices.
The basic categories which Hovland, Janis, Lumsdaine, and Sheffield addressed in their persusion research are communicator, content, audience and response. It considered central to attitude change. Hovland used Lasswell's formula of "who says what to whom with what effect."
The Communicator (Who) the group studied source credibility, looking at trustworthiness and expertness. They found that, while high-credibility communicators produced better amounts of attitude change, low-credibility communicators produced little attitude change. Another found, when a person with high-credibility gives false information, a person will dissocia.
A literature review on Social Influence in Decision Making and its measuremen...Mohsen Bahrami
The document discusses several studies that examine social influence in decision making. It summarizes research on social influence in purchasing, food, voting, jury verdicts, mobility, and online sharing. Several papers are described that study social influence through experiments measuring self-reported attitudes and behaviors, as well as through large-scale randomized experiments on social media platforms. The document analyzes models of social influence and decision making, including models of informational and normative influence in groups, and sequence models to characterize how groups reach decisions under social influence.
The Two-Step Flow of Communication: An Up-to-Date Report on an HypothesisElihu Katz(1957)
- The People's Choice
- The Two-Step Flow Theory
- Opinion Leaders and Opinion Followers
- Minimal/ Limited Paradigm vs. Mass Society Paradigm
- Strengths and Limitations of The Two-Step Flow Theory
- Elmira Study, Rovere Study, Decatur Study and Drug Study
- Diffusion of Innovation
- Personal Influence vs. Mass Influence
- Impact of Personal Influence
- Flow of Personal Influence
The document discusses slacktivism and analyzes motivations and behaviors of different groups on social media towards non-profit campaigns. A survey found that slacktivists and activists scored highest on openness and agreeableness, were most motivated by altruism, and slacktivists rated highest in conscientiousness. While slacktivists and activists were similar, slacktivists agreed most with being influenced to support causes on social media due to scoring high in both altruistic motivations and conscientiousness. The findings provide implications for how non-profits can engage different groups, particularly nurturing slacktivists through communication without overly emotional tactics.
This study examined how celebrity adoration moderates the relationship between attitudes and purchase intention of celebrity merchandise among Taiwanese adolescents. It applied the theory of planned behavior, which suggests that attitude, perceived norms, and perceived behavioral control predict behavioral intention. The study found that for adolescents who admired a celebrity, attitude and perceived behavioral control better predicted purchase intention, whereas perceived norms better predicted intention for those without celebrity adoration. Celebrity adoration weakened the influence of norms on attitude and intention.
Reflection Of Learning On The Theory Of Planned BehaviorRachel Davis
The document discusses the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and how it applies to understanding alcohol use initiation among adolescents. The TPB consists of behavioral intention, evaluation of outcomes, normative beliefs, motivation to comply, control beliefs, and perceived power. Existing literature on alcohol use initiation among teens applies well to these constructs, though some constructs like behavioral intention and control beliefs are not explored as deeply as others like normative beliefs. More research is needed to fully understand adolescent alcohol use through the lens of all TPB constructs.
When intentions go public - Gollwitzer PM, Sheeran P, Michalski V, Seifert AE.Marcela Fernandez
Based on Lewinian goal theory in general and self-completion theory in particular, four experiments examined the implications of other people taking notice of one's identity-related behavioral intentions.
For Dr. Biocca's class, I wanted to post this literature review I did for Professor Chock last semester. It could be relevant to the child-rearing gaming study.
New trends and directions in risk communication: combating disease threats at...FAO
New trends and directions in risk communication: combating disease threats at the animal-human-ecosystem interface
Keynote presentation by
Thomas Abraham
Director, Public Health Communications Programme,
The University of Hong Kong
New trends and directions in risk communication: combating disease threats at...Csdi Initiative
New trends and directions in risk communication: combating disease threats at the animal-human-ecosystem interface
Keynote presentation by
Thomas Abraham
Director, Public Health Communications Programme,
The University of Hong Kong
2022 Talk for for NIH Office of AIDS Research and Sexual Gender and Minority ...John C. Besley
This is a 30 minute talk from 2022 for participants in a post bachelors degree fellows program provided the NIH Office of AIDS Research and the Sexual Gender and Minority Research Office. The talk includes some new slides, thinking on strategic science communication
This document discusses nonconscious goals and their influence on consumer psychology. It begins by reviewing literature showing that consumer decisions are significantly impacted by motivations outside of conscious awareness, such as goals. The Elaboration Likelihood Model is introduced as a framework for understanding how nonconscious goals can influence whether consumers thoughtfully process information or rely on peripheral cues. The paper then explores how brand exposure can activate nonconscious goals, shaping consumer behavior and choices without their realization. Several studies are summarized that demonstrate how brand priming influences goal pursuit. The document aims to better understand how nonconscious goals moderate consumer engagement with brands and will offer insights for marketing strategists.
