The document summarizes the origins and evolution of the universe, galaxy, solar system, and Earth. It begins by explaining how the Big Bang occurred approximately 13.7 billion years ago, marking the expansion of the early universe. It then describes how the universe cooled and formed elemental structures, galaxies, stars, and planets over billions of years. Specific details are provided about the formation of the Milky Way galaxy and solar system, including Earth. The geological history of Earth is outlined, dividing time into eons, eras, periods, and epochs marked by significant evolutionary changes and extinctions.

1. AP Environmental Science
Earth Systems

3. In the beginning….
• Our Universe began as a very
hot, very dense cloud of high
energy hydrogen plasma
• The “Big Bang” is the finite
point, 13.7 BYA when for
some reason the universe
started to expand in all
directions
• The universe has expanded
and cooled ever since this
point

4. • In the first microseconds after the big bang,
elementary particles (quarks and leptons)
dominated the universe independently
• As the universe cooled, layer upon layer of
structure began to form, first neutrons and
protons atomic nuclei  atoms stars 
galaxies  galaxy clusters
• Our universe is now populated by an
estimated 100 billion galaxies, each with 100
billion stars each of those having planets
orbiting

5. How do we know, why do we
think..
• 1) We know that the universe is
expanding
▫ By looking at the color of distance stars we
can tell whether they are approaching or
receeding
▫ If the color of the star appears blue
(blueshift) then the star is approaching
earth, shortening the wavelengths of light
turning it blue

6. • If the color appears red(redshift) then the
distance between us and the star is
increasing stretching the wavelengths of light
shifting them toward the longer red
wavelengths
• The further the distance between us and the
star the greater the redshift because they are
travelling at higher speeds (Edwin
Hubble,1929)
• This is known as a Doppler wobble or Doppler
shift

7. http://diagrammar.wordpress.com/

8. • 2)Helium and Deuterium is universally
abundant, and predates the formation of
stars.
▫ The only things today beside nuclear bombs
that can create these elements are stars
• 3) Cosmic Background Radiation
▫ When looking at the sky with a radio
telescope, there is a universal “glow” of
microwaves the blankets the universe.
▫ The uniformity indicates one original source
of the radiation, the big bang
http://www.ugcs.caltech.edu/~yukimoon/BigBang/BigBang.htm

9. Temperature variations of the cosmic background radiation as measured
by WMAP ( difference between colors is 0.0002 Kelvin, average
temperature 2.75 Kelvin)
http://faculty.washington.edu/

10. Home Sweet Home in the Milky
Way
• The Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy
• 100,000 light years in diameter
• 1000 light years in thickness
• 100 -400 billion stars
• Oldest star is 13.2 BYO
• We are located 26,000 light years from
the galactic center
• We are spiraling at roughly 552km/s

11. Infrared image of the center of the Milky Way Galaxy taken by the Spitzer Space
Telescope

12. Photograph of the night sky
highlighting our galaxy as the
hazy band of stars across the sky
Our location on one of
the spiral arms

13. Howdy Neighbor..
• The Andromeda Galaxy is our
nearest relative
• It contains roughly 100 trillion
stars
• Located 2,500,000 light-years
away
• 220,000 light-years in diameter
• It is approaching us at roughly
140 km/s and we will collide in
about 2.5 billion years to
possibly form one giant galaxy

14. Infrared Image of Andromeda Galaxy taken by the Spitzer Space Telescope
©John Lanoue

15. Twinkle, Twinkly little star…
• Space is thinly filled with gas (H2 & He)
and dust ( carbon & silicon) called
interstellar medium
• In some places the gas and dust collect
into large clouds called nebula- the
birthplace of stars
• The nebula contains pockets of higher
gravity that cause the matter to clump
together, the clumps get bigger and
bigger in a process called accretion

16. • The continued process of accretion will
eventually form a protostar
• The functional life of a star is complicated
balancing act between the gravity pulling
atoms inward and the physical forces
pushing heat and light away from the
center
• When equilibrium is first reached the star
ignites-
▫ if because of temperatures it fails to ignite
it becomes known as a brown dwarf
▫ If it does ignite, nuclear fusion begins to
happen and the star is born

