The document provides information on the history and techniques of stop motion animation. It discusses early animation devices like the zoetrope, phenakistoscope and zoopraxiscope. It also covers key figures in the development of stop motion like Eadweard Muybridge, who captured motion through sequential photographs, and his influence on later animators. Willis O'Brien is discussed for his pioneering use of stop motion to bring King Kong and other monsters to life in films. The document also touches on principles like persistence of vision that help create the illusion of movement from individual frames.

1. +
Stop Motion Production
Robbie Hickman

2. +
Assessment
 This template covers the assessment for learning outcome one
of this unit
 Understand the techniques and development of stop motion
animationP1
describe the techniques
and development of stop
motion animation with
some appropriate use of
subject
terminology
M1
explain the techniques and
development of stop
motion animation with
reference to detailed
illustrative examples
and with generally correct
use of subject terminology
D1
comprehensively explain
the techniques and
development of stop
motion animation with
elucidated examples and
consistently using subject
terminology correctly

3. + Stop Motion
Definition
 Stop Motion is defined as an animation technique that is utilized
with the purpose of creating the illusion of movement. The
technique has been employed by filmmakers in order to create the
impression that objects, puppets etc. (which are unable to move
by themselves) are actually moving on their own. To accomplish
the illusion of movement, the object or person is moved (or
modified in regard to clay animation) incrementally and a series of
successive images are captured, each one depicting the object or
person in alternating positions between each shot. This series of
frames is then played as a continuous, uninterrupted sequence
with a smooth flow of action, thus creating the appearance of
motion. The amount of frames taken can vary depending on the
length of the scene, however the number of frames tends to be
fairly high (with over a hundred images needed). The frames are
also viewed in a rapid sequence so that the producer can remove
the presence of still images, therefore ensuring that the illusion of
movement is maintained throughout. In essence, this animation
technique enables filmmakers to bring inanimate objects to life.
• The technique can also apply to dolls, puppets, household
appliances and even people.

4. + Early Moving Image
Zoopraxiscope
 The Zoopraxiscope is an early projection device that was utilized with the primary
purpose of projecting sequences of still images in rapid succession, thus creating
the appearance of a moving image. First shown in 1879, the Zoopraxiscope
functioned by projecting multiple photographs of a specific subject, which were
painted onto rotating glass disks with a certain degree of precision to ensure that
the subject appeared as convincing as possible. The stop-motion images usually
took the form of silhouettes; the possible reason behind this might have been to
avoid any visible differences in regard to the images shown on the glass; it may
have been difficult to create a series of detailed and nearly identical images at the
time and if any significant differences were present, the sense of continuity
regarding the moving image would be broken. The Zoopraxiscope was invented
by British photographer Eadweard Muybridge in the same year it was shown for
the first time (1879) and was initially devised with the sole purpose of proving
Muybridge’s theory regarding pictures of a galloping horse. Muybridge intended to
show that, within a brief moment in time, all four of the horse’s hooves left the
ground during its gallop. As of the present day, the Zoopraxiscope is considered
by many to be the world’s first motion picture projector, therefore it is a highly
influential device. Sequences of rapid movement could be projected onto a
screen for the first time. As such, the device represents a pivotal moment in the
history of moving image, primarily because it laid the foundation for the
development of motion picture throughout the following century. With the
Zoopraxiscope, Muybridge was able to conduct experiments using images
depicting a wide range of animals in motion, particularly horses, birds, antelopes,
elephants etc.

5. +
Early Moving Image
Phenakistoscope
 The Phenakistoscope was an early animation device that utilized the ‘Persistence of
Vision’ principle in order to establish an eloquent illusion of motion. Invented by
Belgian physicist Joseph Plateau in 1832, the Phenakistoscope was structured in a
somewhat unique manner; it consisted of two spinning cardboard disks, both of
which were vertically attached to a handle and mounted on the same axis. A series
of equally spaced slots were placed on the edges of the first disk, whereas the
second disk consisted mainly of images depicting sequences of action. These
images were accurately sketched onto the disk. In order to view the single moving
image (which was generated by spinning the disks so that the images became
distorted), a person will have been required to peer into the moving slits in the first
disk. As opposed to spinning in two different directions at once, both disks spun in
the same direction and at the same time, thus creating the successful appearance of
movement via the synchronization of the slots and the pictures on the device.
Although the images presented on the device were discrete, they were still closely
related and many animators were not required to produce anything which gave a
realistic representation at the time.
 The Phenakistoscope is described as an animation device, and is also considered
one of the earliest forms of entertainment in relation to moving image as a whole. It
essentially paved the way for the development of motion picture, as well as the film
industry throughout the years. The device only enables one person at a time to view
the moving image; the reason for this is the structure of the Phenakistoscope. The
user is required to peer into a viewing mirror, through which the images are shown in
rapid succession (as shown in the image in the top right-hand corner). The
Phenakistoscope was clearly unique at the time, primarily because it enabled artists
to create illusions and achieve a comedic effect depending on the nature of the
subject which could have been a human face, an animal, a dancing couple or an
individual playing a particular sport e.g. football.