Neighbor helping neighbor, that's what it's all about. Come join us September 24th for our 18th annual golf tournament.
Registration is now open, excellent sponsorship opportunities are available. Proceeds go to projects to help rebuild families homes and lives.
The document provides an overview of key digital marketing concepts including URLs, web pages, landing pages, messaging, web design, social media platforms, search engine optimization, pay-per-click advertising, analytics, and the importance of an integrated marketing communications strategy. It discusses topics such as URL structure, HTML, developing clear messaging, optimizing web pages for search engines and usability, different social media platforms, keyword strategies, and using analytics to measure campaign performance and ROI.
This document provides an overview and guidelines for developing an effective eMarketing strategy using digital and social media. It begins with an introduction to basic digital media concepts such as URLs, web pages, and landing pages. It then discusses listening to customers online, analyzing social media insights and trends, and using analytics tools. The document concludes by offering tips for developing an online presence, including planning a website, finding an authentic voice, and effective copywriting. The overall aim is to provide a framework for establishing clear eMarketing guidelines.
The document discusses how in response to terrorist attacks like 9/11, the government has passed legislation like the Patriot Act and FISA that expand surveillance powers but may infringe on civil liberties. It examines several court cases where the State Secrets privilege was used to dismiss lawsuits around warrantless wiretapping programs. While greater security is important, especially during times of crisis, balancing it with civil liberties is challenging and precedents set now may undermine constitutional rights in the long run. Oversight is needed to prevent abuse of powers and protect individuals.
1) The document discusses the debate around interpreting the Constitution and laws, with Justice Scalia, Bork, and others arguing that interpretations should adhere closely to the original text and intent, while others argue for a "living Constitution" that can evolve with changing social values.
2) It examines controversial Supreme Court cases like Griswold v. Connecticut and debates around precedents like this establishing new rights not explicitly outlined in the Constitution.
3) Free speech is discussed as an essential right in a democratic system, though some argue it is not absolute and should not protect speech that threatens national security or advocates illegal overthrow of the government.
4) The conclusion argues that interpretations should not abandon the rule
The document discusses the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and the role of the US as a mediator. It provides historical context on the roots of the conflict dating back to the late 1800s and Jewish immigration to Palestine. It also discusses the expectations created by the media on policymaking, and how instant access to information in today's transparent world poses new challenges for crisis response. Shock events that challenge expectations can create opportunities for conflict resolution if they cause adversaries to revise their strategies. The US role as a stakeholder and mediator is examined in working towards a durable resolution through utilizing shock events to facilitate changed expectations between the parties.
The document discusses how the boundaries between news and entertainment have blurred over time. It examines how Jon Stewart's The Daily Show uses satire and comedy to comment on and critique mainstream news, challenging conventions. While still providing political and current event information, the show is not bound by standards of objectivity that traditional journalism aims for. Younger audiences seem to prefer this style over straightforward news and appreciate being both informed and entertained. The blending of these genres reflects changes in media and how audiences consume information.
The documentary film Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room evaluates how the film shapes attitudes towards corporate identity. The film uses techniques like satire and voiceovers set to music to skewer the image of Corporate America using Enron as an example. At the center of the Enron scandal were three top executives: Kenneth Lay as CEO who transformed Enron but failed to prevent deception, Jeffrey Skilling as a risk-taking acting CEO who created a culture of greed, and Andrew Fastow as CFO who was involved in conflicts of interest and deception. The film shows how Enron's priorities shifted from Lay's initial vision to exploiting loopholes and taking enormous risks, leading to its collapse due to ethical lapses
Michael Phelps' reputation and endorsement deals suffered after a photo showed him smoking marijuana. To rebuild trust over the next year, a campaign will have Phelps apologize, then participate in youth-focused events to increase his trust ratings. It will monitor media coverage and surveys to ensure Phelps is seen as committed to excellence in and out of the pool. The long-term goal is for Phelps to endorse healthy lifestyle products while funding his foundation.
Michael Phelps' trust and endorsement levels dropped 15 points after a photo showed him smoking marijuana. To rebuild trust over the next year, the campaign aims to increase his trust index by 10% and restore his reputation. The three phase campaign begins with Phelps apologizing, then builds trust over six months through appearances with his team. The long term goal is for Phelps to commit to excellence in and out of the pool and align with healthy lifestyle causes.