17. Eagle Nebula-Pillars of Creation Star Forming Region of Doradu
Nebula

18. Turbulent Gases in the Omega/ Swan
Nebula
The Orion Nebula
http://hubblesite.org

19. • A star spend the majority of its life in what
is known as the main sequence- where it
constantly fuses hydrogen into helium
• Stars constantly contract during their life,
about 50 million years for a medium size
star, increasing the temperature and
pressure inside the star to compensate for
the loss of heat and energy

20. The Death of a Star
• Once the hydrogen fuel source in the core
is gone it will start burning helium.
• The outer shell will burn the last bits of
hydrogen causing the outer shell to
expand aiding in the release of heat from
the core creating a red giant
•
Supernova of a star first seen in
1987 by the Hubble Telescope

21. • The expanding gases will then be cast off
producing one of the following
▫ Small stars- white dwarf ( size of Earth)
and a planetary nebular
▫ Medium stars – supernova producing a
neutron star( size of a city)
▫ Large stars – form black holes
• It is the death of stars that is responsible
for the creation of the heavier elements
White Dwarf in the center of a
planetary nebula, the result of the
death of a smaller star, like ours
http://sunshine.chpc.utah.edu/

22. The Crab Nebula is a pulsar
wind nebula associated with
a 1054 BCE supernova

24. Another Trip Around the Sun
• From the nebula come not only stars but
also protoplanetary disks of gas and dust
• Our solar system might have formed from
the disruption caused by a nearby
supernova
• Accretion in this disks once again causes
the dust to pile up and it will start to
rotate around the solar center, the center
become the star and the outer bands form
planets

25. • The gravity of the disk pulls heavier
materials toward the center giving way to
rocky planets such as Earth, Venus and
Mars
• Lighter icy materials remained in the outer
reaches of the spiral forming the giant
planets like Jupiter
• From studying meteorites it is believed
that our solar system is 4.6 billion years
old
http://www.windows.ucar.edu

26. A diagram of our solar system
http://www.diagramofsolarsystem.com/

27. • Our Sun
▫ Age- 4.5 billion years old
▫ Distance from Earth-150,000,000 km
▫ Diameter-109x the size of Earth
▫ ( 1,390,000 km)
▫ Mass- 333,000x the mass of Earth
▫ Composition -73 % hydrogen, 25% helium, 2%
other ( carbon, iron, neon, nitrogen, silicon,
magnesium, sulfur)

28. The Inner Planets
• Terrestrial Planets
• Dense rocky compositions
• Few or no moons, no ring systems
• Silicate minerals form their crust
• Iron and nickel cores
• 3 of 4 have atmospheres ( Venus, Earth,
Mars) and weather patterns
• Mercury’s was blown off by stellar winds

29. Size comparison of the inner planets ( NASA)

30. Asteroid Belt
• Asteroid- small solar system bodies that
orbit the sun
• Located between the planets Mars and
Jupiter
• From a few feet to hundreds of miles wide
▫ It contains over 40,000 rocks over ½ mile
across

31. The asteroid belt
between Mars
and Jupiter

32. The Outer Planets
• Gas Giants
• Jupiter and Saturn consist of a large
amount of hydrogen and helium
• Uranus and Neptune possess a greater
proportion of ices ( frozen water,
ammonia, methane)
• All of the gas giants have ring systems but
only Saturn’s is observable from earth

33. The outer Jovian
Planets
BBC-Jupiter Explosion Video

34. The orbits of
the solar
system

36. Earth-Sun, Like peas in a pod
• The Earth’s orbit around the sun is called
a revolution, this revolution takes 365.26
days
• Hence every four years we have a leap
year to catch up
• The orbit is elliptical, causing our distance
from the sun to vary, and our energy from
the sun fluctuates by about 6%

37. Round and Round we go..
• On January 3rd
the Earth is closest to the
sun(147.3 million Km), this is called the
perihelion
• On July 4th
the Earth is the farthest from
the sun(152.1 million Km), this is called
the aphelion
• The average distance from the sun is
149.6 million Km

38. Earth’s Orbit

39. • There are two major events in the Earth’s
orbits- the solstice and the equinox
• The solstices occur in the winter (Dec
21/22) and in the summer (June 21/22)
• The equinoxes occur in the spring (Vernal,
March 20/21) and the fall (Autumnal,
Sept. 22/23)
• During the equinoxes there are 12 hours
of day/12 hours of night
• The summer solstice is the longest day of
the year

