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Cyclotron
This document describes the working of a cyclotron particle accelerator. It explains that a cyclotron uses a magnetic field to curve the path of charged particles into a circular orbit, while an alternating electric field accelerates the particles at each half orbit. As the particles accelerate, they travel along spiraling paths of increasing radius. The document provides details on the construction of a cyclotron, including its dees and vacuum chamber between magnets. It also gives the mathematical expression for the cyclotron frequency that determines the electric field frequency needed for resonance acceleration. Limitations of the cyclotron are that particle mass may change at high speeds and it is difficult to accelerate low-mass particles like electrons.
Interaction of x rays with matter
In this lecture, we will be talking only about the interaction of an ionizing electromagnetic radiation with matter, specifically about the interaction of X-Rays with the matter
Note: Gamma rays interact with the matter by the same way that X-rays interact with matter. In this lecture, we just focused on X-rays to complete our previous lecture about the production of X-rays
RADIATION HAZARDS AND PROTECTION
This document provides an overview of radiation hazards and protection. It begins with definitions of key terms like ionizing radiation and discusses natural and man-made radiation sources. It then examines the biological effects of radiation like deterministic and stochastic effects. Radiation-induced cellular damage and cancer development is explained. Factors affecting radiosensitivity and the relationships between dose and effects are also summarized. Throughout, simple language is used to make radiation concepts accessible to non-experts while still conveying essential scientific information about radiation hazards and safety.
Biological effects of radiation
This document provides an overview of radiobiology and radiation biology. It begins by defining radiobiology as the study of the effects of ionizing radiation on living systems. It then discusses the initial interactions of radiation with matter on an atomic level and how this can lead to molecular changes in cells and organisms over time, potentially resulting in injury or death. The document further explores the composition of matter, types of radiation including ionizing and non-ionizing radiation, radiation measurements, and concepts such as linear energy transfer and relative biological effectiveness. It also examines the sequence of radiation injury and key related terms.
Radioactivity
The document discusses radioactive decay and nuclear physics concepts. It describes the discovery of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel and the Curies. It defines key nuclear physics terms like isotopes, isobars, isotones. It explains the different types of radioactive decay including alpha, beta, positron decay and gamma emission. It discusses the penetration and ranges of different types of radiation. Finally, it covers the conservation of energy and mass in nuclear reactions based on Einstein's mass-energy equivalence formula.
Radioactivity
Radioactivity occurs when an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting radiation such as particles or electromagnetic waves. There are three main types of radiation: alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays. The rate of radioactive decay is described by half-lives, which is the time it takes for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample to decay. Radioactivity has many uses including cancer treatment, measuring thickness of materials, smoke detectors, and generating electricity through nuclear fission. Radiation can be detected using instruments like Geiger-Muller counters.
Basic Interaction Between X-Rays & Matter.pptx
X-ray photons can interact with matter through five basic interactions: coherent scattering, photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, pair production, and photodisintegration. At diagnostic energies, the most common interactions are coherent scattering, the photoelectric effect, and Compton scattering. The photoelectric effect produces high quality images but also results in higher patient radiation exposure. Compton scattering is the main source of scatter radiation in diagnostic radiology and can reduce image quality.
18 HM-- RADIATION SOURCES -NATURAL AND MAN MADE
The document discusses natural and man-made sources of radiation. It covers three main types of natural radiation exposure: 1) Cosmic radiation from sources outside the earth like the sun and solar system formation. Cosmic rays interact with the atmosphere to produce secondary particles. 2) External radiation from natural radioactive elements in the earth's crust like uranium, thorium, and potassium. 3) Internal exposure from radioactive elements in the body like carbon-14 and potassium-40. The document provides details on cosmic radiation levels at different altitudes and its interaction with the atmosphere. Natural sources are the main contributor to background radiation levels.
Recommended
Cyclotron
This document describes the working of a cyclotron particle accelerator. It explains that a cyclotron uses a magnetic field to curve the path of charged particles into a circular orbit, while an alternating electric field accelerates the particles at each half orbit. As the particles accelerate, they travel along spiraling paths of increasing radius. The document provides details on the construction of a cyclotron, including its dees and vacuum chamber between magnets. It also gives the mathematical expression for the cyclotron frequency that determines the electric field frequency needed for resonance acceleration. Limitations of the cyclotron are that particle mass may change at high speeds and it is difficult to accelerate low-mass particles like electrons.
