STEREOISOMERISM
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This document discusses stereoisomerism and reducing/non-reducing sugars. It defines stereoisomers as isomers that have the same molecular formula but differ in the orientation of atoms in space. There are two types of stereoisomers - enantiomers, which are nonsuperimposable mirror images, and diastereomers which are not mirror images. Reducing sugars have an OH group attached to the anomeric carbon, allowing them to donate electrons, while non-reducing sugars like sucrose do not. Examples of reducing sugars are monosaccharides and disaccharides like maltose and lactose.
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Isomerism
History
In the year 1827, chemistry scholar Friedrich Woehler prepared cyanic acid and got surprised that the chemical composition of the formed substance was identical to the fulminic acid but the properties of this acid are very much different. This finding created shockwaves in the science scholar community as at that time it was considered that chemical compounds can only have different properties if they have different elemental
One of the most essential features of organic molecules is their propensity compositions. After some discoveries of some sort, this was considered a scientific phenomenon and Jacob Berzelius named this phenomenon Isomerism.
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to show isomerism. Two or more compounds with the same molecular formula but different physical and chemical properties are known as isomers, and this property of a compound is known as Isomerism.
Types of Isomerism
Isomerism can be classified into two categories as follows:
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• Stereoisomerism
Structural Isomerism
The constitution of a molecule refers to the quantity, kind, and connection of its atoms. The structural isomers or constitutional isomers differ in the connection of their atoms, and this phenomenon is known as structural isomerism. It is also known as constitutional isomerism.
Because they have the same molecular formula, ethanol, and dimethyl ether are isomers. C2H6O. Because the atoms in each chemical are bonded differently, they are structural isomers. The following are some examples of structural isomerism in various forms:
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• Position isomerism
• Functional isomerism
• Metamerism
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• Ring chain isomerism
Chain Isomerism
Chain isomers are isomeric substances that differ solely in the arrangement of carbon atoms in the base chain, and chain isomerism is isomerism between them. The carbon atom chain or skeleton differs amongst isomers of this type.
Carbon atoms can be arranged in a straight or branched chain. Chain isomerism does not exist in molecules comprising up to three carbon atoms since they are a continuous chain with no chance of branching. It is demonstrated for compounds with four or more carbon atoms.
• Chain isomerism in alkanes: Alkanes containing four or more carbon atoms. For example, Two chain isomers are represented by the chemical formula C4H10.
• Chain isomerism in alkenes: When writing chain isomers for alkenes, the position of the double bond should not be modified. For example, Two chain isomers are represented by the chemical formula C4H8.
Position Isomerism
Position isomerization is a phenomenon that occurs when two or more compounds differ in the position of a component atom or functional group on the carbon skeleton.
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Two or more molecules with the same chemical formula but distinct functional groups are called functional isomers. Functional isomerism is the term for this occurrence.
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Isomerism MANIK
Isomerism:
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Molecules of life
The document provides an overview of important biological molecules including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. It discusses the composition and functions of these macromolecules. Carbohydrates include sugars, starches, and fibers that serve as energy sources. Lipids such as fats and oils provide energy storage and insulation. Proteins are made of amino acids and perform structural and functional roles in the body. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA carry genetic information and aid cellular functions. The document emphasizes the significance of these molecules for life.
Basic Concepts of Chemistry.pptx
Chemistry
Chemistry is the branch of science that deals with the composition, structure and properties of matter.
Chemistry is also called the science of atoms and molecules.
Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes.
Nursing
Nursing is a profession within the healthcare sector focused on the care of individuals, families and communities so they may attain, maintain or recover optimal health and quality of life.
Nurses may be differentiated from the other healthcare providers by their approach to patient care, training and scope of practice.
Chemistry in nursing is very important, as it sets the basis for understanding the medications that are being administered to certain patients
Nurses must understand how particular medicines will react in different patients. This helps to avoid wrong combinations of drugs that can lead to adverse effects.
Nursing programs feature different chemistry courses, including biochemistry, pharmacology, general level chemistry and organic chemistry. All of these courses play an important role in helping nurses understand different organic compounds, chemical equations, chemical reactions and chemical processes.
Therefore, chemistry knowledge allows nurses to understand the effects of different medicines when used alone or in combination with others.
The nurse must understand the present condition of the patient, importance and difference in sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, oxygen and many other elements and electrolytes in the body. This understanding will guide the nurse to identify if there is an electrolyte imbalance.
Thus, it is vital for nurses to have the skills to take care of their patients emotionally, but it is also important that the nurse have the necessary knowledge to interpret data regarding the patient condition to treat physically accurately and in a timely manner.
The term matter refers to anything that occupies space and has mass. All matter is made up of substances called elements, which have specific chemical and physical properties and cannot be broken down into other substances through ordinary chemical reactions.
There are two ways of classifying the matter:
(A) Physical Classification
Matter can exist in three physical states:
Solids
Liquids
Gases.
(B) Chemical classification
Based upon the composition, matter can be divided into two main types:
Pure Substances
Mixtures.
1. Solids
The solid state is one of the fundamental states of matter.
Solids differ from liquids and gases by the characteristic of rigidity.
The molecules of solids are tightly packed because of strong intermolecular forces; they only oscillate about their mean positions.
Whereas, liquids and gases possess the property of fluidity and can easily flow.
Solids can be defined as the state of matter which has definite shape and volume and has a rigid structure.