The document discusses the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and the role of the US as a mediator. It provides historical context on the roots of the conflict dating back to the late 1800s and Jewish immigration to Palestine. It also discusses the expectations created by the media on policymaking, particularly the pressure to respond quickly to crises in a world of instant access and transparency. Shock events that challenge expectations can create opportunities for conflict resolution if they cause adversaries to revise their strategies. The US role as a stakeholder and mediator is examined in working towards a durable resolution through utilizing conflict resolution strategies.
The document discusses how the boundaries between news and entertainment have blurred over time. It examines how news programs have incorporated more dramatization and emotional elements to engage audiences, particularly younger audiences. It also explores how shows like The Daily Show challenge conventional notions of objective news reporting by using satire and parody. While The Daily Show presents news information, its host Jon Stewart argues viewers cannot actually get their news from the show on its own due to the comedic framing and selective coverage. Overall, the document analyzes societal forces that have contributed to a blurring of the lines between news and entertainment formats.
The document discusses enduring values in interpreting the law and the Constitution. It argues that judgments should adhere to the original text and intent, and not construct new rights based on current values. However, an ascendant view of the First Amendment's protection of free speech has emerged that some argue abandons consistent legal principles in favor of evolving societal values. While laws enacted in times of crisis may infringe on civil liberties, unconstitutional laws are eventually overturned. Ultimately, the Constitution and Bill of Rights embody moral and ethical values that have endured for protecting individual rights and liberties.
The document discusses how two documentaries, The Corporation and Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room, shape perceptions of corporate identity and behavior. The Corporation depicts corporations as powerful artificial entities that prioritize profits over people. It analyzes how Enron developed a culture of greed and risk-taking through reckless leadership. The film shows how Enron exploited loopholes to profit while harming others. Both documentaries subtly employ satire and edited interviews to examine the construction and ethics of corporations.
1. Influence of Negative Campaigns on Public Opinion 1
Running Head: INFLUENCE OF NEGATIVE CAMPAINGS ON PUBLIC OPINION
The Influence of Attitude on Public Decisions:
How Negative Campaigns affect the Public Opinions
Andrew Ciccone
Quantitative Methods
PROPOSAL
Baruch College
2. Influence of Negative Campaigns on Public Opinion 2
Purpose
Credibility, reputation, identity, and image may be irreparably damaged from negative
campaigning. This study provides useful insights for political advisors and the communications
industry to consider.
The Attitude-Toward-The-Ad Model assumes that favorable reactions to an advertisement are
projected onto the brands featured in the advertisement (Muehling, 1987). The premises of this
proposal will apply the criterion of related theory to determine whether the severity of negative
statements influence public attitudes towards the person(s) making such statements and those
who are being criticized. The topic of study is the impact and affect, if any, of negative
campaigning in politics.
Advertisers and communicators often have concerns about unintended perceptions and
interpretations of comparative advertising and or other communicative campaigns. This
consideration is relevant as there are varied opinions on mentioning competitors in your
messages, and if it is prudent to do so.
Other responses to comparative campaign formats regarding beliefs about claims, credibility of
sources, could have a direct and negative effect on the public’s perceptions of those criticized.
The severity of statements towards others may have lasting reputational damage significantly
influencing attitudes the public has towards those criticized.
3. Influence of Negative Campaigns on Public Opinion 3
Literature Review
The interest in the political process at times is apathetic, however there is a real desire for many
citizens to participate and support various issues and candidates. Various internal and external
influences affect Americans attitudes and beliefs on a local level in their communities and on a
national scale, on opinions formulated. The presidential candidate’s beliefs influence the
public’s attitudes as voters indentify with an individual candidate symbolically or may favor a
candidate based on their position(s) on various issues. Most people choose candidates
combining the candidates personal attributes with their positions on various issues.
Subjective norms may predict behavioral intentions however societal pressures may have less of
an influence on behavioral intentions than the attitude construct. In other words, how
individual’s processes information from media, interpersonal sources, and the intellectual
community (attitudes) typically prevail over societal norms.
Intentions are decisions to act in a particular way. Eagly and Chaiken (1993, p. 168) note that
intentions are a “psychological construct distinct from attitude, [which] represents the person’s
motivation in the sense of his or her conscious plan to exert effort to carry out behavior”. In
applications of The Theory of Reasoned Action TRA, researchers have operationalized
intentions as either the likelihood that one will perform a behavior (Koballa, 1988) or as an
approximation of performing a behavior in the future. The model of goal directed behavior
posits that attitudes, positive and negative emotions, and subjective norms influence intentions
through desires. There is a connection between personal attitudes and being influenced by
subjective norms that may illicit an individual to take action on an issue. The hypothesized
model recognizes that the connection is affective and does encompass emotions, suggesting that
eagerness encompasses one’s level of interest and intensity of desire to act.
