تتراوح الاشعة الكهرومغناطيسية التي تهمنا في مجال التحليل الكيمياوي بصورة عامة من اشعة كاما ذات الطاقة العالية الى موجات الراديو ذات الطاقة الواطئة ويطلق على مدى الاشعة من اشعة كاما الى موجات الراديو بالطيف الكهرومغناطيسية.
ان العين البشرية تكون حساسة فقط لنطاق ضيق من الطيف يقع بين (400-800 نانومتر) ويسمى بالضوء المرئي اما المناطق الاخرى من الطيف فهي مناطق غير مرئية للعين البشرية
تعود طول الموجة الاقل من 400 نلنومتر لللاشعة فوق البنفسجية والاكثر من 750 نانومتر للاشعة تحت الحمراء. ان المركبات العضوية المشبعة او الكحولات او الماء تمتص الضوء على طول موجي قدرة 185 نانومتر مما يسهل استعمالها كمذيبات في المنطقة فوق البنفسجية.
تفاعل الاشعة الكهرومغناطيسي مع المادة
ان امتصاص مادة ما للاشعة الكهرومغناطيسية يؤدي الى زيادة طاقة الاشعة الكهرومغناطيسية الممتصة وتصبح المادة غنية بالطاقة ومن الطبيعي انة كلما كانت كمية الطاقة الممتصة اكبر كلما كان التهيج اكثر. بعد ذلك تفقد المادة الطاقة التي امتصتها وترجع الى حالتها الاصلية اي ان محتواها من الطاقة يصبح واطئا كما موضح بالمعادلة والشكل التالي
TiO2 is a commonly used photocatalyst that uses light energy to accelerate chemical reactions without being consumed in the process. Dr. Fujishima discovered in the 1960s that titanium dioxide could split water into oxygen and hydrogen gases when irradiated by light. One property of photocatalytic TiO2 is that it can breakdown organic pollutants like oil, exhaust fumes, and mold using energy from UV light by generating strong oxidizing hydroxyl radicals. While TiO2 is effective due to properties like stability, low toxicity and cost, its large bandgap only activates with UV light which represents only 5% of sunlight, so methods to extend its activity into visible light are being explored.
Difference in raman spectroscopy and ir spectroscopyVrushali Tambe
Raman spectroscopy and IR spectroscopy are techniques for analyzing vibrational modes in molecules. Raman spectroscopy involves scattering of light by vibrating molecules and can be used to analyze both organic and inorganic compounds using visible or near-IR radiation. IR spectroscopy involves absorption of light by vibrating molecules that change dipole moment and is better suited for qualitative analysis using mid-IR radiation, though water can interfere with samples. The two techniques provide complementary information about molecular structure and bonding.
degradation of pollution and photocatalysisPraveen Vaidya
The presentation deals with the use of conduction of photocatalytic reaction using the transition metal doped transparent semiconducting thinfilms. The precursor to film is prepared by the SILAR method, which is a chemical method.
Proton Induced X-Ray Emission is a technique where a stream of protons excites a cell, scattering its components and causing them to release energy through x-ray emissions as they return to stability, allowing identification of specific elements present without damaging the sample atoms. These emissions can be used to trace elements in art, identify individual metals in composites, and detect impurities or contaminants.
This document provides the standard test method for determining the plane-strain fracture toughness (KIc) of metallic materials. It describes the test specimens, procedures, validity requirements, and calculations for measuring KIc. Fatigue precracked specimens are loaded in tension or bending to generate force-crack opening displacement data. KIc is calculated based on the force at a 5% offset from the initial slope, corresponding to about 2% crack extension. Specimen and test details are provided in annexes, and validity depends on establishing a sharp crack tip under predominantly linear-elastic, plane-strain conditions. The test characterizes a material's resistance to fracture in a neutral environment with a sharp crack under severe tensile constraint.
1) Photocatalysis involves using light energy to facilitate chemical reactions. Photocatalysts like chlorophyll and titanium dioxide are able to breakdown organic matter into carbon dioxide and water when exposed to light.
2) Nanoparticles are necessary for high activity photocatalysts due to quantum size effects. Smaller nanoparticles have a larger surface area and better adsorption potential.
3) Photocatalysts have various applications including air purification by decomposing volatile organic compounds, self-cleaning surfaces, water purification by oxidizing pollutants, and dye degradation.