6. + Early Moving Image
Zoetrope
 A Zoetrope is described as one of three optical devices (with the other two devices
being the Phenakistoscope and the Thaumatrope) which displays a series of
pictures or drawings in order to create a moving image that represents specific
phases of motion in a simple manner. It consists solely of a spinning cylinder with
vertical slits in its sides, all of which are spaced evenly around the device. The
cylinder’s inner surface consists of a series of sequential images that are shown in
rapid succession when the cylinder spins, producing the illusion of motion. In order
to view the moving image on the inner surface, the user peers through the slits and
at the interior of the device as it spins. If the cylinder is spun faster, the progression
of the moving image appears smoother as opposed to the image becoming blurred
(this is the case with the Phenakistoscope)
 The Zoetrope was invented by William Horner in 1834, who referred to the device
as a ‘wheel of the devil’. Like its predecessor, the Phenakistoscope, the Zoetrope
also employs the ‘Persistence of Vision’ principle to establish motion. This clearly
shows that Horner was influenced by the Phenakistoscope and sought to create a
device that would not only go on to become a successor to the Phenakistoscope,
but also play an important role in regard to the gradual development of the motion
picture over time. However, despite being similar to the Phenakistoscope, the
Zoetrope seemed to build upon the aspects of the latter device i.e. offering a few
improvements. For example, it has been stated that more than one individual can
use the Zoetrope i.e. peer through the slits to see the moving image as opposed to
the Phenakistoscope which only enabled one person to use it at a time. This shows
that the Zoetrope has a unique design. In addition to this, the Zoetrope features
pictures, sketches etc. on a paper strip rather than a disc. This is quite beneficial as
it enables the artist to create images which are highly visible and not just mere
silhouettes (this was the case with the Zoopraxiscope). Also, the Zoetrope did not
require a viewing mirror for one person to peer into.

7. +Muybridge
 Eadweard Muybridge (9 April 1830 – 8 May 1904) was an English photographer
and a pioneer in the studies of motion, as well as the development of motion
picture projection in the 1880s decade. Born at Kingston Upon Thames, England,
he immigrated to the United States and became a successful bookseller. Later
on, he established himself as a full-time photographer and captured landscape
photographs. His reputation as a photographer eventually grew until he began
employing techniques which had never been utilized before in photography. One
of his techniques involved capturing multiple images of galloping horses to show
motion. This was accomplished through the use of the zoogyroscope (which later
became known as the zoopraxiscope), a fast camera shutter which Muybridge
developed. The techniques employed by Muybridge mostly involved depicting
sequences of movement within multiple photographs; this was accomplished
through usage of multiple cameras which projected a series of images, each one
depicting alternating phases of movement. A good example of how this technique
was used is the manner in which Muybridge captured a dozen photographs of a
galloping horse. Muybridge was then able to produce the illusion of motion in
these images by utilizing a fast-shutter speed and an alternate photographic
process. As a result, Muybridge was able to drastically reduce the exposure time
of his images and create the appearance of a trotting horse which astonished
those who saw it; the most likely reason for this is because the public had not yet
seen a moving image before due to the fact that they were living in a time period
where technology was not as enhanced as it is in the present day and that
people could not yet make sense of the details regarding fast-motion. It has been
stated that the human eye is unable to resolve the specific details of fast-motion
unaided. The techniques Muybridge employed were quite difficult to accomplish
at the time, primarily because of the nature of old-fashioned cameras. He could
only produce indistinct photographs, however he was able to prove his own
theory that all of the horse’s hooves leave the ground at once during its gallop.

8. +
Muybridge (part 2)
 Throughout his career, Muybridge developed this technique and produced a series of influential images
depicting not only horses, but also a wide range of other animals (most notably birds) in motion. This
project, titled ‘the 781 Plates of Animal Locomotion’ utilized an innovative gelatin dry-plate process and
would also go on to contribute to research in medicine, sport, anthropology etc. Of the 781 photographs
produced by Muybridge, only 200 depicted animals in motion. The other 581 pictures depicted humans in
motion; Muybridge would photograph a variety of movements in order to create motion within his images.
Muybridge was also required to direct his subjects, most of whom were males. This explains why
Muybridge’s images contributed to research regarding things like anthropology, which is the study of
humankind (most notably their cultures and development). The majority of his images depicted people in
motion and also sparked a great deal of controversy because most of his subjects were nude as well as
clothed. Overall, Muybridge clearly had a keen interest in photography, as well as its positive impact on
society, technological innovation and ongoing research into medicine and anthropology. He was intrigued
with the thought of capturing motion within his images.
 Known as the ‘Father of the Motion Picture’, Muybridge is widely recognized as one of the most important
individuals in the history of moving image. He is described as ‘the bridge between still photography and
recorded movement’. The motion-sequence still photographic experiments he conducted essentially laid the
foundation for cinema as a whole; the ‘Horse In Motion’ which was produced in 1882 is regarded as the first
moving picture in history. Muybridge’s work would later inspire other inventors later on, most notably
Etienne-Jules Marey, a physiologist who dedicated his own life mainly to monitor the external motions of the
human body as well as the laws that governed actions such as these. The camera used by Marey
throughout his career (which was modified by one of his assistants) was the forerunner of the motion picture
camera invented by Muybridge. The fast-shutter speed in Marey’s camera enabled him to photograph
projectiles e.g. bullets or flying birds. Muybridge is also considered highly important in regard to the motion
picture industry as cinematography as shown in the present day has developed from the experiments he
conducted throughout his career.

