The document summarizes key concepts in space science, including the life cycles of stars and galaxies. It describes how stars are formed from contracting gas clouds, progressing through steady state burning of hydrogen to helium, then expanding as red giants before ending as white dwarfs, neutron stars, or black holes depending on their mass. It also explains that galaxies are groups of millions of stars held together by gravity, and summarizes the types of galaxies including spiral, elliptical, and irregular. Finally, it provides an overview of the leading cosmological model of the Big Bang theory which proposes the expansion of the universe from an initial hot, dense state approximately 13.8 billion years ago.
Origin of the Universe and the Solar SystemNikoPatawaran
The most widely accepted theory of planetary formation, known as the nebular hypothesis, maintains that 4.6 billion years ago, the Solar System formed from the gravitational collapse of a giant molecular cloud which was light years across.
Types of galaxies
You can edit this powerpoint for your own presentation but don't re-upload.
I used hyperlink(especially on images) and alot of animation.
The universe is the totality of all matter and energy, originating with the big bang and expanding outwards. There is no outside to it, although there may
This slide contains some basic content about astronomical scales and some methods to find the astronomical distances. This slide tells about the concept of luminosity.
Big Bang Theory & Other Recent Sciences || 2014 - Dr. Mahbub Khaniqra tube
RECENT SCIENCES
Big Bang, Dark Matter, Dark Energy, Black Hole, Neutrino, God Particle, Higgs Field, Graviton, Expansion of Universe, and Search for Life elsewhere in the Cosmos
The Structure of the Universe - Between Science and QuranHussein Mhanna
If we had the chance to go outside the universe and take a huge zoom-out picture, how would it look like?!
A recent computer simulation from a supercomputer at NASA answers this question.
But did Allah describe the universe in the Quran 14 centuries ago?!
Origin of the Universe and the Solar SystemNikoPatawaran
The most widely accepted theory of planetary formation, known as the nebular hypothesis, maintains that 4.6 billion years ago, the Solar System formed from the gravitational collapse of a giant molecular cloud which was light years across.
Types of galaxies
You can edit this powerpoint for your own presentation but don't re-upload.
I used hyperlink(especially on images) and alot of animation.
The universe is the totality of all matter and energy, originating with the big bang and expanding outwards. There is no outside to it, although there may
This slide contains some basic content about astronomical scales and some methods to find the astronomical distances. This slide tells about the concept of luminosity.
Big Bang Theory & Other Recent Sciences || 2014 - Dr. Mahbub Khaniqra tube
RECENT SCIENCES
Big Bang, Dark Matter, Dark Energy, Black Hole, Neutrino, God Particle, Higgs Field, Graviton, Expansion of Universe, and Search for Life elsewhere in the Cosmos
The Structure of the Universe - Between Science and QuranHussein Mhanna
If we had the chance to go outside the universe and take a huge zoom-out picture, how would it look like?!
A recent computer simulation from a supercomputer at NASA answers this question.
But did Allah describe the universe in the Quran 14 centuries ago?!
To achieve genetic transformation in plants, we need the construction of a vector (genetic vehicle) which transports the genes of interest, flanked by the necessary controlling sequences i.e. promoter and terminator, and deliver the genes into the host plant.
Grade 8 Integrated Science Chapter 12 Lesson 2 on the Sun and other stars. This lesson discusses nuclear fusion and the composition of a star. It introduces the three interior layers and the three exterior layers. It also introduces the changing features of the Sun's surface. There is also a short introduction on the H-R diagram.
Maybe too in-depth for most elementary students, but very good broad coverage for teacher background or more advanced students in elementary or middle school.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
1. Space Science
(A) Stars and Galaxies
Astronomy : It is the branch of
science deals with study of
celestial objects, space and
universe
Star:1) It is a massive self
luminous celestial object
2)It contain lot of gaseous matter
held together by gravity.