40. You spin me right round…
• The Earth rotates on an axis, and
imaginary line that runs through the poles
of the Earth
• Earth’s axis is not completely vertical, it is
tilted 23.5o
from perpendicular
• It is the relationship between Earth’s tilt
and its orbital revolution that creates the
seasons
http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/6h.html

42. Earth’s Orbit and the seasons
Summer Solstice Winter Solstice

43. Vernal and Autumnal Equinox

44. How the tilt of the Earth affects which hemisphere is
facing the sun

45. • Earth is actually closest to the sun in the
winter time, and furthest away in the
summer
• When it is summer in the northern
hemisphere then it is winter in the
southern hemisphere

46. Round and Round..
• The Earth rotates east to
west, or counter-
clockwise (when viewed
from the North Pole)
• The rotation of the Earth
takes approx. 24 hours

47. • Seasonal effects on the Earth
▫ Changes in solar altitude
▫ Changes in day length
▫ Changes in apparent solar intensity
▫ Changes in temperature
• Changes in the seasons are the most
extreme at the poles and minimized at the
equator

49. Light from the sun
• Solar Radiation is received in parallel rays of
energy
• Insolation- the measurement of solar energy
received on a given surface( Earth)
• Commonly expressed as the average
irradiance, W/ m2
or kWh/(m2
*day)
• Intensity of incoming solar radiation
(insolation) is related to angle of incidence.
Higher angles = higher intensity

50. • The sun irradiates 63,000,000 W/ m2
• Depending on distance and size of an
object, we can calculate the amount of
energy that we receive

51. A 1 mi sunbeam striking
the Earth at 90o
disperses
it energy over 1mi of
surface, while a sunbeam
striking at 30o
spreads the
energy over a surface
area of 2 miles

52. • At the top of the atmosphere- 1,366 W/
m2
of energy is received (2 billionths )
• Atmospheric phenomena such as clouds
and weather patterns affect the amount of
solar energy that reaches the surface
• Geographic location, time of day and
landscape can also affect the amount of
energy received
• Perpendicular locations receive roughly
1000 W/ m2
on a clear day
• Earth’s average insolation is 250 W/ m2
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Solar_radiation

53. Average solar
radiation
received in
the Us

55. Earth’s energy budget
• 30% of the sun’s energy is reflected by
the atmosphere and the surface
• 19 % is absorbed by the clouds and
atmosphere itself, an reradiated back into
space
• 51% of the energy is absorbed by the
landscape and oceans to warm it
• 70% of the total energy we receive is
reradiated back into space
• 0.023 % of that energy is used for
Photosynthesis to fuel the food chain

58. http://www.geology.wisc.edu/homepages/g100s2/public_html/Geologic_Time

59. Time after time
• The geologic time scale is broken up into
several pieces
▫ Eons ( 4 total, ½ billion years or more)
▫ Era (12 total, several hundred million
years)
▫ Periods (defines periods of life)
▫ Epochs( tens of million years)
▫ Age ( millions of years)

64. Time after time..
• Hadean Eon 4.6-4.0 BYA
▫ Formation of the Earth’s crust and
bombardment by comets and asteroids
• Archean Eon 4.0-2.5 BYA
▫ First life appears, plate tectonics
established, oxygen poor atmosphere
• Proterozoic Eon 2.5 BYA – 542MYA
▫ First multicellular animals toward the end, 4
major mountain building episodes
(orogeny) [ Grenville & Pan-African] and
the oldest known and most severe
glaciation event

65. • Phanerozoic Eon 542 MYA-present
• Paleozoic Era 542-252MYA
▫ Cambrian Period- Began with the
Cambrian explosion, first skeletonized
animals
▫ Ordovician Period- ended with a mass
extinction
▫ Silurian Period-estuarine, freshwater and
terrestrial ecosystems developm, major
terrestrial life
▫ Devonian Period- age of fishes, first land
vertebrates, diversification of the vascular
plants

66. ▫ Mississippian Period-first terrestrial
tetrapods
▫ Pennsylvanian Period-”coal age”-major
plant fossils that make up the major coal
seams
▫ Permian Period- the end of this era is
marked by the most extensive mass
extinction in the past 600 million years
rise of dinosaurs and modern critters, lots
of insects, major dominance of coniferous
plants

67. • Mesozoic Era 252-65.5 MYA
▫ Triassic Period –recovery from previous
mass extinction, rise of the dinosaurs, early
mammals, first coral reefs
▫ Jurassic Period – “Age of the Dinosaurs”,
first birds(aves), first parasites
▫ Cretaceous Period- extinction of the
dinosaurs, birth of the angiosperms