9. + Persistence of Vision
Definition
 ‘Persistence of Vision’ is a common theory that concerns the
complex abilities of the human mind and eye, specifically in
regard to viewing a moving image, whether it be a film in the
present day or a series of images on a traditional device such as
the Zoopraxiscope, amongst a variety of other factors involving
motion. Referred to as an optical phenomenon, the ‘Persistence
of Vision’ theory states that the naked eye possesses the unique
ability to retain an image (or a set of images) even after a fraction
of a second (0.04 of a second) has passed after the image
disappears and/or a new image takes its place. As a result,
multiple individually distinct images appear to blend into one
single image and, as our minds form a mental bridge in order to
comprehend the gaps between the frames that make up a moving
image on a subconscious level (whilst we are seeing it), an
illusion of continuity is established. In essence, the viewer
automatically interprets a rapid sequence of alternating images as
a single, continuous moving image.
 Although this theory is commonly accepted, it is considered highly
controversial by some individuals, primarily because the
‘Persistence of Vision’ principal within any moving image could
interfere with people on a subconscious level. Nevertheless, the
illusion of movement within any film or device tends to be smooth,
lifelike and coherent for the viewer(s).

10. + Willis O’Brien
 Willis H. O’Brien (March 2, 1886 – November 8, 1962) was an American special effects innovator who is most
famous for his work on animating the 1933 American Pre-Code monster film King Kong, which is considered to
be the greatest horror film of all time (according to film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes). The film revolves
around a gigantic, prehistoric ape who seeks to possess a young woman. It became well-known due to its
ground-breaking special effects, most notably stop-motion animation, rear projection and utilization of miniature
models. Created by O’Brien, these models would represent the different phases of movement in regard to the
character of King Kong, thus showing that a rapid sequence of images could be used to create the terrifying
illusion of gigantic characters which could appear on-screen for the first time thanks to O’Brien. He formerly
had a career as a draftsman, as well as a sports cartoonist and a sculptor. The latter two job roles O’Brien had
could be the likely reason behind his eventual decision to pursue a career in animation, which eventually led to
him creating pioneering special effects for films later on, most notably ‘The Lost World’ (1925) and ‘Mighty Joe
Young’ (1949). After producing his first film ‘The Dinosaur and the Missing Link: A Prehistoric Tragedy’, O’Brien
was hired by American filmmakers to animate a series of prehistoric short films, all of which utilized similar
themes, as well as animation techniques, to O’Brien’s first film. The techniques employed by O’Brien in order to
create the appearance of movement primarily involved the construction and animation of miniature models e.g.
dinosaurs as opposed to individuals or sketches played in a rapid sequence. In O’Brien’s case, miniature
models of dinosaurs, cavemen etc. were used. Over the years, O’Brien contributed to the post-production
process of many films, some of which became the first films to combine actors with immense models. Although
O’Brien played important roles in the production of various films throughout his lifetime, King Kong is said to be
his most remembered film. O’Brien’s technique mainly involved the animation of miniature figures and was
highly innovative because it provided American filmmakers with a wide range of new opportunities, mainly the
creation of ‘monstrous fantasies’. His pioneering efforts essentially opened up a huge range of possibilities
regarding filmmaking as a whole and also had a significant impact on the nature of films, as well as the manner
in which directors exploit a variety of unique techniques in order to enhance the visual quality of films.
 O’Brien is considered ‘the father of stop-motion animation’ primarily due to the fact that he created some of the
best-known images in cinema history, all of which would influence filmmakers in the years to come. However,
his techniques and efforts seemingly went unnoticed during his lifetime, although his elaborate ideas and
inventions were later realized and to this day, he is considered an inspiration to many, with some even referring
to O’Brien as ‘a legend amongst horror, dinosaur and animation fans’.

11. + Ray Harryhausen
 Raymond Frederick Harryhausen (better known as Ray Harryhausen) (June 29, 1920 – May 7,
2013) was an American-British animator and special-effects creator who was a pioneer in stop-
motion animation. During the early years of his life, he conducted experiments with animation
(particularly stop-motion) and used miniature figures representing the creatures from the 1933 film
King Kong. Harryhausen was inspired by King Kong, as well as the animation techniques utilized by
the pioneer model animator, Willis O’Brien specifically for the film. This clearly implies that the sole
reason why Harryhausen decided to pursue a career in animation was because he saw the works of
O’Brien and sought to refine O’Brien’s techniques over time, thus Harryhausen was influential
because he attempted to perfect the works of a pioneer before him. Harryhausen eventually met
O’Brien, who analysed and assessed the former’s animation techniques, subsequently urging him to
improve his skills to a more professional standard. This almost implies that O’Brien acted as a
mentor towards Harryhausen, and credence to this is strengthened by the fact that O’Brien also
possessed a great deal of enthusiasm prior to beginning his career in animation.
 Harryhausen animated a series of short films, which revolved around the technological development
and usage of military equipment, whilst he fought for the United States Army during the course of
World War II. It is very likely that the content of some of Harryhausen’s films was inspired by the
events he witnessed as a soldier, particularly violence, fighting, comradery, lack of mercy and loss of
hope. Therefore, Harryhausen applied some of the aspects of real-life events to his films and he will
have been able to communicate the nature of the conflict via his animation techniques.
Harryhausen’s first major film ‘Mighty Joe Young’ (1949), which was created by the exact same
production team responsible for King Kong, had him working in a post-production role alongside
O’Brien, who animated King Kong. This time around, O’Brien was the special effects supervisor and
Harryhausen was hired as assistant animator to O’Brien in 1947. During his first film assignment,
Harryhausen applied a great deal of creative ideas regarding the development of the characters
within Mighty Joe Young in order to create dramatic effect. Around six years later in 1953,
Harryhausen managed to obtain an important role in the post-production process for the 1953 Sci-Fi
monster film ‘The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms’. This was the first film in which Harryhausen was
placed in charge of all the stop-motion animation special effects. It was during the production of this
film that Harryhausen created an innovative form of stop-motion which he referred to as
‘Dynamation’.