TiO2 is a commonly used photocatalyst that uses light energy to accelerate chemical reactions without being consumed in the process. Dr. Fujishima discovered in the 1960s that titanium dioxide could split water into oxygen and hydrogen gases when irradiated by light. One property of photocatalytic TiO2 is that it can breakdown organic pollutants like oil, exhaust fumes, and mold using energy from UV light by generating strong oxidizing hydroxyl radicals. While TiO2 is effective due to properties like stability, low toxicity and cost, its large bandgap only activates with UV light which represents only 5% of sunlight, so methods to extend its activity into visible light are being explored.
Difference in raman spectroscopy and ir spectroscopyVrushali Tambe
Raman spectroscopy and IR spectroscopy are techniques for analyzing vibrational modes in molecules. Raman spectroscopy involves scattering of light by vibrating molecules and can be used to analyze both organic and inorganic compounds using visible or near-IR radiation. IR spectroscopy involves absorption of light by vibrating molecules that change dipole moment and is better suited for qualitative analysis using mid-IR radiation, though water can interfere with samples. The two techniques provide complementary information about molecular structure and bonding.
degradation of pollution and photocatalysisPraveen Vaidya
The presentation deals with the use of conduction of photocatalytic reaction using the transition metal doped transparent semiconducting thinfilms. The precursor to film is prepared by the SILAR method, which is a chemical method.
Proton Induced X-Ray Emission is a technique where a stream of protons excites a cell, scattering its components and causing them to release energy through x-ray emissions as they return to stability, allowing identification of specific elements present without damaging the sample atoms. These emissions can be used to trace elements in art, identify individual metals in composites, and detect impurities or contaminants.
This document provides the standard test method for determining the plane-strain fracture toughness (KIc) of metallic materials. It describes the test specimens, procedures, validity requirements, and calculations for measuring KIc. Fatigue precracked specimens are loaded in tension or bending to generate force-crack opening displacement data. KIc is calculated based on the force at a 5% offset from the initial slope, corresponding to about 2% crack extension. Specimen and test details are provided in annexes, and validity depends on establishing a sharp crack tip under predominantly linear-elastic, plane-strain conditions. The test characterizes a material's resistance to fracture in a neutral environment with a sharp crack under severe tensile constraint.
1) Photocatalysis involves using light energy to facilitate chemical reactions. Photocatalysts like chlorophyll and titanium dioxide are able to breakdown organic matter into carbon dioxide and water when exposed to light.
2) Nanoparticles are necessary for high activity photocatalysts due to quantum size effects. Smaller nanoparticles have a larger surface area and better adsorption potential.
3) Photocatalysts have various applications including air purification by decomposing volatile organic compounds, self-cleaning surfaces, water purification by oxidizing pollutants, and dye degradation.
These slides briefly introduce the concepts of Radio-chemistry including nuclear stability, half life, nuclear emissions and their detection, and then highlight 02 radio chemical methods namely isotopic dilution methods and radio-chemical titrations.
The document provides an overview of scanning electron microscopes (SEMs). It discusses the history and development of SEMs. Key components of SEMs are described, including the electron gun, electromagnetic lenses, vacuum chamber, detectors, and sample stage. SEMs produce high-resolution images of sample surfaces by scanning them with a focused beam of electrons. Signals produced by electron-sample interactions reveal information about morphology, composition, and structure. Applications of SEMs discussed include nanomaterial characterization, archaeology, biology, and industrial quality control. Limitations include sample size constraints and specialized training required.
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) measures the mass of a substance as the temperature changes. It provides quantitative data on weight changes from thermal transitions like decomposition or evaporation. TGA can be either dynamic, with continuous temperature increase, or isothermal at constant temperature. The technique graphs weight against temperature or time. The data can identify phases and stoichiometries of compounds. Factors like heating rate, atmosphere, and sample properties affect TGA results. It has advantages like minimal sample prep and fast analysis, but data interpretation can be complex.
The document discusses atomic emission spectroscopy (AES) and two specific techniques: flame photometry and inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES). Flame photometry uses a low temperature flame to atomize samples and determine the presence and concentration of sodium, potassium, lithium, and calcium. ICP-AES uses a plasma torch to produce excited atoms and ions from samples. The plasma is much hotter than a flame and allows for more complete atomization and a wider dynamic range of analysis.
