This document discusses some of the psychological benefits and costs of exercise. It describes how exercise can positively impact self-perceptions and mood by increasing feelings of physical self-worth and reducing anxiety and depression. Regular moderate exercise is associated with these benefits by influencing brain chemistry. However, overtraining can negatively impact mood, health and performance if sufficient recovery is not allowed. Other potential costs include overtraining, staleness, and exercise dependence.

3. PSYCHOLOGOCAL BENEFITS OF EXERCISE:
SELF-PERCEPTIONS
• Self-concept and self-esteem are multidimensional constructs that include
perceptions of intellectual, social, emotional and physical aspects of the self
(Shavelson, Hubner & Stanton 1976).
• Investigators found evidence that the physical self-worth of young adults was
influenced by perceptions of sport/athletic ability, physical
condition/stamina/fitness, body attractiveness and physical strength.
• Evidence also suggests that higher levels of exercise are associated with
stronger beliefs in the importance of these four physical self-concept dimensions,
and that self-perceptions of condition/stamina/ fitness, in particular, are strongly
linked to exercise involvement (Fox 1997; Marsh & Sonstroem 1995).

4. FIGURE 17.1 PROPOSED DIMENSIONS OF PHYSICAL SELF
Source: Based on Fox and Corbin1989; Marsh et al. 1994)

5. PSYCHOLOGOCAL BENEFITS OF EXERCISE:
Mood Sates
• The effect of aerobic exercise on mood has been one of the most
widely researched areas within exercise psychology.
• Although the long-term benefits of exercise on mood are not as well
documented as the short-term benefits (Plante & Rodin 1990),
several studies have obtained findings that suggest a beneficial
effect. For example, correlational research by Hayden and Allen
(1984) and Lobstein, Mosbacher and Ismail (1983) found that
regular exercisers were less anxious and depressed than non-
exercisers.

6. PSYCHOLOGOCAL BENEFITS OF EXERCISE:
Mood Sates
• Comprehensive reviews have consistently documented exercise-
induced decreases in the stress-related emotions of anxiety and
depression (eg. Landers & Petruzzello 1994; Morgan 1994; North
et al. 1990; Petruzzello et al. 1993; Raglin 1997).
• Exercise is viewed as a useful tool in the treatment of clinical
depression (Babyak et al. 2000; Morgan 1994; Tkachuk & Martin
1999). Studies of stress reactivity and perceived stress have also
found beneficial effects from exercise (Aldana et al. 1996;
Bulbulian & Darabos 1986; Fillingim & Blumenthal 1992).

7. PSYCHOLOGOCAL BENEFITS OF EXERCISE:
Mood Sates
• Women appear to be especially receptive to the use of exercise as a
stress reduction strategy (Campbell et al. 1992; Rogers & Gauvin
1998).
• In a review of the anxiety-related findings, Raglin (1997) noted that
the reductions in anxiety symptoms associated with exercise are
comparable to those produced by cognitive-behavioural therapies such
as stress inoculation training.
• Stress Inoculation Training, or SIT, is a psychotherapy for PTSD. It is
one specific type of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT). By teaching
you coping skills, SIT can help you find new ways to deal with PTSD
symptoms. These skills can also help you manage other stressful
situations or events in your life

8. PSYCHOLOGOCAL BENEFITS OF EXERCISE:
Mood Sates
• Women appear to be especially receptive to the use of exercise as a
stress reduction strategy (Campbell et al. 1992; Rogers & Gauvin
1998).
• Possible differences in the effects of resistance exercise and aerobic
exercise should also be investigated because of inconsistency in the
findings related to this form of exercise. For example, some
researchers have reported significant increases in blood pressure
and state anxiety following resistance exercise (Koltyn, Raglin,
O'Connor & Morgan 1995; Raglin, Turner & Eksten 1993), while
others have found these increases to be transitory and followed by
improvements in mood (Bartholomew 1999).

9. MECHANISM:
Self-perception effects
• The effects of exercise on global self-concept or self-esteem are hypothesised to
depend on the amount of change in physical self-efficacies, physical competence
and physical acceptance as well as the perceived importance of these constructs
for the individual (cf. Fox 1990, 1997).

10. • Involvement in physical activity appears to improve task-
specific competencies, which, in turn, improve self-
perceptions of differentiated physical sub-domains.
Enhanced self-perceptions within these subdomains then
have positive effects on more general feelings about
physical self-worth and the global self.
MECHANISM:
Self-perception effects

11. • It has been noted that the nature of exercise-induced mood changes may depend
on the previous fitness status of the individual, the type of exercise undertaken,
the intensity of exercise, and/or the time lag between exercise and the
assessment of mood (Boutcher & Landers 1988; Raglin, Turner & Eksten 1993;
Raglin, Wilson & Morris 1993; Steptoe & Cox 1989).
• Berger and Owen (1988) suggest that positive psychological outcomes are most
likely to occur when exercise is pleasant/enjoyable, noncompetitive,
repetitive/rhythmical and temporally spatially certain.
• Regular participation (three or four times a week) at a moderate intensity (60 to
75 per cent of estimated maximum heart rate) for 20 to 60 minutes also
contributes to positive mood effects.
Mood Effects of Exercise

12. How Does Exercise Affect Depression?
• People suffering from depression have described living with this
condition as being in fog or a pit. It robs them of the ability to
muster the energy or enthusiasm to enjoy everyday life. For some
sufferers, simply getting out of bed is challenging.
• This emotional disorder also affects memory, leaving the individual
struggling to deal with everyday functions.
• Research studies have shown that people who exercise while
depressed often feel better after a single workout session. They
reported feeling less anger, tiredness, and tension after engaging in
some physical activity.