12. +
Harryhausen (CONT.)
 Dynamation enabled filmmakers to insert live actors directly into the action in
order to interact with immense models animated by stop-motion for the first
time. A three-dimensional effect was provided to the animations shown within
the scenes of the film as a direct result, thus enhancing their visual quality. In
essence, this new technique involved combining two or more live action plates
(one representing an enlarged version of a miniature model and the other
representing a sequence of live action) and a as a result, a vast array of
opportunities were available in regard to what filmmakers could produce. The
primary reason why Harryhausen’s work is memorable his because it enabled
filmmakers to bring gargantuan figures e.g. mythical creatures or giants to life.
He employed the ‘Dynamation’ technique in his future films; for example, ‘Jason
and the Argonauts’ which was made in 1963, is considered famous due to its
fight sequences involving skeleton warriors, which are also considered as
‘iconic’ by some.
 Harryhausen’s final live-action film was Clash of the Titans (1981), which
featured stop-motion special effects much like Harryhausen’s other films in the
past. Following the distribution of this film, Harryhausen eventually retired and
went to live with his family; he remained with his wife until his death in 2013 at
the age of 92. His death was announced via social networking sites e.g.
Facebook and Twitter by members of his family. When Harryhausen died, he
clearly left behind a memorable legacy as many people consider him as having
‘enormous influence on today’s filmmakers’. Evidently, Harryhausen’s animation
techniques inspired a wide range of filmmakers, most notably George Lucas,
Steven Spielberg, Peter Jackson and Tim Burton.

13. + Jan Svankmajer
 Jan Svankmajer (both 4th September 1934) is a Czech filmmaker and surrealist
animator. He was born in Prague, the capital city of Czechoslovakia, in the same
year that the Czech Surrealist Group was formed. This is considered ‘coincidental’
by some because Svankmajer would become heavily involved with this newly-
formed organization. The work Svankmajer has produced during his career as an
animator and filmmaker is thought to be somewhat political in regard to content
and narrative. His artistic development is said to have begun when he was only a
child, at which point he was given a puppet theatre for Christmas. After
graduating, Svankmajer gained a great deal of theatrical experience which he
applied to his first film ‘The Last Trick’ (1964). This clearly shows that
Svankmajer’s desire to pursue a career in filmmaking was influenced by theatre
as a whole. He eventually became famous for his unique usage of animation
techniques (particularly stop-motion). The techniques employed by Svankmajer
were quite distinctive in comparison to the animation methods utilized by other
individuals; Svankmajer clearly had a habit of creating humorous (and yet, also
nightmarish) images for the entertainment of his audience. He also placed
exaggerated sound effects, sequences of accelerated motion and the illusion of
everyday objects coming to life with the obvious purpose of evoking humour (or
disorientating the audience). His distinctive use of stop-motion can be seen in
some of his works, particularly those involving eating scenes. For example, the
1992 short film ‘Food’ which was directed by Svankmajer consist of a wide range
of strange effects. The film appears to examine the relationship people have with
food; at the end of the ‘Breakfast’ sequence, a long queue of hungry individuals
extending down the corridor is clearly focused on.

14. + Svankmayer (part 2)
 A somewhat humorous implication is created; the process of feeding
every single person in the corridor will clearly be very time-consuming.
A strong sense of fatigue is also established. During the course of this
scene, two men are shown sitting at a table at a time and one of them
is forced to transform into a somewhat elaborate and slightly
complicated breakfast dispenser after obtaining food from the previous
person (who was also forced to turn into a dispenser in order to feed
the person after him.) After feeding the next person who enters the
room, the aforementioned man is allowed to leave whilst the other man
(who obtained breakfast from him) turns into the dispenser and the
cycle is implied to repeat itself again and again.
 ‘Food’ was described as ‘caustically witty but slight’ due to its content.
However, there is an apparent lack of negativity in the reviews for the
film in spite of the fact that the final segment (Dinner) features severed
human organs as food. This shows that Svankmayer’s intentions were
to experiment with stop-motion and create films that featured an
exaggeration regarding what is possible in real-life, mainly for the
entertainment of the audience. It was becoming increasingly obvious
that filmmakers could bring whatever ideas they come up with
(however warped) onto the screen and depict them via the stop-motion
technique. However, his films have been described in the past as
‘surreal, grotesque and censor-baiting’, thus showing that Svankmayer
and his works were considered controversial in the past.