The document discusses sample preparation techniques for atomic spectroscopy. It describes how solid samples need to be converted into solutions through dissolution, digestion of organic matter, or drying. It also discusses various contamination prevention measures and specific preparation methods for different sample types, including dry ashing and wet digestion using combinations of strong acids to decompose organic compounds. The goal of sample preparation is to obtain a representative subsample in a form suitable for atomic spectroscopy analysis while avoiding contamination.
- Impact tests are used to determine a material's impact energy, toughness, and tendency to fracture in a brittle manner. They are important for selecting materials that may experience sudden loading like collisions.
- Common impact tests include the Charpy and Izod tests, which involve striking a notched sample with a falling pendulum. The Charpy test uses a simply supported beam setup while the Izod uses a cantilever.
- Factors like yield strength, ductility, temperature, and strain rate can influence a material's impact performance and whether it fractures in a brittle or ductile manner. Many materials exhibit a ductile to brittle transition around a specific temperature.
This document discusses nephelometry and turbidimetry. It begins by explaining that when light strikes particles in solution, it can be absorbed, transmitted, or scattered. The amount of scattered light is proportional to particle concentration. It then covers factors that affect scattering like concentration, particle size, wavelength, and refractive index. Finally, it lists some applications of nephelometry and turbidimetry like quantitative inorganic analysis, air/water pollution monitoring, titrations, and determining molecular weight.
Raman Spectroscopy - Principle, Criteria, Instrumentation and ApplicationsPrabha Nagarajan
Basic principle of Raman scattering- Difference between Rayleigh and Raman Scattering- Major criteria for Raman active in compounds,-Stroke's lines and Anti-stoke lines- Difference and between IR and Raman spectroscopy- Wide applications of Raman spectroscopy.
CHECKOUT THIS NEW WEB BROWSER :
https://www.entireweb.com/?a=618b79ed612f3
This document provides an overview of a lecture on aluminium alloys. It discusses the subjects that will be covered, including the production, properties, and applications of aluminium alloys. The production of aluminium is explained, outlining the Bayer process and Hall–Héroult process. The physical properties of aluminium are presented. Methods of extracting aluminium from bauxite and other sources are summarized.
Atomic force microscopy (AFM) works by scanning a probe over a sample surface to build up a topographic map with single-atom level resolution without the need for sample preparation. It was invented in 1986 by Binning and first used a cantilever with a diamond tip. The main components are a microscope stage to move the tip and sample, control electronics, and a computer. A piezoelectric transducer moves the tip while a force transducer senses the force and feedback control maintains a set force. There are different imaging modes including contact, non-contact, and tapping modes that use repulsive or attractive forces between the probe and sample. AFM can image a variety of biological and material science samples with limitations
X-ray diffraction analysis for material CharacterizationSajjad Ullah
This document discusses the characterization of materials using X-ray diffraction by Dr. Sajjad Ullah of the Institute of Chemical Sciences, University of Peshawar. It covers topics such as X-ray production, sample preparation, Bragg's law, interference upon scattering, XRD analysis including crystallinity determination, phase identification using search-match software, crystallite size estimation using Scherrer's formula, unit cell determination from diffraction data, and indexing of diffraction peaks. Examples are provided to demonstrate the application of these XRD techniques.
This document discusses corrosion and corrosion prevention. It provides definitions of corrosion and explains that corrosion is an electrochemical process that causes the deterioration of materials. Corrosion results in significant economic losses. The document then covers the principles of corrosion including thermodynamics, electrochemistry, metallurgy, and different forms of corrosion such as uniform corrosion, galvanic corrosion, pitting, stress corrosion cracking, and hydrogen embrittlement.
This document summarizes X-ray diffraction (XRD), including what it is, why it is used, common diffraction methods like Bragg's method and powder method, applications like determining crystal structure and lattice constants, and advantages like being inexpensive and convenient while determining crystal structures. The key points covered are that XRD involves X-rays interfering with atomic planes in a crystal, it is used to measure interplanar spacings and determine unknown crystal structures, common methods include Bragg's method using wavelength and angle and powder method using fixed wavelength, and applications involve crystal structure analysis and characterization.