4. Influence of Negative Campaigns on Public Opinion 4
Literature Review (Cont’d)
Eagerness to perform behavior reflects their desire to take action and incorporates each person’s
goal(s) and internal motivations. Consumer’ motivations to act are measured in the context of
thinking about engaging in an activity. Much research in marketing, consumer behavior, and
psychology has suggested that consumers vary in the degree of eagerness to engage in a new
behavior (Bargh, 2002).
Attitudes toward performing a behavior are generally viewed as assessments of an individual’s
propensity towards a behavior (Finlay, Trafimow, & Villarreal, 2002).
A person’s beliefs that certain individuals or organizations (referents), believe how an individual
or group should perform, or refrain from culturally defined behavior. Norms are a function of
various types of societal beliefs, determined by the culmination of the experiences and influences
of a person’s beliefs and motivations to adhere to a subjective norm. Normative beliefs are
individual’s beliefs that underlie the norms that pervade in one’s reality. Attitude toward a
specific behavior and subjective norms have been shown to account for much variance in
intention to perform a specific behavior (Finlay et al., 2002).
Involvement is the motivational quality “to move forward to engage in a new behavior”
(Warrington & Shim, 2000).
Researchers have found that the closer match between one’s self-concept and a proposed
behavior, the more motivated a consumer is to act (Charng, Piliavin, & Callero, 1988;
Warrington & Shim, 2000). Rapaport and Orbell (2000, p. 320) examine behavioral intentions,
“If a person indentifies with a specific role or action, they are more likely to express a positive
attitude towards the action, which in turn may act as a predictor of intention.” Both Higie and
Feick (1989) and Kapferer and Laurent (1993) conceptualize involvement as having a self-
5. Influence of Negative Campaigns on Public Opinion 5
Literature Review (Cont’d)
expressive component. The extent to which one’s choice or position on an issue tells others
about you. In contrast, self-concept motivates individuals to perform certain behaviors because
doing so will communicate meaning to others and further enhance one’ self concept. In other
words, one’s self image is very important motivator of behavior (Grubb and Grathwohl, 1967).
Hypothesis
A number of processes may account for the impact of communicative influences from the media,
public opinion polls, and word of mouth on an individual’s attitudes and beliefs. The classical
conditioning effect is most often cited in which the affect generated by the message “transfers”
to the intended audience. Learning theory offers a theoretical rationale for this transference
process, simply stated our attitudes towards good things is favorable and generally speaking our
attitudes towards objects associated with bad things is unfavorable. Therefore positive or
negative feelings associated with an issue or message may also be projected onto an individual or
group. The Fishbein (1975) multi-attribute model assumes that attitudes towards objects are
comprised of beliefs associated with the object with specific attributes and evaluations of the
attributes.
From previous studies, it has been proven that subtle negative campaign messages do not
adversely affect those being criticized. Hypotheses were formulated in this study to unearth any
correlation between the severity of negative campaigns and how the public’s attitudes are
influenced by those making such statements and those being criticized.
6. Influence of Negative Campaigns on Public Opinion 6
Hypothesis (Cont’d)
On the basis of the literature reviewed research questions were chosen as opposed to formulating
hypotheses as there is not enough compelling research on the effects of negative statements on
those criticized and how such statements affect public attitudes.
RQ1: An overtly negative campaign message towards those criticized
unfavorably affects the public’s opinion of those criticized. It does
not adversely affect the public’s opinion of those making such
statements.
RQ2: An overtly negative campaign message towards those criticized
has no affect on the public’s opinion of those criticized. However,
it does adversely affect the public’s opinion of those making such
statements.
Methodology
Methods & Measures
Scholars Carrel and Wilmington (1998) studying persuasion know that compliance, performing a
behavior or act, differs from internalization, valuing a behavior or act such as a statement.
Baseline quantitative pre-test measures of the credibility of the political candidates from the
2008 election were surveyed utilizing self-report closed end questionnaires to ensure internal
validity. Hillary Clinton, Barack Obama, John McCain, Mitt Romney, and Mike Huckabee were
all measured as to the credibility of each candidate utilizing (Pfau and Eveland, 1996) semantic
differential scales of measurement to assess voter’s attitudes. Researchers (Berlo, Lemert, &
Mertz, 1971;
7. Influence of Negative Campaigns on Public Opinion 7
Methodology
Methods & Measures (Cont’d)
E. W. Miles & Leathers, 1984; Teven & Comadena, 1996) found that credibility (believability),
a multi-dimensional concept comprised of three independent factors: authoritativeness,
trustworthiness, and dynamism. Each of these factors was measured by six 7-point semantic
differential scales.