15. +
Pixilation
 Pixilation is a stop-motion animation technique which utilizes live actors as living stop-motion puppets within
animated films. A highly specialized form of animation, it mainly involves a camera being placed in a fixed
position in order to prevent camera shake which could potentially result in discontinuity within the final
sequence of moving image due to the presence of jarring cuts or ‘jumps’ which would most likely disorientate
the viewer(s). A group of people (or a single person) would then proceed to pose in a certain manner with
respect to what they intend to produce, changing their position ever-so-slightly between each individual shot
whilst stood directly in front of the camera. After repeatedly posing during the capture of individual frames, the
filmmakers would play the images (each depicting the actors in various positions) back on a computer in rapid
succession, thus creating a sequence which gives the illusion of a moving image. The animation technique
has been present for many years, with filmmakers utilizing it as far back as the 1910’s decade. The invention
of pixilation is credited to Norman McLaren (April 11, 1914 – January 27, 1987), a Scottish/Canadian animator
and filmmaker who pioneered a variety of animation techniques including hand-drawn animation, abstract film,
graphical sound and drawn-on-film animation. McLaren’s work was made memorable by the fact that it would
provide increased opportunities for combining and synchronizing animation with music and sound effects in
the years to come, thus enhancing the quality of future films and ensuring that the overall process of post-
production was more simple than it ever had been.
 Pixilation is interesting because it enables a wide range of animators to create an almost surreal interpretation
of real-life. The animation technique creates visual effects which exaggerate what is possible in the real world,
essentially breaking the laws of physics on-screen and offering viewers a sense of escapism as a result.
Meanwhile, the environment and live actors which are also depicted on the screen are real, therefore allowing
the audience to associate the animation technique with the setting on a subconscious level. This increases the
level of enjoyment for the viewer. Pixilation is also ideal for combining live actors with animated models, thus
creating juxtaposition within a movie which employs pixilation to create animation. This helps the animator to
establish an effect which does well to provide more for the audience to interact with. It is assumed that the
majority of people will barely notice any significant differences between a film which features stop-motion and
a film which employs pixilation. The main reason for this is because in regard to pixilation, people are used as
opposed to puppets, clay or found objects. Many people consider pixilation to be far more difficult to pull off
because it requires live actors to maintain a specific position for an extended period of time whilst pictures are
taken of them incrementally. Therefore, the process of capturing the images necessary for the overall
sequence is quite time-consuming, as well as tiring for the subject(s). A great deal of patience is required
unlike stop-motion, thus putting the former animation technique at a slight disadvantage.

16. +
Pixilation (part 2)
 Over the years, pixilation has managed to established itself as a style of
animation in its own right, having become well-known; for example,
numerous movies, animated shorts, television shows, music videos and
advertisements utilize pixilation for a wide range of purposes, whether it
be to evoke humour or enhance the quality of a work. A good example of
how pixilation has been used in relation to humour is the British animated
short stop-motion adult comedy television series ‘Angry Kid’ which was
created, written and directed by Darren Walsh who also voices the
protagonist of the series. The series was produced by Aardman
Animations and employed a combination of pixilation and stop-motion
puppetry in order to animate the main character. The series was not
animated through use of clay animation or ‘Claymation’, although it
appears as though ‘Angry Kid’ is a model constructed out of clay (with an
almost similar appearance to the characters Wallace and Gromit). This
shows that filmmakers are also able to employ their own creative
techniques in order to expand the wide range of possibilities which are
available in regard to pixilation to enhance the appearance of their films.
What makes this animation technique even more interesting is the fact
that has also been used by well-established filmmakers and animators,
particularly Jan Svankmajer. Svankmajer apparently utilized the technique
in almost all of his films (including Food in 1992), however he had a
tendency to create animations which appeared somewhat warped in
nature, thus Svankmajer was thought to be a controversial individual. In
spite of this, however, pixilation was able to retain its significance as a
popular animation technique i.e. if people saw controversial films which
featured a specific technique, they may refuse to view a film which clearly
utilizes the same technique.

17. +
Aardman Animations
 Aardman Animations Ltd. Is a pre-eminent British animation studio headquartered in Bristol, England. It was founded 44
years ago in 1972 by Peter Lord and David Sproxton and is widely known for being responsible for the creation of
animated films via a wide range of stop-motion animation techniques, particularly clay animation or ‘Claymation’, and has
won four Oscars over the years. The studio initially took the form of a low-budget project; its two founders (Lord and
Sproxton) intended to produce an animated motion picture so that they could ‘fulfil their dream’. This partnership helped
to provide the BBC series with content to utilize within their programmes by creating a series of animated segments as
well as a simple clay character called ‘Morph’. The creation of this character via Claymation is considered to be the duo’s
first success because it became famous through its distribution on television, thus ensuring that a large group of people
would realize the existence of the character. Although this character mainly appealed to younger audiences i.e. children,
Lord and Sproxton mainly desired to create animations that would appeal to an adult audience. Over the years, the pair
were able to expand on their techniques and make their way into the industry by applying animation segments to music
videos and creating title sequences for films. As a result, the two of them were able to gain experience in the field of
animation; they would later apply this to their work within television. It was at this point that Lord and Sproxton began
employing additional animators whilst producing animated shorts for programmes on Channel 4.
 Park and David eventually met English director and animator Nick Park, who joined Aardman in 1985 and helped them
create the stop-motion Claymation short film ‘Creature Comforts’ which was initially intended as a segment for Channel 4.
The development of ‘Creature Comforts’ proved to be a breakthrough for the newly-formed animation company because
it managed to win an Oscar. Over the years, Aardman animations managed to gain a great deal of reputation worldwide,
mainly due to the nature of the short films they produced with the help of Park. These short films utilized clay animation
as a stop-motion technique to create scenes of action. This specific technique mainly involves the capture of individual
images, each one depicting a miniature figure constructed out of a malleable substance in alternating positions e.g.
different stages of walking or speaking. The use of a malleable substance can be considered beneficial for an animated
film due to the fact that it is easy to shape the characters and live actors are generally not required to pose between shots
as this would take a great deal of effort. The technique is also beneficial because it allows for a strong sense of freedom
in regard to production; because the models and made out of a malleable material, the animators can stretch and squash
them, altering their posture and facial expressions in the process. This technique was employed by Aardman Animations
to create the British clay animation comedy series ‘Wallace and Gromit’ which was written and directed by Nick Park, who
collaborated with Aardman Animations to produce the series. Therefore, Aardman Animations were the production studio
responsible for bringing Park’s ideas to the big screen. Alongside DreamWorks Animations, they also created Wallace
and Gromit: The Curse of the Were-Rabbit, a 2005 full-length feature film which utilized the same stop-motion technique
which was used in the original series. The series focuses on the misadventures of Wallace, an eccentric inventor, and his
pet dog/companion Gromit.