68. • Cenozoic Era 65.5MYA – present
• Paleogene Period
▫ Paleocene Epoch – “Age of Mammals”
begins, seeded vascular plants dominant
▫ Eocene Epoch –maximum extent or warm
and tropical vegetation, evolution of marine
mammals
▫ Oligocene Epoch- appearance of most of
the still living mammal families

69. • Neogene Period
▫ Miocene Epoch – most of the extant
marine invertebrates exist, major ocean
circulations form, seasonal climates
dominate the north hemisphere
▫ Pleistocene Epoch- human geographic
expansion and cultural development, first
major human-influenced extinctions
▫ Halocene Epoch- present day- climate
warming following the last ice age,
continents drying out, polar regions
contract, plant communities change with
climate
http://paleobiology.si.edu/geotime/main/

71. Welcome to Earth, third rock
from the sun..
• Earth is the fifth largest planet and the
largest terrestrial planet
• The shape of the Earth is an oblate
spheroid-”squished ball”
• The diameter across the equator is 43 km
larger than the pole to pole diameter
▫ Diameter is roughly 12,742km
• Mass = 5.98 x1024
kg

72. Tidal forces that cause the planet to be an oblate spheroid

73. • Chemical composition-
▫ 32.1 % Iron
▫ 30.1 % Oxygen
▫ 15.1 % Silicon
▫ 13.9 % Magnesium
▫ 2.9 % Sulfur
▫ 1.8 % Nickel
▫ 1.5% Calcium
▫ 1.4% Aluminum
▫ 1.2% Other trace elements

75. • The Earth has several layers
▫ The Crust- the hard outer shell
 Thin and floating on molten mantle
(Lithosphere)
 Two main types Oceanic (6-11km) and
Continental (30 km)
 Broken up into several large plates called
tectonic plates
▫ The Mantle
 Begins between 10-30km below the crust
 2,900km thick, 80% of the Earth’s Volume
 Divided into the inner and outer mantle

76.  Outer mantle (10-300km) 1,400 - 3,000o
C
 Molten rock, part closest to crust is thicker and
slower moving, plastic-like consistency
(Asthenosphere)
 Inner mantle (300-2,890km), 3000o
C
• The Core
• Found 2,900km below the surface
• Dense ball of iron and nickel
• Two layers
• Outer core-molten metal, 2,200km thick
-Rotates around the inner
core and creates Earth’s
Magnetic field
• Inner core- solid due to pressures, even
though its 3,700o
C , 1,250km thick
http://mediatheek.thinkquest.nl/~ll125/en/struct.htm

78. http://www.seismo.unr.edu/ftp/pub/louie/class/100/interior.html

80. • The Earth is also divided up into four
spheres
▫ Biosphere, Lithosphere, Hydrosphere and
the Atmosphere

81. • Lithosphere-”rocky sphere” the
outermost portion that provides a platform
for life, contains the crust and the
uppermost portion of the mantle
▫ The asthenosphere is located just
underneath- moves the tectonic plates
• Hydrosphere-”water sphere” the liquid
realm of the Earth, principally the mass of
water in the worlds oceans
▫ 70% of the surface is covered with water
▫ 366.3 trillion gallons

82. • Biosphere-” Life sphere” Most of the
biosphere is contained within a thin layer
of the planet called the life layer
▫ Overlaps with all of the other spheres
▫ 2200-4000 Gigatons of Biomass (2.2-4
Trillion tons)
• Atmosphere-” Air sphere” The gaseous
layer that surrounds the Earth. It supplies
some of the basic features that support
and sustain life on this planet
▫ 4 Major layers, 99% is Nitrogen and
Oxygen
http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/mearth.html

83. Mapping our planet..
• The Equator divides the world into
Northern and Southern Hemispheres
• Latitude-angular measurement of the
distance north or south of the Equator
▫ Range: 0-90o
N or S
▫ 1o
is roughly 69 miles on the surface
• Parallels of Latitude - Imaginary lines that
connect points of equal latitude, thus
slicing the earth into equal “layers” like on
a wedding cake

85. Important Parallels

86. • The Prime Meridian divides the world into
eastern and western hemispheres
• Longitude the angular measurement of
distance east or west of the Prime
Meridian or Greenwich Meridian.
▫ Range: 0-180o
E or W