Authoritativeness: qualified/unqualified, informed/uninformed, authoritative/un-
authoritative, trained/untrained, experienced/un-experienced, skilled/unskilled
Trustworthiness: agreeable/un-agreeable, kind/cruel, pleasant/unpleasant,
safe/dangerous, congenial/quarrelsome, friendly/unfriendly
Dynamism: empathetic/hesitant, active/passive, aggressive/meek, bold/timid,
frank/reserved, forceful/forceless
The six items of the semantic differential scales used to measure each factor were summated to
produce a separate score for authoritativeness, trustworthiness and dynamism. These three
scores were then summed up into a single score with more weighting on authoritativeness and
trustworthiness.
The dependent variable in this case of credibility was used to measure a respondents’ attitude
towards each candidate using three 7-point semantic differential scales: credible/not credible,
competent/incompetent, and qualified/unqualified. The respondents in the pre-test were asked
their political affiliation in order to evaluate any bias toward a political party, in addition those
surveyed were asked to rank order the trustworthiness of each candidate. For the purposes of
this study more weight was given to the findings ascribed to the candidates of their political party
of choice when a clear bias was indicated from the data. All the candidates evaluated in the pre-
8. Influence of Negative Campaigns on Public Opinion 8
Methodology
Methods & Measures (Cont’d)
test were found to be of comparable integrity.
The video clips of candidates selected statements that were pre-tested as to the severity of the
harsh/harmless statements candidates made towards rivals using the 7-point semantic differential
scale for measurement validity.
Procedures
Due concern for the dignity and welfare of the participants in compliance with laws and
standards was seriously considered, reasonable steps implemented protections for the rights and
welfare of human participants and other persons affected by the research conducted. All
participants in this study were informed and provided consent voluntarily, free of will to
participate in this research as was the ethical standards for the reporting and publishing of the
research results.
DVD discs were provided to students interested in participating in this study in select states,
counties, and cities at college campuses about the United States that reflect the voting public.
Students selected watched the videos at various settings, such as their homes, or other
comfortable locations over the allotted two week period, simply emailing the questionnaire back
indicating their responses.
Errors were reduced by administering accurate measurement techniques in a consistent manner.
A threat to this study, albeit considered non-threatening was the lack of control over the setting
as to where the video-clips were viewed and the questionnaires taken by the students. Each
participant was allotted two weeks to watch the video clips and submit the questionnaire via the
9. Influence of Negative Campaigns on Public Opinion 9
Methodology
Procedures (Cont’d)
internet to minimize any sleeper effect threats as to the timing of when students participated in
this study, and the external events influencing their attitudes, certainly may influence responses.
The procedures, methods, and questionnaires ensured that the standards put forth from the
Institutional Review Board (IRB) were strictly adhered to. The questionnaire design and the
DVD video-clips of the candidates were administered in compliance with the recognized
standards of scientific competence and ethical research.
A pilot study of the questionnaire was conducted utilizing the test-retest method at two points in
time evaluating any possibility that questions or results could be misleading. Cronbach’s (1951)
alpha coefficient method evaluated the overall relationship among the questionnaires answers
achieving internal reliability well above 0.75, considered acceptable for scholarly review.
The treatment, or other “filler” video-clip’s content regarding candidate’s statements were pre-
tested and measured to be less harsh than those being studied. These “filler” clips (the
independent variable) were manipulated regarding the severity of the statements made by the
candidates to provide control over the experiment. The “filler” video-clips were randomly
distributed into the experimental sample to better evaluate how the participants’, the public (the
dependent variable) attitudes were influenced by the varying severity of the candidate’s
statements.
10. Influence of Negative Campaigns on Public Opinion 10
Methodology
Sampling
A representative sample of (3,000 college students) were selected non-randomly reflected
eligible voters on the basis of gender, race, religion, ethnicity, home state, urban/suburban cities,
and political party. Factors such as age, income, and education were not fairly represented as
college students were used out of convenience. Cluster sampling was used in select states,
counties within those states, cities within those counties, to select colleges of higher learning that
are indicative of all regions of the United States, as there are varying views based on the region
of the country that may skew the findings of this study.
To minimize external and internal influences on the respondents’ attitudes that history and
selection may pose, the timing of the study was over a three month period. Two, three month
surveys representing cross-sectional samples of typical voters were conducted in the winter of
2007 and spring of 2008 as people’s beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors are time bound sensitive.