Solids possess the least compressibility and thermal expansion. Example: Iron (Fe)
2. Liquid
The molecules in a liquid are
Chemistry of Carbohydrates.pptx
Carbohydrates serve several important functions in the body. They are the main sources of energy, used for energy storage in glycogen, and make up the structural components of cells. Monosaccharides like glucose and fructose cannot be broken down further. Disaccharides form when two monosaccharides combine via glycosidic linkage, examples being sucrose, maltose, and lactose. Sucrose is not a reducing sugar while lactose and maltose are. Carbohydrates can exhibit structural, stereoisomerism including mutarotation of glucose.
Brief introduction to chemistry I
This document provides an introduction to basic chemistry concepts. It defines key terms like molecule, atom, element, and compound. It explains that atoms are made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons. The number of protons determines the element, and differences in neutrons create isotopes. Electrons orbit the nucleus, held together by electrostatic attraction between protons and electrons. Common elements in the human body are identified by mass and atomic proportion. Atoms differ in size based on their number of protons and neutrons. This influences their chemical properties and reactivity.
Biochemistry 1
This document provides an overview of biochemistry topics including:
- Atoms are the basic unit of matter and are made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
- Compounds are formed by the chemical combination of two or more elements. There are organic compounds that contain carbon and inorganic compounds that usually support life.
- Chemical bonds such as ionic bonds and covalent bonds hold atoms together in molecules and compounds.
- Mixtures and solutions involve the physical mixing of substances rather than chemical bonding. Acids and bases are defined in terms of excess hydrogen or hydroxide ions.
- Biochemical reactions and functional groups are discussed in relation to organic molecules like carbohydrates, proteins, lipids,
Food science basics 2 - Food Chemistry Basics
This is the second session of the food science basics course developed by foodcrumbles.com. This session focusses on food chemistry. We'll be discussing atoms, molecules, drawing of molecules and the most prevaltent molecules in food (carbohydrates, fats & proteins).
The course sessions are meant for those with a limited background in food science but with an interest in improving their understanding of food. For example: food bloggers, professionals in the food industry, (high school) students and chefs.
Atoms and Molecules - Grade 6
An atom is the smallest particle of an element that can exist. Atoms combine to form molecules, which are the basic units of compounds and some elements. Molecules can be represented by chemical formulas that show the number and type of atoms in the molecule, such as H2O for a water molecule containing two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Circles and spheres are also used to model atoms and molecules to aid in the study of their structures.
Carbohydrate
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1. Carbohydrates have the general formula Cx(H2O)y and include monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
2. Monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides are formed from two monosaccharides and include maltose, lactose, and sucrose.
3. Polysaccharides have many monosaccharide units and function to store energy. Starch and cellulose are examples of polysaccharides.
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STEREOISOMERISM
- 2. OBJECTIVES • Define the Stereoisomerism • Difference of reducing and non-reducing sugars • What is a reducing and non-reducing sugars
- 3. What is stereoisomerism? • Are isomers that have the same molecular and structural formulas but differ in the orientation of atom in space. By contrast, atoms are connected to each other in different ways in constitutional isomers. • Defined in an earlier introductory section, isomers are different compounds that have the same molecular formula. • Stereoisomers are isomers that have the same composition. • Came from the Greek word "isos" and "meros'' which means equal part, the term is coined by Swedish chemist Jacob Berzelius (1830)
- 4. MAJORS STRUCTURAL FEATURES THAT GENERATE STEREOISOMERISM: 1. The presence of a chiral center in a molecule. 2. The presence of ‘structural rigidity’ I a molecule.
- 5. Two division of Stereoisomers: • Enantiomers • Are stereoimers whose molecules are nonsuperimposable mirror images of each other. Left- and-right-handed forms of a molecule with a single chiral center are enantiomers
- 6. • Diastereomers - are stereoisomers whose molecules are not mirror images of each other. - Example: Alkene and Cycloakane. Two or more stereocenter. can include compounds that are ring structures. Consider two compounds with a six-membered ring that have two substituents each . Example a clorine atom and an ethyl group.
- 8. Do the molecules have the same molecular formula? NO YES The molecules are NOT isomers molecules are ISOMERS Are the atoms bonded in the same order in the two molecules? YES NO The molecules are CONSTITUTION AL ISOMERS The molecules are STEREOISOMERS. Are the molecules NONSUPERIMPOSABLE MIRROR IMAGE? The molecules are ENANTIOMERS The molecules are DIASTEREORISM YES NO
- 9. REDUCING AND NONREDUCING SUGARS • Monosaccharide are example of reducing sugars. • All monosaccharide such as glucose are reducing sugars. A disaccharide can be a reducing sugar or non-reducing sugar. Maltose and lactose are reducing sugars . • You can identify a sugar by looking for the anomeric carbon. • Anomeric carbon is the first stereocenter of the molecule. • If that stereocenter has an OH group coming off of it then it is reducing sugar. • Purpose of Reducing sugars: • The most important monosaccharide is glucose, because is known as blood sugars and it is essential for brain function and physical energy.
- 10. WHY IS REDUCING SUGARS IMPORTANT IN HUMANS? • It is important in maintaining human life by creating an energy source for the body. • NON-REDUCING SUGARS do not have an OH group attached to the anomeric carbon so they cannot reduce other compounds • It is a sugar that cannot donate electrons to other molecules. • SUCROSE is an example of non-reducing sugars. • Other examples are TREHALOSE,RAFFINOSE, STACHYOSE AND VERBASCOSE.
- 11. IS STARCH A NON-REDUCING SUGARS? • Starch is not a reducing sugar. The first ring cannot open up because there’s no hydrogen on the circled oxygen. • Polysaccharide such as starch are not reducing sugars. STARCHY FOODS
- 12. Sucrose:(non-reducing sugars) Glucose: (reducing sugars)
- 13. Maltose: Reducing Sugars Lactose: Reducing Sugars