Atomic absorption spectrometry is a technique used to determine the concentration of metal elements in samples. It works by vaporizing the sample into free atoms that can absorb light from a hollow cathode lamp of the element of interest. The absorbed light is measured to determine the concentration of that element in the sample. The main components are the hollow cathode lamp light source, atomizer to vaporize the sample, monochromator to select the desired wavelength, and a detector to convert light absorption into a quantitative measurement of concentration.
Lecture 01; atomic spectroscopy by Dr. Salma Amirsalmaamir2
This document provides an introduction to atomic spectroscopy. It discusses how atomic spectroscopy refers to the absorption and emission of ultraviolet-visible light by atoms and ions. It is broadly classified into flame emission spectroscopy, atomic absorption spectroscopy, and atomic fluorescence spectroscopy. The document describes the processes of emission, absorption, and fluorescence of atoms in a flame. It discusses how atomic absorption spectroscopy works and how atomic emission occurs from excited state atoms returning to the ground state. Energy level diagrams are used to illustrate these processes.
The document summarizes the key components and operating principles of a scanning electron microscope (SEM). It describes the electron gun that generates the electron beam, the condenser lenses that focus the beam, the scan coils that scan the beam across the sample, and various detectors that detect signals from the sample. It outlines applications in fields like biology, materials science, and forensics. Advantages include detailed imaging and versatile information from detectors, while disadvantages include high costs and specialized training required.
The document discusses various thermal analysis techniques including thermogravimetry analysis (TGA), differential thermal analysis (DTA), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). TGA measures mass changes as a function of temperature. DTA measures the temperature difference between a sample and reference, revealing phenomena like phase transitions. DSC independently measures the heat flow of a sample and reference as a function of temperature, allowing measurement of heat capacities and thermal properties. These techniques can characterize materials, measure decomposition reactions, identify phase transitions, and provide other thermal and kinetic data.
These slides briefly introduce the concepts of Radio-chemistry including nuclear stability, half life, nuclear emissions and their detection, and then highlight 02 radio chemical methods namely isotopic dilution methods and radio-chemical titrations.
The document provides an overview of scanning electron microscopes (SEMs). It discusses the history and development of SEMs. Key components of SEMs are described, including the electron gun, electromagnetic lenses, vacuum chamber, detectors, and sample stage. SEMs produce high-resolution images of sample surfaces by scanning them with a focused beam of electrons. Signals produced by electron-sample interactions reveal information about morphology, composition, and structure. Applications of SEMs discussed include nanomaterial characterization, archaeology, biology, and industrial quality control. Limitations include sample size constraints and specialized training required.
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) measures the mass of a substance as the temperature changes. It provides quantitative data on weight changes from thermal transitions like decomposition or evaporation. TGA can be either dynamic, with continuous temperature increase, or isothermal at constant temperature. The technique graphs weight against temperature or time. The data can identify phases and stoichiometries of compounds. Factors like heating rate, atmosphere, and sample properties affect TGA results. It has advantages like minimal sample prep and fast analysis, but data interpretation can be complex.
The document discusses atomic emission spectroscopy (AES) and two specific techniques: flame photometry and inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES). Flame photometry uses a low temperature flame to atomize samples and determine the presence and concentration of sodium, potassium, lithium, and calcium. ICP-AES uses a plasma torch to produce excited atoms and ions from samples. The plasma is much hotter than a flame and allows for more complete atomization and a wider dynamic range of analysis.
The document discusses sample preparation techniques for atomic spectroscopy. It describes how solid samples need to be converted into solutions through dissolution, digestion of organic matter, or drying. It also discusses various contamination prevention measures and specific preparation methods for different sample types, including dry ashing and wet digestion using combinations of strong acids to decompose organic compounds. The goal of sample preparation is to obtain a representative subsample in a form suitable for atomic spectroscopy analysis while avoiding contamination.
- Impact tests are used to determine a material's impact energy, toughness, and tendency to fracture in a brittle manner. They are important for selecting materials that may experience sudden loading like collisions.
- Common impact tests include the Charpy and Izod tests, which involve striking a notched sample with a falling pendulum. The Charpy test uses a simply supported beam setup while the Izod uses a cantilever.
- Factors like yield strength, ductility, temperature, and strain rate can influence a material's impact performance and whether it fractures in a brittle or ductile manner. Many materials exhibit a ductile to brittle transition around a specific temperature.