Historical factors that may have an impact on the respondents’ participating in this study include
local, national, and world events going on at this time of this survey. Personal friendships,
relations, peers, and family members may also impact the respondents answers affecting their
attitudes towards candidates and or issues brought up in the video-clips presented in this
research.
Other considerations such as the student’s major in college or parent’s political affiliation were
not deemed to be substantive factors in influencing opinions of this study. Of course history-
selection may have influenced regions of the U.S. due to local or regional events and or
statements made by candidates in those areas or if the candidates are from those regions of the
United States.
11. Influence of Negative Campaigns on Public Opinion 11
Methodology
Questionnaire
In order to easily compare the information gathered from the respondents a directive strategy was
embraced. The structure of the closed-end questions as much as possible took into account,
question order effects of consistency, fatigue, and redundancy. The self-report questions were
also structured to eliminate as much as possible to avoid response style, so that the respondents
did not simply indicate the same answer to each question, results that did indicate this behavior
were reviewed to evaluate the level of participation of the respondent. A balanced-scale
approach to the structure of the questions (Oskamp, 1991) switched the wording of questions to
elicit positive or negative responses. Finally questions were structured to elicit a quarrelsome
response style leading participants to say ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to a similar questions, validating the
consistency of the data.
Threats due to how the research was conducted. Measurement validity and reliability was
minimized by clearly indicting each question asked in simple language employing a tunnel
format to yield consistent responses easily coded. Only questions relevant to the study were
asked, not slang, abbreviations or vague expressions were used in the questions. Important terms
were highlighted for emphasis, but not overtly used.
Questions were specific, precise, and focused on one aspect per question to simplify the answers
with attention given to matching the choices to questions appropriately. Response answers were
mutually exclusive to indicate only one answer to each question, as were the choices to each
question exhaustive to ensure all possible anticipated answers. Inclusive terms such as
always/never imply negative connotations and were not used in the phrasing of questions.
12. Influence of Negative Campaigns on Public Opinion 12
Methodology
Questionnaire (Cont’d)
The questionnaire was written in a natural conversational tone with simple wording avoiding
complex questions. Care was taken to construct logically complete, grammatically correct, short,
to the point questions, not breaking questions between pages, and that did not duplicate earlier
items or that may appear redundant to those surveyed. The tone of the survey was user friendly
and flowed easily from one question to another to put the participants in a mood conducive to
answering the questions and to alleviate fatigue. Earlier questions engaged the respondents’
interest in the subject being researched but did not overwhelm them.
Sensitive questions were placed in the middle of the survey as participants would most likely be
agreeable to answering questions truthfully. Questions regarding demographic information was
asked of voluntarily and placed at the end of the survey with regard to race, ethnicity, and other
potentially personal information. Answers to such questions as age and income were provided as
ranges as many people are sensitive to providing such personal information.
Variables
The candidates’ statements represented on the DVD video-clips (independent variable) were
studied to evaluate if there was any influence attitudes on the (dependent variable) of the public
or in this case the respondents participating in this research. The candidates criticized (also
dependent variables) by campaign statements (independent variable) from rivals influence the
public’s/respondent’s (dependent variable) attitudes towards those criticized.
Aspects of the variables could not be controlled such as the tone of candidates’ words and the
crowds’ reactions to the candidates captured on the video-clips. The audience’s at these political
13. Influence of Negative Campaigns on Public Opinion 13
Methodology
Variables (Cont’d)
events usually is biased for the candidate, and their reactions to statements made certainly may
influence those viewing the film footage. The setting of debates among candidates within the
same party may have a subtle advantage given the topics discussed that may favor one candidate
over another as regions of the country have varying priorities such as rural or urban areas. The
press may ask or respond to a candidate’s statement that may be biased to the candidate. On any
occasion the clothes of each candidate may lend subtle bias to the participants of this research
and many other intangibles such as if their spouse, family, friends, and other high profile
individuals present in the video-clip provided.
Data Analysis
Results
Given the large sample size, the scores of the variables upon evaluation were found to exhibit a
normative distribution typical of the population sample indicate a high level of accuracy
supporting the central limits theory (Norusis, 1991). The random sample in this study reflects
the actual mean in the sampling distribution accurately representing the true population mean
with a 95% confidence level indicating a high level of reliability for the internal measures and
assurance of minimal internal error.