Interaction of x rays with matter
In this lecture, we will be talking only about the interaction of an ionizing electromagnetic radiation with matter, specifically about the interaction of X-Rays with the matter
Note: Gamma rays interact with the matter by the same way that X-rays interact with matter. In this lecture, we just focused on X-rays to complete our previous lecture about the production of X-rays
RADIATION HAZARDS AND PROTECTION
This document provides an overview of radiation hazards and protection. It begins with definitions of key terms like ionizing radiation and discusses natural and man-made radiation sources. It then examines the biological effects of radiation like deterministic and stochastic effects. Radiation-induced cellular damage and cancer development is explained. Factors affecting radiosensitivity and the relationships between dose and effects are also summarized. Throughout, simple language is used to make radiation concepts accessible to non-experts while still conveying essential scientific information about radiation hazards and safety.
Biological effects of radiation
This document provides an overview of radiobiology and radiation biology. It begins by defining radiobiology as the study of the effects of ionizing radiation on living systems. It then discusses the initial interactions of radiation with matter on an atomic level and how this can lead to molecular changes in cells and organisms over time, potentially resulting in injury or death. The document further explores the composition of matter, types of radiation including ionizing and non-ionizing radiation, radiation measurements, and concepts such as linear energy transfer and relative biological effectiveness. It also examines the sequence of radiation injury and key related terms.
Radioactivity
The document discusses radioactive decay and nuclear physics concepts. It describes the discovery of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel and the Curies. It defines key nuclear physics terms like isotopes, isobars, isotones. It explains the different types of radioactive decay including alpha, beta, positron decay and gamma emission. It discusses the penetration and ranges of different types of radiation. Finally, it covers the conservation of energy and mass in nuclear reactions based on Einstein's mass-energy equivalence formula.
Radioactivity
Radioactivity occurs when an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting radiation such as particles or electromagnetic waves. There are three main types of radiation: alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays. The rate of radioactive decay is described by half-lives, which is the time it takes for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample to decay. Radioactivity has many uses including cancer treatment, measuring thickness of materials, smoke detectors, and generating electricity through nuclear fission. Radiation can be detected using instruments like Geiger-Muller counters.
Basic Interaction Between X-Rays & Matter.pptx
X-ray photons can interact with matter through five basic interactions: coherent scattering, photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, pair production, and photodisintegration. At diagnostic energies, the most common interactions are coherent scattering, the photoelectric effect, and Compton scattering. The photoelectric effect produces high quality images but also results in higher patient radiation exposure. Compton scattering is the main source of scatter radiation in diagnostic radiology and can reduce image quality.
18 HM-- RADIATION SOURCES -NATURAL AND MAN MADE
The document discusses natural and man-made sources of radiation. It covers three main types of natural radiation exposure: 1) Cosmic radiation from sources outside the earth like the sun and solar system formation. Cosmic rays interact with the atmosphere to produce secondary particles. 2) External radiation from natural radioactive elements in the earth's crust like uranium, thorium, and potassium. 3) Internal exposure from radioactive elements in the body like carbon-14 and potassium-40. The document provides details on cosmic radiation levels at different altitudes and its interaction with the atmosphere. Natural sources are the main contributor to background radiation levels.
The Cyclotron
The cyclotron was invented by Leo Szilard in the 1920s and was a particle accelerator that influenced scientific research. It works by accelerating charged particles in a spiral path within magnetic fields, gaining more speed and energy with each turn. Cyclotrons were important for producing radioactive isotopes used in medical imaging technologies like PET and for experiments in nuclear and particle physics. They had advantages over previous accelerators but also limitations in the size of particles they could accelerate. Cyclotrons played a key role in scientific discoveries and the development of nuclear medicine.
Interaction of x and gamma rays with matter
1. When photons interact with matter, they can be transmitted, absorbed, or scattered. Absorption and scattering are stochastic processes and it is impossible to predict the fate of individual photons.
2. The linear attenuation coefficient measures the probability that a photon interacts per unit length of material and depends on the material's density, atomic number, and photon energy. As photon energy decreases or atomic number/density increases, attenuation increases.