89. Geographic Grid
• The combination of longitude and latitude
that makes every point on this Earth
easily identifiable and locatable

90. World Address of Major Cities
Berlin, Germany
Beijing, China
Paris, France
Moscow, Russia
London, England
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

91. World Address of Major Cities
Berlin, Germany -52.9o
N 12.5o
E
Beijing, China – 39.95o
N 116.5o
E
Paris, France – 48.8o
N 2.25o
E
Moscow, Russia – 55.8o
N 37.6o
E
London, England – 51.5o
N 0.1o
W
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil - 22.95o
S 43.2o
W

92. Map Projections
• Mapping the surface of the Earth is
difficult because it is round and maps are
typically flat
• 3 major types of map projections are used
▫ Conic
▫ Cylindrical/Mercator
▫ Azimuthal

95. • Conic Projections
▫ Good for northern/ southern locations
distorts near the edges-equator
• Mercator Projections
▫ Good for equatorial locations but distorts
near the poles
• Azimuthal /Planar
▫ Limited scope or area covered, but
preserved the ideas of direction on the map

97. River Deep, Mountain High
• Geomorphology-the scientific study of
landforms and the processes that shape
them

98. Water, water everywhere..
• Oceans
▫ Arctic Ocean
 Smallest and most shallow, Partially covered
in sea ice, temp and salinity vary, least salty
of all oceans
▫ Atlantic Ocean
 Second largest, 25% of water area, currently
growing, Divided into north and south Atlantic
by equator
▫ Indian Ocean
 Third largest, 20% of water area, begins at
the 20o
E meridian

99. ▫ Pacific Ocean
 Divided up into the north and south pacific
 Largest ocean, and deepest ocean
 Currently shrinking
▫ Southern/ Antarctic Ocean
 Fourth largest ocean, completely surrounds
Antarctica

101. • Sea of Okhotsk
• Sea of Japan
• Hudson Bay
• East China
• Andaman
• Black Sea
• Red Sea
• South China Sea
• Caribbean Sea
• Mediterranean Sea
• Bering Sea
• Gulf of Mexico
• Arabian sea
Major Seas

102. http://www.worldatlas.com/aatlas/newart/locator/majorsea.htm

103. Major Mountain Ranges
• Himalayas
▫ Highest mountain range, “land of snow”,
located in southern Asia, between India and
southern Asia, one of the youngest mtn
ranges- Mt Everest- 29,029ft tall
• Alps
▫ Located in south central Europe, one of the
largest and highest mtn ranges, 750 miles
long- Mont Blanc 15.771 ft

104. • Andes
▫ Located in South America, runs north to south
along western edge of continent
• Rockies
▫ Vast system in western North America,
stretches from Canada to New Mexico, about
3000 miles long-Mount Elbert-14,440 ft

105. Mtn Ranges by Continent (don’t copy)
• Antarctica:
▫ Antarctic Peninsula,
Transantarctic Mountains
▫ The highest mountain,
Vinson Massif in the
Ellsworth Mountains,
peaks at 4897 m.
• Africa:
▫ Atlas, Eastern African
Highlands, Ethiopian
Highlands
• Asia:
▫ Hindu Kush, Himalayas,
Taurus, Elburz, Japanese
Mountains
• Australia:
▫ MacDonnell Mountains
• Europe:
▫ Pyrenees, Alps,
Carpathians, Apennines,
Urals, Balkan Mountains

106. • North America:
▫ Appalachians, Sierra
Nevada, Rocky
Mountains, Laurentides
• South America:
▫ Andes, Brazilian
Highlands

109. Appalachian Mountains

111. Rocky Mountains

113. The Alps

115. Himalayan Mountains

116. Mt. Everest 29,029 ft / 8,848 m

118. Major River Systems
• North American
▫ St Lawrence-2350 mi long, follows a fault
line and drains the Great Lakes
▫ Rio Grande
▫ Colorado- 1450 miles long, cut the largest
canyon system in the world including the
Grand Canyon
▫ Hudson- 315 mi long, serves New York and
can be navigated beyond the mtns
▫ Mississippi River – 3,870 miles long, 1.25
million mi2 drainage, longest river flowing
southward, 25 major cities located on it
banks

120. • North Carolina

121. North Carolina River Basins

123. • South America
▫ Amazon – 3,920 miles long, 2.3 mi2
drainage, largest basin in the world,
greatest flow (180,000 m3)