There was no bias in the selection of participants based on political party, however strong
negative notions of any of the candidates, were screened during the pre-testing to provide an
objective sample. The public’s strong opinions on the issues and candidates may explain the
kurtosis and skewness of the distribution curve here tall and strongly pointed, with scores
14. Influence of Negative Campaigns on Public Opinion 14
Data Analysis
Results
clustered around the middle exhibiting leptokurtic distribution. Historically past elections have
precipitated strong attitudes on various issues however firsts in this election may raise issues
regarding gender and race, as there has never been a serious female contender for the presidency
nor an African American.
No significant difference or relationship was supported that negatively affect both the candidates
making strong statements attacking their rival’s character, nor was there any negative impact on
the candidates making such negative statements.
Samples of Election Results from the 2008 Democratic Presidential State Primaries
• South Carolina 1/26/2008 – Obama 55%, Clinton 27%
• Florida 1/29/2008 – Clinton 50%, Obama 33%
• California 2/5/2008 – Clinton 52%, Obama 42%
• Illinois 2/5/2008 – Obama 65%, Clinton 33%
• New York 2/5/2008 – Clinton 57%, Obama 40%
• Maine 2/10/2008 – Obama 59%, Clinton 40%
• Virginia 2/12/2008 – Obama 68%, Clinton 35%
• Ohio 3/4/2008 – Clinton 54%, Obama 44%
• Wyoming 3/8/2008 – Obama 61%, Clinton 38%
• Pennsylvania 4/22/2008 – Clinton 55%, Obama 45%
15. Influence of Negative Campaigns on Public Opinion 15
Data Analysis
Results
Samples of Election Results from the 2008 Republican Presidential State Primaries
• South Carolina 1/19/2008 – McCain 33%, Huckabee 30%, Romney 15%
• Florida 1/29/2008 – McCain 36%, Romney 31%
• Maine 2/2/2008 – Romney 52%, McCain 21%
• Arizona 2/5/2008 – McCain 47%, Romney 34%, Huckabee 9%
• Arkansas 2/5/2008 – Huckabee 60%, McCain 20%, Romney 13%
• California 2/5/2008 – McCain 42%, Romney 34%, Huckabee 12%
• Massachusetts 2/5/2008 – Romney 51%, McCain 41%, Huckabee 4%
• Montana 2/5/2008 – Romney 38%, McCain 22%
• New York 2/5/2008 – McCain 51%, Romney 28%, Huckabee 11%
Theoretical Interpretation
Factor analysis utilizing a Likert type scale measures and helps define the strength and validity
of claims. The Theory of Reasoned Action TRA examines the variables that lead to behavioral
intention, predicting behavior, in this study is used as a strategy for audience segmentation.
Careful analysis may lead to determining the public’s attitudes and voting behavior based upon
negative campaigning. Audience segmentation strategies traditionally based on demographics,
psychographics, and or geography aides in classifying groups that strongly identify with specific
16. Influence of Negative Campaigns on Public Opinion 16
Data Analysis
Theoretical Interpretation (Cont’d)
issues, ideas, and candidate to interpret and evaluate results from data obtained. Cluster analysis
is considered an atheoretical statistical tool applied in marketing communications and other
disciplines further categorizing subjective norm factors of beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors in
specific characteristic sets identifying behavioral actions used to evaluate assumptions of
negative campaigning on the source and those criticized. No one analytical theory is ever
definitive in interpretive analysis, invariably other theories may have subtly influenced the
analysis of the hypothetical assumptions put forth in this paper.
Means (Interpretations of Data)
A longitudinal survey may have provided differing opinions of the statements made by the
candidates and those criticized providing a more enduring assessment of the impact of
environmental events on the population sample. Potential unintentional threats such as
expectancy on the researcher’s part, lack of procedure validity, or participant’s exhibiting the
Hawthorne effect could affect the confidence of the data.
In this study inferences were made regarding variables within the population on the basis of the
relationships found in the sample selected from the population of eligible voters. The practical
significance of the data was reliable however the results were inconclusive in proving the
research questions posited they are none the less potentially important, necessitating further
research.
A chi-square test of the null hypothesis yielded 96% indicating the theory was not valid,
therefore the hypothesis was rejected. Type I Error can be further reduced by testing more
17. Influence of Negative Campaigns on Public Opinion 17
Data Analysis
Means (Interpretations of Data) (Cont’d)
stringent or conservative testing, lowering the alpha level to 0.01%, however doing so would
lead to a higher likelihood of committing a Type II Error, accepting that the null hypothesis is
probably false, a false negative, meaning the relationship is not significant, when in fact, it is.