18. +
Aardman Animations (part 2)
 The latter character is described as ‘silent, loyal and intelligent’ and does
not speak throughout the course of the series and the film, instead
communicating via body language and facial expression. The series
garnered approval from critics, becoming hugely successful and well-
known, especially in Britain. Both Wallace and Gromit have become
‘positive icons of modern British culture’, thus allowing audiences to
establish an emotional connection with them even though they are
animated figures as opposed to real people on the screen. Another good
example of the work accomplished by the studio is the 2000 stop-motion
comedy film ‘Chicken Run’ which became Aardman’s first feature-length
film, as well as the highest-grossing stop-motion animated film of all time
(it grossed over $224 million). The film revolves around a band of chickens
who make an attempt to escape the farm they are being kept at in order to
avoid certain death at the hands of the owners. The film was directed by
Nick Park and Peter Lord. Aardman Animations are also well-known for
the unique manner in which they create stop-motion animation; the studio
tends to utilize a style of stop-motion which is referred to as ‘painstakingly
slow’, with just a few seconds of footage considered a good day’s work.
This creates the impression that the process of constructing a film for this
specific company is very time-consuming, with a great deal of patience
being required to achieve a better end result. The studio clearly assume
that the more time and effort they put into the production process of their
films, the better the films will look upon completion.

19. + Visual style – Tim Burton
 Timothy Walter Burton (better known as Tim Burton) (Born: August 25,
1958) is an American film director, writer and producer. He was born in
Burbank, California to parents who had somewhat contrasting
backgrounds; his mother was the owner of a gift shop and his father initially
pursued a career in baseball. Burton apparently possessed a keen interest
in film during his early years; as a teenager, he spent much of his spare
time creating short films which employed various animation techniques and
were sometimes silent i.e. no dialogue. Burton may have had a difficult
upbringing as he was always an introspective person when he was
younger. In other words, he was a broody individual who spent a fair
amount of time examining his own thoughts and emotions. This implies that
Burton was lonely during his education. His hobbies included painting,
drawing and watching and making films. Later on, Burton would go on to
pursue a career in character animation, which initially landed him a job role
as an assistant animator. Burton also worked as a concept artist. In 1982,
Burton produced his first animated short, ‘Vincent’ which was a black-and-
white stop motion film. His next animated short film ‘Frankenweenie’ was
released two years later in 1984. The latter film was also captured in black
and white. Burton’s choice of tone and colour within his initial films resulted
in a dark and menacing appearance in regard to the settings and
characters, thus enabling him to establish the emotions of the characters
and/or the nature of the locations depicted within the films. However, both
‘Vincent’ and ‘Frankenweenie’ have a grim feel to them, thus the overall
experience for the viewer would not be entertaining. It is possible that
Burton intended to communicate the darker aspects of life via his films, and
credence to this statement is strengthened by the fact that Burton was a
lonely individual and was miserable during his early years.

20. +
Tim Burton (part 2)
 Burton is best known for creating films which appeared somewhat gothic in
regard to tone. The majority of the films he has created feature narratives which
tend to employ core themes such as loss, obsession, desire and hope. These
themes tend to be represented in a manner which can be considered slightly
disturbing in his films, thus the films Burton created were thought to be ‘too dark
and scary’ for younger audiences. As a direct result, Burton was fired by Disney,
after which he pursued an opportunity to produce his own full-length film. In the
years since, Burton has interacted with multiple film companies such as Warner
Bros. and produced a wide range of films. Some of Burton’s most famous
movies include Beetlejuice (1988), Batman (1989), Batman Returns (1992),
Edward Scissorhands (1990) and Mars Attacks! (1996). Burton has stated that
he was influenced by Dr. Seuss and Roald Dahl, both of whom were best known
for writing and publishing children’s books which became highly popular upon
publication. It is implied that Burton looked up to these authors and that the
primary reason why he decided to create animations which appealed to young
audiences is due to him being intrigued by children’s books when he was
younger. Burton tends to utilize clay animation within his animated films, much
like Nick Park employs the same technique in order to animate characters like
Wallace and Gromit. In addition to this, Burton generally attempts to represent
different time periods, particularly the mid 20th Century, through usage of lighting
and colour (black and white) as well as different styles of clothing for characters
(most notably clothes designed with black and white stripes).