3. The main interaction processes are the photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, and elastic scattering. The photoelectric effect dominates for high Z materials and low energy photons, while Compton scattering is more important for low Z materials and high energy photons. Secondary electrons and ionization produced are
Biological effects of radiation
Radiation can have biological effects by directly ionizing DNA or indirectly generating free radicals that cause oxidative damage. The effect depends on linear energy transfer (LET) and relative biological effectiveness (RBE). As LET increases, DNA damage increases until an optimal 100 keV/μm, after which overkill reduces effects. Acute radiation causes early somatic effects like nausea above 1 Gy. Late effects include cancer. Deterministic effects have thresholds while stochastic effects like cancer risk increases linearly with any dose. Radiation affects embryos most pre-implantation and during organogenesis. Occupational and public dose limits aim to prevent deterministic harm and minimize stochastic risk.
Types of radiation
Different forms of radiation, including alpha, beta, and gamma, are emitted during radioactive decay as the unstable nucleus transforms into a more stable form. Alpha particles are helium nuclei, beta particles are electrons, and gamma radiation is electromagnetic radiation similar to x-rays. Ernest Rutherford discovered alpha particles in 1899 while studying uranium. The inverse square law states that the intensity of radiation decreases inversely with the square of the distance from the source. This law can be used to calculate intensity at different distances from a radioactive source.
Radioactivity
Detection of Radioactivity
Characteristics of the Three Types of Emission
Nuclear Reactions
Half-Life
Uses of Radioactive Isotopes Including Safety Precautions
X rays discovered on nov
This document summarizes key concepts in radiology and radiation physics. It describes the discovery of x-rays by Wilhelm Roentgen in 1898 and defines x-rays as gamma rays of electromagnetic radiation. It explains that the energy of electromagnetic radiation is inversely proportional to wavelength and that radiation with energy greater than 15 eV can cause ionization within cells. It also outlines the units used to quantify radiation exposure, dose, and dose equivalency, and discusses the interaction of radiation with matter through processes like the photoelectric effect and Compton scattering.
Radioactivity
Radioactivity refers to the particles which are emitted from nuclei as a result of nuclear instability. Because the nucleus experiences the intense conflict between the two strongest forces in nature, it should not be surprising that there are many nuclear isotopes which are unstable and emit some kind of radiation.
RADIOACTIVE DECAY AND HALF-LIFE CONCEPTS
Contents of this slide-share presentation:
Understanding decay concepts
Facts about Radioactive decay
Types of radioactive decay
Understanding Half-life concepts
Graphing and calculating Half-life
Using count rate to study and analyse radioactive decay
Structure of Atom
The document summarizes the structure of the atom. It discusses that atoms are composed of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons in orbits. The nucleus is much smaller than the atom but contains most of its mass. Properties of atoms are determined by the number and arrangement of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Electrons can occupy different energy levels in orbits around the nucleus. Nuclear forces hold the nucleus together, while electromagnetic forces between protons cause repulsion.
Quark particles
Quarks are elementary particles that combine to form composite particles like protons and neutrons. There are six types of quarks that differ in their mass and electric charge. Quarks are never found in isolation due to the strong force and possess properties like spin, electric charge, and color charge. The up, down, charm, strange, top, and bottom quarks make up three generations and have corresponding antiquarks. Experiments in the 1960s-70s discovered quarks were the constituents of protons and neutrons. The quark model helped explain experimental results and is part of the Standard Model of particle physics.
Applications Of Radiations
Radiation is energy emitted by one body that travels through a medium or space and is absorbed by another body. Radiation is used in medicine for cancer treatment and blood disorders, and was formerly used for overactive thyroids and acne. Ultrasound uses high frequency sound waves and has many medical applications including imaging fetuses. Radiology uses imaging modalities like PET scans, MRI, and X-rays to aid in disease diagnosis. Interventional radiology uses imaging to guide minimally invasive procedures. Nuclear techniques also have applications in agriculture, manufacturing quality control, food safety, and leak detection.
Radioactivity
The document provides an introduction to radioactivity, including the three main types of radioactive emissions (alpha, beta, gamma), their penetrating properties, safe handling of radioactive materials, and uses of radioisotopes. It defines key terms and includes sample test questions to assess understanding.