The 3,000 respondents sample size is more than reasonable to have confidence in rejecting the
null hypothesis (Jaeger, 1990). Levy and Steelman (1996) point out ways of increasing
statistical power, when the most appropriate alpha test is used for the research study.
It is important to differentiate effect size from statistical significance (J. Cohen, 1988; Rosenthal,
1993). A statistically significant finding only indicates the extent which the results are due to
chance. It does not reference how “small” or “large” a finding may be. Therefore, the statistical
finding is considered as well as how large is the effect size; the estimate of the degree to which
the phenomena is present in a population and/or the extent to which the null hypothesis is false
(Vogt, 1993, p. 79).
Difference analysis examined the differences between the categories of the statements made by
the candidates (independent variable) among eligible voters using a nominal scale for data, chi-
square test. Ordinal data was analyzed for the Mann-Whitney U-Test scores for all respondents,
here statistically significant, providing a high level of confidence to reject the null hypothesis.
The means for the attitude and subjective norm factors were assessed as a strategy to indentify
distinct differences between possible cluster solutions. Means provided a measure in which to
indentify the level of importance on topics, issues, ideals, and candidates. Distinct opinions and
assumptions were developed, however conflicting beliefs and attitudes were not consistent with
individual candidates as expected. Unique groups that share opinions cannot whole embrace an
18. Influence of Negative Campaigns on Public Opinion 18
Data Analysis
Means (Interpretations of Data) (Cont’d)
individual’s ideals and positions on the many important issues that face Americans, however
some groups were found to be closely aligned with some of the candidates.
Discussion
Perhaps the negative impact of accusations is dependent on pre-existing notions of ideas, issues,
and individuals. Further it is found that people with strong beliefs regarding issues, ideas, and
individuals were not easily swayed and negative statements merely reinforcing per-existing
notions. Belief systems and what constitutes them and what if anything determines the strength
of one’s convictions. Further those with limited knowledge, issues, ideas, and individuals base
their assessments of the integrity of those making negative statements and also those accursed.
Individual’s strength of pre-existing beliefs on various issues may not be influenced or beliefs
Those with limited knowledge on individuals, ideas, issues, or otherwise
During this year’s 2008 Democratic Primary Presidential Election, Hillary Clinton lost in some
states such as Virginia after harsh criticisms of her rival Barack Obama’s, while in other states
such as Pennsylvania she won decisively challenging Barack’s leadership abilities, perhaps from
the mounting negative press Barack had experienced in the national media regarding comments
made regarding American’s faith. In Florida none of the Democratic Presidential hopefuls
advertised, there was however national attention from several nationally televised debates and
press coverage in the local Florida news sites. Hillary won decisively in Florida, worth noting
as the results of the various state primary contests neither support nor disprove the research
19. Influence of Negative Campaigns on Public Opinion 19
Discussion (Cont’d)
conducted regarding the effects and influence on the public regarding strong statements
negatively directed at political rivals.
Republican Presidential front runner John McCain seems to have benefited from his rivals
mention of him in various Democratic debates. Mitt Romney’s statements attacking McCain
seem to have benefited him in Massachusetts and Montana but did not adversely limit McCain’s
chances in New York and California where he won by a considerable margin.
Republican Presidential hopeful Mike Huckabee did not engage in negative mud slinging. His
statements in this study are considered non combative, as such where used as a control for
manipulating the (independent variable) of candidate’s negative statements.
Republicans and Democrats alike all won in their home states indicating that local bias was
certainly a factor in this 2008 Presidential Primary.
Validity is not a commodity that can be purchased with [statistical] techniques (Brinberg &
McGrath, 1985, p. 13). On a conceptual level the findings important but inconclusive, thus the
ecological validity and replication of this study is impractical.
The selection of the participants may have influenced the validity of the conclusions given
students typically ranged from age of 18 to 25, being highly educated, and single which may
have impacted the results of this research. Inter-participant bias most certainly played a role in
the attitudes of those in the study, as students are more susceptible to social pressures than older
voters. Some of the candidates’ platforms and statements may have less influence on this young
demographic than older voters regarding religion, race, sex, or other factors.
20. Influence of Negative Campaigns on Public Opinion 20
Limitations and Future Research
Factors of attitudes and subjective norms make it difficult to consider and capture all the possible
dimensions of extraneous variables. Future and past campaigns might provide evidence that
strengthens and/or raises doubts about the research questions postulated here. Focusing on
credibility and trust, as key elements is critical to evaluating negative campaign messages. At
the very least this study offers insights into the transference of attitudes and actions regarding
negative comparative statements supporting existing research on Learning Theory.
21. Influence of Negative Campaigns on Public Opinion 21
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