21. +
Audiences
 What are the three core audiences for stop motion? What
techniques would you expect to be most appropriate in
examples for each audience type?
 You should use at least a slide for each and include some
examples of the animation you discuss to support you points.
 Consider style of animation, art styles, sound design, voices,
etc

22. + Adult audience
 Family Guy is an American adult animated comedy television series that airs on the FOX television network. The series
was created by Seth MacFarlane for the Fox Broadcasting Company in the year 1998, with the first appearance of the
protagonists taking place on May 15 of the same year. The series is based within ‘Quahog’, a fictional city situated on
Rhode Island. It mainly revolves around the adventures of a dysfunctional family called the Griffins (consisting of parents
Peter and Lois, their three children Meg, Chris and Stewie, and their pet dog Brian, who is able to speak along with
Stewie, even though the latter is only a baby). The sitcom primarily uses ‘cutaways’, a filmmaking technique which is the
insertion of a shot into a continuous sequence of action, essentially ‘interrupting’ the flow of action in order to achieve
comedic effect. This technique is present in almost every Family Guy episode. The series makes use of humorous
visuals, as well as self-referential humour, in order to entertain the audience and keep them intrigued throughout the
majority of each episode. The primary target audience for Family Guy is adults due to the presence of adult themes,
profanity and graphic, sometimes over-the-top, violence and gore. The secondary audience for the series would most
likely be young children because this age group is not the intended audience. The main reason for this is because
children are more likely to be offended by the content of the series or become influenced in a negative manner; for
example, children might assume that the use of profanity is okay.
 The series has apparently gained controversy over the years, with some referring to it as ‘sick, twisted and politically
incorrect’. Likewise, the series is highly indecent and tends to rely on ‘recycled humour’. The storytelling has been
described as ‘thin with a loose plot’ and the repeated usage of the same editing technique (cutaway shot) has drawn
criticism. However, the series has been ranked as one of the greatest cartoons of all time, with review aggregators
referring to it as ‘breathtakingly smart, extremely funny and a pop culture-heavy masterpiece’. In order to obtain
humorous visuals, a wide range of animation techniques are used, particularly Cel-Shading. This animation technique
primarily revolves around the creation of 3D models which are edited via computer rather than been drawn by hand. This
style of animation is beneficial because it results in a highly satisfying appearance in regard to the characters, as well as
the location they are in. Therefore, the overall experience for the audience would be enhanced. This shows that the
major reason why MacFarlane decided to animate Family Guy rather than film live action was aesthetics i.e. the look and
visual style of the series. Three of the main characters of Family Guy (Peter, Brian and Stewie) are voiced by
MacFarlane. The main reason behind MacFarlane’s decision to voice the characters himself is because he had a strong
vision for them and he believed that only he could communicate the nature of his characters rather than someone else.
MacFarlane tends to use his regular voice whilst voicing Brian, and puts on two different voices whilst playing Peter and
Stewie. As a result, a strong sense of variety is established within the series. Additional voice actors (most notably Mila
Kunis and Seth Green) were employed to voice other characters, particularly Lois and Meg who are female characters.

23. +
Children’s audience
 The Flintstones (1960 – 1966) is an animated television series which takes place in a
‘fantasy version’ of the Stone Age and depicts the lifestyles of cavemen characters who
co-exist with long-extinct animals, particularly dinosaurs and sabre-tooth tigers in a time
period which apparently features aspects of the mid-20th century e.g. restaurants, music
and cars (albeit the fact that the vehicles depicted within the series are constructed out
of stone and wood. In essence, the creators of the series have created ‘a 20th Century
society within prehistory’. This clearly shows that the primary purpose of utilizing
animation techniques rather than filming live actors was to achieve effects which could
only be produced through animation, most notably the movement of the characters
during a certain ordeal. The resulting effects could be quite entertaining for young
children, therefore the planned, main target audience for ‘the Flintstones’ is young
children aged 5-11 years. Another reason for the employment of animation techniques in
this series was most likely to achieve things which cannot be achieved in real-life.
 The Flintstones is best known as ‘the first animated primetime American TV series’, as
well as its combination of two different time periods: the Stone Age and modern
civilization. This helps the animators to create juxtaposition within each episode; the
effect created could be highly entertaining for young children. In order to create the
series, the animators utilized a specific technique; rather than animating 3D computer-
generated models, the animators drew the characters by hand and will have played
each image in rapid succession so that they could create movement, as well as facial
expressions. This animation technique clearly results in characters that are two-
dimensional, therefore the series should be appropriate for children because there isn’t
too much present on the screen; the presence of multiple aspects e.g. people, buildings
and vehicles in large numbers could easily disorientate younger audiences as opposed
to adult audiences. The animations depicted within ‘the Flintstones’ are shown to be
simple.

24. +
Universal audience
 The Simpsons is a long-running American animated television series created by Matt Groening
for the Fox Broadcasting Company. The series is based at the fictional town of Springfield and
acts as a somewhat satirical representation of American culture and society, as well as the lives
of working-class individuals. The protagonists of the series are the Simpson family, which
consists of parents Homer and Marge, and their three children Bart, Lisa and Maggie. The series
has received widespread critical acclaim over the years and is considered the ‘best television
series of the 20th century’, although the quality of the series has begun to decrease in recent
years.
 The Simpsons clearly has universal appeal i.e. it is suitable for adults and younger children to
watch and is, essentially, aimed at everyone. As opposed to Family Guy (which also airs on
FOX), the Simpsons rarely features profanity (although only milder forms of swearing are
present) and there is little focus on violence. The Simpsons clearly appeals to families as a
whole, mainly due to the fact that the main characters are a family, with each member receiving
their own character development, and that the series focuses on the concept of growing up, as
well as parenting i.e. the upbringing of a child. Similar to Family Guy, the Simpsons appears to
use 3D animation techniques such as Cel-Shading, which involves creating 3D models and
enhancing their appearance so that they look highly convincing to the viewer. Unlike Family Guy,
there is a strong sense of tranquility within the Simpsons; the town of Springfield is clearly
represented as a peaceful environment with little going on i.e. there aren’t a lot of aspects to
interact with and this increases the chances of younger viewers not becoming confused by the
content of the series.