This document discusses nephelometry and turbidimetry. It begins by explaining that when light strikes particles in solution, it can be absorbed, transmitted, or scattered. The amount of scattered light is proportional to particle concentration. It then covers factors that affect scattering like concentration, particle size, wavelength, and refractive index. Finally, it lists some applications of nephelometry and turbidimetry like quantitative inorganic analysis, air/water pollution monitoring, titrations, and determining molecular weight.
Raman Spectroscopy - Principle, Criteria, Instrumentation and ApplicationsPrabha Nagarajan
Basic principle of Raman scattering- Difference between Rayleigh and Raman Scattering- Major criteria for Raman active in compounds,-Stroke's lines and Anti-stoke lines- Difference and between IR and Raman spectroscopy- Wide applications of Raman spectroscopy.
CHECKOUT THIS NEW WEB BROWSER :
https://www.entireweb.com/?a=618b79ed612f3
This document provides an overview of a lecture on aluminium alloys. It discusses the subjects that will be covered, including the production, properties, and applications of aluminium alloys. The production of aluminium is explained, outlining the Bayer process and Hall–Héroult process. The physical properties of aluminium are presented. Methods of extracting aluminium from bauxite and other sources are summarized.
Atomic force microscopy (AFM) works by scanning a probe over a sample surface to build up a topographic map with single-atom level resolution without the need for sample preparation. It was invented in 1986 by Binning and first used a cantilever with a diamond tip. The main components are a microscope stage to move the tip and sample, control electronics, and a computer. A piezoelectric transducer moves the tip while a force transducer senses the force and feedback control maintains a set force. There are different imaging modes including contact, non-contact, and tapping modes that use repulsive or attractive forces between the probe and sample. AFM can image a variety of biological and material science samples with limitations
X-ray diffraction analysis for material CharacterizationSajjad Ullah
This document discusses the characterization of materials using X-ray diffraction by Dr. Sajjad Ullah of the Institute of Chemical Sciences, University of Peshawar. It covers topics such as X-ray production, sample preparation, Bragg's law, interference upon scattering, XRD analysis including crystallinity determination, phase identification using search-match software, crystallite size estimation using Scherrer's formula, unit cell determination from diffraction data, and indexing of diffraction peaks. Examples are provided to demonstrate the application of these XRD techniques.
This document discusses corrosion and corrosion prevention. It provides definitions of corrosion and explains that corrosion is an electrochemical process that causes the deterioration of materials. Corrosion results in significant economic losses. The document then covers the principles of corrosion including thermodynamics, electrochemistry, metallurgy, and different forms of corrosion such as uniform corrosion, galvanic corrosion, pitting, stress corrosion cracking, and hydrogen embrittlement.
This document summarizes X-ray diffraction (XRD), including what it is, why it is used, common diffraction methods like Bragg's method and powder method, applications like determining crystal structure and lattice constants, and advantages like being inexpensive and convenient while determining crystal structures. The key points covered are that XRD involves X-rays interfering with atomic planes in a crystal, it is used to measure interplanar spacings and determine unknown crystal structures, common methods include Bragg's method using wavelength and angle and powder method using fixed wavelength, and applications involve crystal structure analysis and characterization.
Atomic absorption spectrometry is a technique used to determine the concentration of metal elements in samples. It works by vaporizing the sample into free atoms that can absorb light from a hollow cathode lamp of the element of interest. The absorbed light is measured to determine the concentration of that element in the sample. The main components are the hollow cathode lamp light source, atomizer to vaporize the sample, monochromator to select the desired wavelength, and a detector to convert light absorption into a quantitative measurement of concentration.
Lecture 01; atomic spectroscopy by Dr. Salma Amirsalmaamir2
This document provides an introduction to atomic spectroscopy. It discusses how atomic spectroscopy refers to the absorption and emission of ultraviolet-visible light by atoms and ions. It is broadly classified into flame emission spectroscopy, atomic absorption spectroscopy, and atomic fluorescence spectroscopy. The document describes the processes of emission, absorption, and fluorescence of atoms in a flame. It discusses how atomic absorption spectroscopy works and how atomic emission occurs from excited state atoms returning to the ground state. Energy level diagrams are used to illustrate these processes.