X ray
X-ray physics is summarized as follows:
(1) X-rays are produced when fast moving electrons are stopped by a target material, with 1% of the electron's kinetic energy converted to X-rays. (2) X-ray generators use a high voltage source to accelerate electrons from a heated cathode filament toward an anode target, producing a bremsstrahlung spectrum of X-rays. (3) Modern X-ray tubes feature a rotating anode to dissipate heat and allow longer exposures without damage to the anode.
الذرة ونظريات تركيب الذرة
الذرة ونظريات تركيب الذرة
نظرية دالتون
إكتشاف الإلكترون
نموذج رذرفورد
نموذج بور
النظرية الذرية الحديثة
Alpha beta and_gamma
1) Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium salts would expose photographic plates even when wrapped in black paper, showing they emitted invisible "rays" he called radioactivity.
2) Marie Curie discovered the radioactive elements polonium and radium, and found radium was over a million times more radioactive than uranium.
3) Ernest Rutherford discovered there were at least two types of radiation, which he called alpha and beta based on how far they could penetrate matter and their opposite electric charges.
Pence: Cyclotron
The cyclotron was invented by Leo Szilard in the early 1900s and accelerated the development of nuclear physics and particle accelerators. It allowed scientists to produce radionuclides for medical imaging like PET scans and treat cancer with proton therapy. Szilard later regretted his role in nuclear weapons and founded the Council for a Livable World to advocate for arms control. The cyclotron continues to be used for fundamental particle physics research and medical isotopes, influencing fields from astrophysics to medicine.
Report on particle detectors
This document discusses various types of particle detectors used in high energy physics experiments. It describes semiconductor detectors, solid state detectors, ionization chambers, Geiger-Muller detectors, and photoconductive detectors. It also discusses applications of these detectors at particle physics labs like LHC, CMS, ATLAS, and SLAC. Specific detectors at the BESIII experiment are described, including the drift chamber, electromagnetic calorimeter, and muon counter. In conclusion, the document outlines how these detectors are important for solving physics problems and their applications in high energy physics.
X RAY MACHINE.pptx
The document discusses the production of x-rays inside an x-ray machine. It describes how electrons are emitted from a filament and accelerated towards a tungsten target anode. When the electrons collide with the target atoms, around 99% of the kinetic energy is released as heat, while approximately 1% is released as x-ray photons. The x-ray photons are produced via two mechanisms: bremsstrahlung radiation from electron deceleration near atomic nuclei, and characteristic radiation when electrons eject inner shell electrons of the target atoms. Proper vacuum and cooling systems are needed to prevent overheating of the target and maintain optimal x-ray output.
Non ionising radiation
Non-ionizing radiation refers to electromagnetic radiation that does not have enough energy to ionize atoms or molecules. It includes optical radiation such as ultraviolet, visible, and infrared light, as well as radiofrequency/microwave radiation. Sources include natural sources like sunlight as well as man-made sources used in communications, industrial, scientific, and medical applications. Biological effects depend on the type of non-ionizing radiation and can include skin damage, eye damage, heating tissues, and are being studied for long-term health effects.
X ray production
X-ray production can occur via two methods: Bremsstrahlung and characteristic x-rays. Bremsstrahlung x-rays are produced when a charged particle like an electron is deflected by an atomic nucleus, losing kinetic energy which is converted to a photon. Characteristic x-rays are emitted when electrons fall from higher to lower orbital shells within an atom. Collimators are used to reduce the size and shape of the x-ray beam, minimizing irradiated tissue volume within a patient and improving image quality by reducing scattered radiation reaching the film. The main interactions between x-rays and matter are coherent scattering, Compton scattering, and photoelectric absorption.
More Related Content
What's hot
The Cyclotron
The cyclotron was invented by Leo Szilard in the 1920s and was a particle accelerator that influenced scientific research. It works by accelerating charged particles in a spiral path within magnetic fields, gaining more speed and energy with each turn. Cyclotrons were important for producing radioactive isotopes used in medical imaging technologies like PET and for experiments in nuclear and particle physics. They had advantages over previous accelerators but also limitations in the size of particles they could accelerate. Cyclotrons played a key role in scientific discoveries and the development of nuclear medicine.
Interaction of x and gamma rays with matter
1. When photons interact with matter, they can be transmitted, absorbed, or scattered. Absorption and scattering are stochastic processes and it is impossible to predict the fate of individual photons.