3) It emits radiation through
nuclear reactions
Eg: Sun , Sirius, Polaris , Arcturus
* Star nearest to earth is ------>
Sun
(Distance = 1.5 X 108 Km )
2. ● Stellar evolution is the process involved in the
entire life cycle of Stars from birth to death
Stellar evolution
3. How a star is Born :(Sun like Star )
Step 1: Protostar :
● Huge gaseous
hydrogen contracts
under its own gravity
● Density and
temperature increases
at center
● Formation of spherical
structure at centre
● This is called protostar
4. Step II : Steady state
● Hydrogen nuclei fuse to form Helium nuclei
● Temperature increases and lot of energy is released
● Due to enormous release of energy matter is expanded
away from center
● Force of gravity tries to contract matter but radiation
pressure tends to expand matter
● Two opposing forces balance each other
● Now star attains steady state.
5. ● Red Giant is the stage in the life cycle of
star when core consists of helium and
star become huge in size due to
expansion and hence become red in
colour
● Eg: Betelgeuse – a star in the
constellation Orion , is a red Giant
How is Red Giant Formed?
● Helium core began to contract under
gravity
● Hydrogen fuel at core get exhausted and
fusion stops in core
● There is increase in temperature
● Hydrogen left in peripheral region start
fusion reaction causing outer layer to
expand
● Star become gigantic in size
● This cools the star and its colour
changes to red
Step III: Red Giant Star
6. Planetary Nebula
● The shell of glowing
gaseous matter surrouding
an evolved star from which
it is ejected into space due
to outward pull of radiation
is called planetary nebula
● Sun like stars usually shed
their outer shell towards
the end of their red giant
stage
● The material ejected fro
the star has similarity with
that of planet and hence
the name
7. Chandrashekar’s Limit
● What happens to a star after
Red giant Stage depends on
its initial mass
● Here the critical value is
about 1.4 times the solar
mass .
● This value is known as
chandrashekar’s limit
● Star with mass lower than
chandrashekar’s limit will end
up as ------> White dwarf
● Star with mass higher than
chandrashekar’s limit will
Undergo a ------>
Supernova explosion
8.
9. Step IV : White Dwarf
(Mass less than 1.4 Chandrashekhar’s Limit)
● A helium star that is dense , small and bright is called white dwarf.
● Star of mass less than 1.4 times the solar mass evolve into white dwarf stage
How is White dwarf formed?
● As the core of red giant contracts temperature reaches 108 Kelvin
● Helium fuses to form Carbon
● Once entire Helium fuses into carbon the core cannot contract
● Outer envelope get detached and thrown into space
● Star collapse under the gravity
● Due to increase in temperature Star shines and now called White Dwarf
10. Step V : Black Dwarf
● After White dwarf stage
nuclear reaction inside
the star stops
● Internal energy is lost
● NO light is emitted
● Star become Black
dwarf that is the death
of star
12. Stages of stellar Evolution
Sun like Star 5 times as sun 30 times as sun
1. Protostar 1. Protostar 1. Protostar
2.Steady State 2.Steady State 2.Steady State
3.Red Giant 3.Red Giant 3.Red Giant
4.White Dwarf 4. Supernova 4. Supernova
5.Black DWarf 5.Neutron Star 5.Black Hole
13.
14. Supernova
● After red giant if the mass of star is about 5
times that of sun then supernova explosion
takes place
●
Helium formed in the core continue to
contract under gravity.
● Due to increase in the temperature helium
fuses into Carbon -----this followed by
fusion of carbon into Oxygen
● The process continues and ther is formation
of heavier elements such as Magnesium
and silicon core which lie one inside other
● Huge amount of energy is produced
●
This result in increase in temperature and
pressure
● Star explode with brilliant flash
● Matter is thrown into the space with high
speed
● This is called supernova
15. ● After Supernova a
sphere of neutron
remains at center and is
called neutron star.
● It is highly dense object.
● It collapse under the
influence of its own
gravity
● It is a star composing
mainly of packed
neutrons
● It is the super dense
remnant of supernova
Neutron Star
16. Black Hole
● Black hole takes place if
the mass of star is 30
times that of the mass of
sun
● Black hole are formed from
a massive neutron star that
go on contracting infinitely
under the influence of their
own gravity
● Black hole are so massive
and dense that even light
cannot escape from them.