The document summarizes the key components and operating principles of a scanning electron microscope (SEM). It describes the electron gun that generates the electron beam, the condenser lenses that focus the beam, the scan coils that scan the beam across the sample, and various detectors that detect signals from the sample. It outlines applications in fields like biology, materials science, and forensics. Advantages include detailed imaging and versatile information from detectors, while disadvantages include high costs and specialized training required.
The document discusses various thermal analysis techniques including thermogravimetry analysis (TGA), differential thermal analysis (DTA), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). TGA measures mass changes as a function of temperature. DTA measures the temperature difference between a sample and reference, revealing phenomena like phase transitions. DSC independently measures the heat flow of a sample and reference as a function of temperature, allowing measurement of heat capacities and thermal properties. These techniques can characterize materials, measure decomposition reactions, identify phase transitions, and provide other thermal and kinetic data.
Kirtan is a traditional Indian folk art form that involves storytelling, music, dance and other performances to address challenges of the target audience. Corporate Kirtan adapts this art form to address modern corporate challenges over a typical 2 hour performance involving 5 people. It focuses on spiritual rather than religious references to help companies with issues like employee engagement, stress management, and work-life balance. Pushkar Aurangabadkar leads Corporate Kirtan performances and draws from his background in business, management studies, and as the ninth generation in his family to perform Kirtan.
This document discusses Nancy Earley's work samples which include editing gas turbine images in Photoshop for web pages, handouts, reports, technical illustrations, schematics, catalogues, specifications, articles, advertisements, brochures, and digital illustrations. The work aims to communicate complex topics with simplicity and make the ordinary seem extraordinary.
Warner Bros was founded in 1923 by four brothers in Hollywood. It has produced over 7,000 feature films and 5,000 TV shows. Its most successful film is 'The Dark Knight' which grossed over $533 million globally. 20th Century Fox was founded in 1915 and its most successful film is 'Avatar' with $749 million worldwide. Universal Studios was created in 1912 and its top grossing film of 2015 was 'Jurassic World' at over $652 million. Lionsgate was founded in 1997 and produces thriller franchises like 'The Hunger Games' and 'Divergent', with the highest grossing being 'The Hunger Games: Catching Fire' at $425 million. The document analy
This document discusses a mobile platform called AllinQuest that provides discounts and opportunities to earn income. It describes the platform's features such as providing up to 100% discounts, important information, purchases and bookings. It also discusses how the platform allows users to earn income from recommendations and reviews. Business owners can benefit from increased loyalty, effective marketing and automation. The platform is presented as a cost effective solution for businesses compared to developing their own mobile apps or CRM systems.
Roles and functions of educational technology in the first century educationLilanie Bellingan
This document discusses the roles and functions of educational technology in 21st century education. It explains that educational technology aims to analyze and improve the teaching and learning process through student-centered and collaborative instruction, contextual learning, and the use of technology tools. Technology allows 24/7 access to information and supports innovative teaching methods. Educational technology also helps enhance educational goals, develop curricula and teaching materials, provide teacher training, and identify community needs. The overall goal is to prepare students with 21st century skills to succeed in a globalized world.
This document outlines a public awareness campaign on the commercial sexual exploitation of children being run by Runaway Girl, FPC in collaboration with Learn4Life Charter School and the Department of Children and Family Services across 6 markets including Antelope Valley. The campaign will educate communities through training sessions hosted by Learn4Life and involve survivors, stakeholders, and volunteers. The objectives are to increase awareness, provide ideas to address risk factors, and recommendations to improve future campaigns. Challenges include lack of coordination, trust, data sharing, and terminology. The campaign will target groups like law enforcement, schools, NGOs, businesses, and faith-based organizations using a relational network approach.
This document discusses the importance of authenticating hadiths and the methods used by early Islamic scholars. It explains that hadiths consist of matn (text) and isnad (chain of narrators), and the isnad was carefully evaluated to check the reliability of narrators. Various types of hadiths are defined based on the strength of the isnad. Methods like fiqh al-riwaya and fiqh al-diraya were used to examine narrators and evaluate the text. This led to the classification of hadiths as sahih, hasan, daif or fabricated. Major hadith collections are also mentioned.
A microscope is an instrument used to see objects that are too small for the naked eye. The science of investigating small objects using such an instrument is called microscopy. Microscopic means invisible to the eye unless aided by a microscop