2. The linear attenuation coefficient measures the probability that a photon interacts per unit length of material and depends on the material's density, atomic number, and photon energy. As photon energy decreases or atomic number/density increases, attenuation increases.
3. The main interaction processes are the photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, and elastic scattering. The photoelectric effect dominates for high Z materials and low energy photons, while Compton scattering is more important for low Z materials and high energy photons. Secondary electrons and ionization produced are
Biological effects of radiation
Radiation can have biological effects by directly ionizing DNA or indirectly generating free radicals that cause oxidative damage. The effect depends on linear energy transfer (LET) and relative biological effectiveness (RBE). As LET increases, DNA damage increases until an optimal 100 keV/μm, after which overkill reduces effects. Acute radiation causes early somatic effects like nausea above 1 Gy. Late effects include cancer. Deterministic effects have thresholds while stochastic effects like cancer risk increases linearly with any dose. Radiation affects embryos most pre-implantation and during organogenesis. Occupational and public dose limits aim to prevent deterministic harm and minimize stochastic risk.
Types of radiation
Different forms of radiation, including alpha, beta, and gamma, are emitted during radioactive decay as the unstable nucleus transforms into a more stable form. Alpha particles are helium nuclei, beta particles are electrons, and gamma radiation is electromagnetic radiation similar to x-rays. Ernest Rutherford discovered alpha particles in 1899 while studying uranium. The inverse square law states that the intensity of radiation decreases inversely with the square of the distance from the source. This law can be used to calculate intensity at different distances from a radioactive source.
Radioactivity
Detection of Radioactivity
Characteristics of the Three Types of Emission
Nuclear Reactions
Half-Life
Uses of Radioactive Isotopes Including Safety Precautions
X rays discovered on nov
This document summarizes key concepts in radiology and radiation physics. It describes the discovery of x-rays by Wilhelm Roentgen in 1898 and defines x-rays as gamma rays of electromagnetic radiation. It explains that the energy of electromagnetic radiation is inversely proportional to wavelength and that radiation with energy greater than 15 eV can cause ionization within cells. It also outlines the units used to quantify radiation exposure, dose, and dose equivalency, and discusses the interaction of radiation with matter through processes like the photoelectric effect and Compton scattering.
Radioactivity
Radioactivity refers to the particles which are emitted from nuclei as a result of nuclear instability. Because the nucleus experiences the intense conflict between the two strongest forces in nature, it should not be surprising that there are many nuclear isotopes which are unstable and emit some kind of radiation.
RADIOACTIVE DECAY AND HALF-LIFE CONCEPTS
Contents of this slide-share presentation:
Understanding decay concepts
Facts about Radioactive decay
Types of radioactive decay
Understanding Half-life concepts
Graphing and calculating Half-life
Using count rate to study and analyse radioactive decay
Structure of Atom
The document summarizes the structure of the atom. It discusses that atoms are composed of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons in orbits. The nucleus is much smaller than the atom but contains most of its mass. Properties of atoms are determined by the number and arrangement of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Electrons can occupy different energy levels in orbits around the nucleus. Nuclear forces hold the nucleus together, while electromagnetic forces between protons cause repulsion.
Quark particles
Quarks are elementary particles that combine to form composite particles like protons and neutrons. There are six types of quarks that differ in their mass and electric charge. Quarks are never found in isolation due to the strong force and possess properties like spin, electric charge, and color charge. The up, down, charm, strange, top, and bottom quarks make up three generations and have corresponding antiquarks. Experiments in the 1960s-70s discovered quarks were the constituents of protons and neutrons. The quark model helped explain experimental results and is part of the Standard Model of particle physics.
Applications Of Radiations
Radiation is energy emitted by one body that travels through a medium or space and is absorbed by another body. Radiation is used in medicine for cancer treatment and blood disorders, and was formerly used for overactive thyroids and acne. Ultrasound uses high frequency sound waves and has many medical applications including imaging fetuses. Radiology uses imaging modalities like PET scans, MRI, and X-rays to aid in disease diagnosis. Interventional radiology uses imaging to guide minimally invasive procedures. Nuclear techniques also have applications in agriculture, manufacturing quality control, food safety, and leak detection.
Radioactivity
The document provides an introduction to radioactivity, including the three main types of radioactive emissions (alpha, beta, gamma), their penetrating properties, safe handling of radioactive materials, and uses of radioisotopes. It defines key terms and includes sample test questions to assess understanding.