25. +
Production considerations - FPS
 Shooting on Twos
 ‘Shooting on Twos’ is a technique within stop-motion which involves capturing
two images for every movement the subject makes whilst images are being
captured of him/her. In essence, this process doubles the frames within stop-
motion, and a single image is shown within two separate frames. Therefore, if a
film runs at 24 frames per second (or 24 FPS), 12 different movements are
required in regard to the subject for each second of the film. This technique is
important because it offers a strong sense of fluidity i.e. smooth movement is
created in regard to the characters and this enhances the overall experience
for the viewer whilst watching the completed animation, and the eye is tricked
into thinking that the rapid succession of images are actually a single moving
image. This clearly shows that ‘Shooting on Twos’ is vital for ensuring that an
animation maintains fluidity and that the audience is kept intrigued throughout
the course of the animation. The technique is somewhat common in anime,
which is a Japanese hand-drawn two-dimensional computer animation. Anime
requires a certain degree of complexity in regard to the design of the
characters depicted. Therefore, the characters appear quite ‘vibrant’ and this
enhances the visual quality of animations in this specific style. In addition to
this, the presence of ‘fantastical themes and graphics’ adds to the overall
appearance of anime.

26. +
Genres and forms
 Select examples of your own to study
 You should use at least one of each of the following:
 TV Advert
 TV show [short example enough, e.g. a Robot Chicken sketch]
 Online/viral video [e.g. Patrick Boivin, Rhett & Link]
 You should comment on the intended audience for the work, how
successful you think the animation is, relevant technical codes and
links to other animators past and present
 Use at least one slide for each [you may add more], include a
weblink for a clip and illustrative images to evidence your
discussion

27. +
TV advert
 Dolmio
 Dolmio is a brand name given to a range of pasta sauces which consist of a wide
range of ingredients e.g. basil, salt, sunflower oil and spices and are used with the
purpose of enhancing the flavor of various types of food. An advertisement for
Dolmio’s products was produced with the intention of promoting the brand; the
people who created the advert clearly desired to attract a great deal of attention from
huge numbers of people and they have been able to accomplish this due to the fact
that millions of people watch television as of recent times, thus television advertising
is considered the ideal way to promote a certain product, whether it be a new brand
of food, deodorant, clothing etc. The advertisement for Dolmio takes the form of a 3D
animation which crudely represents a family in Italy whilst providing focus on the
aspects of Dolmio pasta sauce.
 The primary audience for this advertisement is most likely adults because they tend
to be responsible for cooking food for their children, friends etc. and it can be stated
that young children would have no clue whatsoever regarding how to cook food
safely. Although the advert does well to advertise the Dolmio brand, the style of
animation employed creates a strange effect in regard to the family members who
are clearly puppets positioned in a large set rather than miniature figures made out
of a malleable material that is altered between shots. The mouths of the characters
appear huge and their faces appear bloated. Also, the representation of Italian
individuals created by characters with Italian accents can be considered quite
negative because the characters appear naïve in terms of attitude. It is thought that
the advert ‘plays viciously’ to the stereotypes of Italians and what they look/act like
and this isn’t a good impression.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0GtrALGLbhI

28. +
TV show
 Family Guy
 The animated sitcom ‘Family Guy’ relies on Cel-Shading, a 3D
animation technique which is utilized with the purpose of
enhancing the appearance of a model which is animated via
computer as opposed to being drawn as a two-dimensional image.
In my opinion, this animation technique is quite influential because
it drastically enhances the visual quality of a character and makes
the character appear far more convincing than if it was sketched
onto paper. In essence, the character appears more life-like and
this could potentially enable the audience to associate with them,
primarily because the characters appear and act almost identical
to people in real-life. These animated images are created with the
purpose of evoking humour; Family Guy features elements of the
genre of comedy within its episodes and the series somewhat
reflects the aspects of American culture and society. The creation
of 3D images via computer tends to result in an overall sequence
that mirrors professional standards, thus implying a great deal of
patience in regard to the animators.

29. +
Online/viral video
 The Paper Kites – Young
 The music video for the 2013 neo-folk song ‘Young’ by Australian indie rock-folk
band ‘The Paper Kites’ clearly utilizes stop-motion as an animation technique in
order to create the illusion of countless random individuals lip-syncing to the
lyrics of the song as they each appear on-screen one after the other very
briefly. As the music video progresses, it becomes increasingly difficult to count
every single person who appears on-screen, and the effect created by each
person lip-syncing can be quite disorientating for some because it is hard to
focus on the facial features of all the individuals as they are shown in rapid
succession throughout the length of the video. In my opinion, the use of stop-
motion animation is quite clever. A great deal of patience is implied and it is
obvious that the video took a while to make and required extreme precision to
avoid discontinuity within the video. In order to create the desired effect, each
individual will have been required to make a certain facial expression so that an
illusion is created of every person singing all at the same time. Effectively, this
ensures that the music video reflects a professional standard and is therefore
quite successful.
 The intended audience for the music video is likely to be fans of the indie-rock
folk genre, as well as people aged 17 or below. The main reason why the video
would appeal to this age group is because of the manner of the lyrics, which
refer to the characteristics of being a teenager, particularly leaving school and
beginning to think about the future.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CF8PSGl-aIY