13. How Does Exercise Affect Anxiety?
• Anxiety is related to depression. Instead of feeling down or low, an
individual with an anxiety disorder may report feeling tense or
worried insofar as they are unable to keep their concerns in
perspective. Along with this feeling of unease, the individual may
be jumpy or irritable.
• A person with an anxiety disorder may also find it hard to focus on
a task. They may be easily startled or experience muscle tension,
nausea or have trouble getting to sleep or staying asleep through
the night.

14. How Does Exercise Affect Anxiety?
• When serotonin and dopamine levels increase, the affected person
naturally feels calmer and more in control. Serotonin and
dopamine curb the “fight or flight” instinct that anxiety triggers,
encouraging perspective on issues and stress, rather than panic.
• Regular exercise has numerous positive benefits for the mood and
the mind. It helps improve focus and provides the individual with a
longer attention span. Other benefits of physical activity include a
calmer, more positive outlook due to changes in brain chemistry.

15. • What is Overtraining or Staleness?
There are two types of overtraining: overreaching and overtraining (staleness).
• Overreaching is the first phase of overtraining and may be reversed more easily.
Overreaching is unusual muscle soreness that occurs when an athlete does not
allow for a sufficient amount of recovery time between hard workouts. This
usually occurs after several consecutive days of hard training.
• Overtraining or Staleness occurs when an athlete ignores the signs of
overreaching and continues to train. Many athletes believe that weakness or
poor performance signals the need for even harder training. So they continue to
push themselves. This only breaks down the body further. It is very difficult to
recover from overtraining and can require weeks or months of time off. This can
be challenging for someone whose life revolves around training and competing.
It is important to identify overreaching early.
Psychological Cost of Exercise:
Overtraining and Staleness

16. • Involvement in a very heavy exercise schedule (i.e. overtraining) is
sometimes accompanied by persistent declines in performance
capabilities as well as negative physiological and psychological
changes. These systemic changes include muscle soreness/ damage,
neuroendocrinological imbalance, suppressed immunity, lethargy,
loss of appetite/weight, mood disturbance, insomnia and
alterations of movement biomechanics (Fry, Morton & Keast 1991;
Kuipers & Keizer 1988; Myers & Whelan 1998; O'Connor 1996;
Raglin & Wilson 2000).
Psychological Cost of Exercise:
Overtraining and Staleness

17. • Rushall (1990) suggests that, in order to understand responses to the specific
stress of training, it is necessary to monitor sources of stress within other areas
of life as well. Towards this end, he developed an instrument called the Daily
Analyses of Life Demands for Athletes (DALDA) as a means of assessing the
extent to which an individual is experiencing stress as well as the factors
leading to the stressed condition.
• The DALDA contains two sections and assesses sources of stress as well as
stress symptoms at a particular point in time. The potential sources of stress
include events related to diet, home life, work, friends, training and sleep, and a
symptom checklist contains common stress reactions. Rushall suggests that an
increase in self-reported sources of stress and/or stress symptoms can provide an
early warning sign that the individual is training too hard.
Psychological Cost of Exercise:
Overtraining and Staleness

18. • Exercise dependence is a disorder in which persons exercise
excessively and obsessively to a point of dependence and, often
injury or illness. Other characteristics of the disorder include
withdrawal symptoms when exercise is unavailable, unwelcome, or
irrational cognitions concerning exercise (or a lack thereof), a
reduction in social and occupational interaction, and reduced
functioning in other areas (e.g. interpersonal relationships).
Psychological Cost of Exercise:
Exercise Dependence

19. • Exercise releases endorphins and dopamine. These are the same
neurotransmitters released during drug use. An exercise addict
feels reward and joy when exercising. When they stop exercising,
the neurotransmitters go away. An addict has to exercise more to
trigger the chemical release.
• Exercise dependence usually starts with a desire for physical
fitness. An eating disorder, such as anorexia nervosa or bulimia,
may lead to an unhealthy obsession with exercise. A body
dysmorphic disorder, or body image disorder, may also cause
exercise addiction.
What causes Exercise Dependence?

20. • People who feel pressure to stay in shape are at risk of
developing exercise addiction or dependence.
• People who are overweight and set out on an extreme
weight loss regimen may also be at risk of exercise
addiction or dependence.
Who is at risk for Exercise Dependence?

21. • In most cases, self-control is necessary to treat exercise
dependence. An addict acknowledges that they have a
problem and takes steps to control exercise activity.
• Exercise dependent often switch to new forms of exercise
or moderate their current workouts. An exercise addict
may need to stop exercising for a time to gain control of
the desire to exercise.
What are the treatment options for Exercise
Dependence?

22. • To prevent exercise dependence, avoid excessive trips to
the gym. Limit your workout time and the amount of
daily exercise.
• Take breaks from exercise throughout the week to let
your body rest. If you find yourself becoming obsessed
with exercising talk to your doctor about what you can
do.
How can I prevent Exercise Dependence?