17. Properties of Black hole cannot be
determined
● Nothing comes out of
black hole
● No information in the
form of light or radio
waves comes from a
black hole.
● This is why it is not
possible to determine
temperature , pressure
or chemical composition
of a black hole.
18. Special stars
Pulsar : a spinning
neutron star that emmits
radio wave is called
Pulsar.
Quasar :
● It is massive and remote
celestial object
● Emits large amount of
energy
● It has Star – like image in
telescope
● Quasar is the short form
of Quasi Stellar Sources
19. ● The Stars differ in their temperature.
● The different colour of the star are due to
difference in their temperature
Star Name Colour Surface temperature
Betelgeuse ( Red
Star in the night
Sky)
Red 2500 – 3500 K
Arcturus Orange yellow 3500 – 5000 K
Sun Yellow 5000 – 6000 K
Sirius ( Brighest
star in the sky )
Yellowish white 6000 – 10000 K
Rigel Bluish White 10000 - 50000 K
Why do star differ in their Colour
20. Betelgeuse ( Red Star in the night Sky) Arcturus
Sun Sirius
( Brighest star in the sky ) Rigel
21. Galaxy
A group of star containing thousand
of million of stars along with gas
and dust held together by the force
of gravity orbiting about a common
center is called Galaxy.
Milky way: ( Spiral Galaxy)
● It is the galaxy which includes the
sun and solar system.
● The diameter of galaxy is about
1,00,000 light years
● It looks like Flat Disc with a central
bulge and thickness tapers towards
edge
● Sun is located in the galaxy about
28,000 light years from the center
22. Different types of Galaxies
1.Elliptical Galaxies :
● These are most common
type of galaxies in the
universe
● They contain quite dim
stars
● It is difficult to see the
stars of galaxy
23. Spiral galaxy
● They have spiral
shape .
● They contain very
bright and newly
formed stars.
● Our galaxy milky way
is a spiral galaxy
24. Irregular Galaxy
● These galaxies do not
have shape
● These galaxies are
normally small and faint
● Hence more difficult to
detect
25. Cosmology
● The study of the universe as a whole, including
theories about its origin , evolution, structure
and future is called Cosmology
● The most accepted theory about origin of
universe is ------ Big Bang Theory
26. Big Bang Theory
● Big bang theory was put forward by
Edwin Hubble.
● According to this theory the matter
in the universe was in the form of
fiery region forming a huge dens
primordial mass known as
primordial fire ball
● It had high density and temperature
● Due to increase in the pressure and
temperature it was exploded about
15-20 billions years ago
● This explosion is called big bang
● This explosion threw matter and
radiation in space with high speed
● This caused universe to expand
● As the matter and radiation cooled ,
stars and galaxies were formed
27. Red Shift● Long observation of the spectra of
galaxies reveals a gradual shift of the
spectral lines towards longer
wavelength. This shift is known as ‘RED
SHIFT’ of galaxies.
● Edwin Hubble and his co-workers
studied the red shift of various
galaxies .
● They discovered that red shift of galaxy
is proportional to its distance from us.
28. Hubbles Law
“ The velocity of recession of a
celestial body is proportional to its
distance from observer’’
29. ➢ The star nearest to earth is _____
➢ The sun is currently in ______stage
➢ The nuclear fuel that is currently used up in the sun is _______
➢ The colour of Betelgeuse is_____
the densest celestial object in the universe is _____
➢ The galaxy of which we are part is _____
➢ The Indian name of Milky way is ______
➢ The diameter of milky way is _____ light years
➢ The theory that explains the origin of universe satisfactorily is
____
➢ The sun will eventually ends up as ______
➢ The spinning neutron star is called ______
➢ A pulsar emits ______ waves
➢ Light year is a unit of ____________
Evaluation
30. Thank You
Prepared by
Gulzar . I . D
Government P.U.college
(High School)
Thyamagondlu
Nelamangala tq
Bangalore rural dist
Mob no : 8277367100