X ray
X-ray physics is summarized as follows:
(1) X-rays are produced when fast moving electrons are stopped by a target material, with 1% of the electron's kinetic energy converted to X-rays. (2) X-ray generators use a high voltage source to accelerate electrons from a heated cathode filament toward an anode target, producing a bremsstrahlung spectrum of X-rays. (3) Modern X-ray tubes feature a rotating anode to dissipate heat and allow longer exposures without damage to the anode.
الذرة ونظريات تركيب الذرة
الذرة ونظريات تركيب الذرة
نظرية دالتون
إكتشاف الإلكترون
نموذج رذرفورد
نموذج بور
النظرية الذرية الحديثة
Alpha beta and_gamma
1) Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium salts would expose photographic plates even when wrapped in black paper, showing they emitted invisible "rays" he called radioactivity.
2) Marie Curie discovered the radioactive elements polonium and radium, and found radium was over a million times more radioactive than uranium.
3) Ernest Rutherford discovered there were at least two types of radiation, which he called alpha and beta based on how far they could penetrate matter and their opposite electric charges.
Pence: Cyclotron
The cyclotron was invented by Leo Szilard in the early 1900s and accelerated the development of nuclear physics and particle accelerators. It allowed scientists to produce radionuclides for medical imaging like PET scans and treat cancer with proton therapy. Szilard later regretted his role in nuclear weapons and founded the Council for a Livable World to advocate for arms control. The cyclotron continues to be used for fundamental particle physics research and medical isotopes, influencing fields from astrophysics to medicine.
Report on particle detectors
This document discusses various types of particle detectors used in high energy physics experiments. It describes semiconductor detectors, solid state detectors, ionization chambers, Geiger-Muller detectors, and photoconductive detectors. It also discusses applications of these detectors at particle physics labs like LHC, CMS, ATLAS, and SLAC. Specific detectors at the BESIII experiment are described, including the drift chamber, electromagnetic calorimeter, and muon counter. In conclusion, the document outlines how these detectors are important for solving physics problems and their applications in high energy physics.
X RAY MACHINE.pptx
The document discusses the production of x-rays inside an x-ray machine. It describes how electrons are emitted from a filament and accelerated towards a tungsten target anode. When the electrons collide with the target atoms, around 99% of the kinetic energy is released as heat, while approximately 1% is released as x-ray photons. The x-ray photons are produced via two mechanisms: bremsstrahlung radiation from electron deceleration near atomic nuclei, and characteristic radiation when electrons eject inner shell electrons of the target atoms. Proper vacuum and cooling systems are needed to prevent overheating of the target and maintain optimal x-ray output.
Non ionising radiation
Non-ionizing radiation refers to electromagnetic radiation that does not have enough energy to ionize atoms or molecules. It includes optical radiation such as ultraviolet, visible, and infrared light, as well as radiofrequency/microwave radiation. Sources include natural sources like sunlight as well as man-made sources used in communications, industrial, scientific, and medical applications. Biological effects depend on the type of non-ionizing radiation and can include skin damage, eye damage, heating tissues, and are being studied for long-term health effects.
X ray production
X-ray production can occur via two methods: Bremsstrahlung and characteristic x-rays. Bremsstrahlung x-rays are produced when a charged particle like an electron is deflected by an atomic nucleus, losing kinetic energy which is converted to a photon. Characteristic x-rays are emitted when electrons fall from higher to lower orbital shells within an atom. Collimators are used to reduce the size and shape of the x-ray beam, minimizing irradiated tissue volume within a patient and improving image quality by reducing scattered radiation reaching the film. The main interactions between x-rays and matter are coherent scattering, Compton scattering, and photoelectric absorption.
What's hot (20)
تركيب الذرة
- 1. الــــــذرة
- 2. تركيب الــــذرة 1-نواة موجبة -------------- تحتوي على بروتونات موجبة ونيوترونات متعادلة
- 3. 2-الكترونات سالبة جسيمات صغيرة تدور حول النواة بسرعة فائقة تتوزع حول النواة في مدارات تسمى أغلفة الطاقة يصل عدد الاغلفة الى سبعة في اكبر الذرات
- 4. العدد الذري عدد البروتونات الموجبة العدد الكتلي مجموع البروتونات والنيوترونات