126. • African
▫ Nile- 4,180 mi long, 1.7 million mi2
drainage, White and Blue Nile tributaries,
Egyptians Agricultural is dependent upon
seasonal flooding, flows north
▫ Congo – 2900 mi long, 1.4 mil mi2
drainage, longest river flowing westward,
crosses the equator twice
▫ Zambezi – 2,200 mi long, 548,000 mi2
drainage, flows over Victoria falls

128. • Asian
▫ Tiger & Euphrates -1795 mi long, home
of ancient Mesopotamia, serves major Iraqi
cities
▫ Yangtze (Chang Jiang) – 3964 mi
long,698,000 mi2 drainage, the lifeline of
China
▫ Yellow (Huang He) -3,395 miles long,
290,000 mi2 drainage, some of the river is
higher than the surrounding area
▫ Ganges- 1560 mi long, sacred river of
India

131. • European
▫ Danube – 1,176 mi long, 320,000 mi2
drainage
▫ Rhine- 820 mi long, commercially the most
important river of Europe

133. Structure of a Watershed
System- Hydrology

135. • Inside the geographic divide, all of the
water in an area will eventually flow into
one river channel
• The very small streams that first collect
water at the source of the river are called
headwaters
• Headwater tributaries are ranked by size,
1st
order are the smallest, when they
combine they form 2nd
order streams, that
will eventually come together and form 3rd
order streams, so on and so on…

139. • Rivers channels are typically made up of
a stream bed, with banks on either side,
outside of the river banks are called flood
plains
• The edge of the floodplain where the
land and the stream meet is called a
riparian zone or area
• It is usually lined with riparian
vegetation, characterized by hydrophilic
plants.
• These areas are important because they
help prevent erosion, aiding in soil
conservation. This is because they buffer
the effects of fast moving flood waters

140. Braided River, multiple channels, New
ZealandMeanders of the Rio Cuato

141. Formation of an Oxbow
Lake

142. • Where the water pours out of a river
channel into a larger body of water is
called a delta
• The delta is where all of the sediment that
is suspended in a stream dumps out, as
the water slows

144. Mississippi River Delta

145. Migration of
the Mississippi
river channel
and Delta

146. Amazon River Delta

147. Types of Rivers
▫ Youthful Rivers
 A river with steep gradient, few tributaries
and a rapid flow, the channel is usually deep
and narrow
▫ Mature Rivers
 Less steep gradient, flows more slowly. Many
tributaries and higher discharge. Channel
becomes wider with time
▫ Old Rivers
 River with a low gradient and very little
erosion, usually have extensive flood plains
▫ Rejuvenated Rivers
 A river that has be lifted by tectonic uplift

149. Plate Tectonics
• Theory was developed to explain large
scale motions of Earth’s lithosphere
• Developed by Alfred Wegener
• Very important because it maintains the
balance of carbon in the environment
• Earth’s crust is broken up into several
major plates(7-8) and various secondary
plates
• Continental Drift + Sea Floor Spreading +
data = Theory of Plate Tectonics

151. Tectonic Plate boundaries marked by volcanic and seismic activity

153. Evidence for Plate Tectonics
• Puzzle like fit of the continents
• Fossil Distribution, Geologic similarities on
opposing shores
• Sea-Floor Polarity patterns
• Age of sea floor

156. Similarities of Geological Formation

159. • The lithospheric plates ride around on the
asthenosphere- plastic-like layer of the
upper mantle
• Plates interact with one another at 1 of 3
types of plate boundaries
▫ Convergent –collision boundaries where
plates move toward each other
▫ Divergent –where the plates are moving
away from one another
▫ Transform boundaries- where plates slide
past each other, side to side

161. Plate Boundaries
• Convergent Boundaries
▫ Ocean-Ocean
 one plate(typically the older one) will subduct
under the other volcanic island arc
▫ Ocean-Continental
 The oceanic plate will subduct under the
continental plate melt volcanic arc &
trench
▫ Continental-Continental
 Neither plate will subduct plates begin to
fold and crumble  mountain ranges

163. Mariana Trench – deepest part of
the world’s oceans
2550 km long, 70 km wide
Challenger Deep
11,033 meters deep (36,000 ft)
If Mt. Everest was set in the bottom
it would be covered by 6000 ft of
water