1. The document discusses sociological and psychological perspectives on gender. It outlines four sociological theories - functionalist, conflict, symbolic interaction, and feminist theory - that seek to explain how gender roles emerge and are influenced by society and social interactions. 2. It also examines psychological theories like evolutionary theory, biosocial theory, social learning theory, and gender schema theory that analyze how biological and environmental factors shape gender identity development and influence behavior. 3. Overall, the document analyzes how both social and psychological factors contribute to the social construction of gender and influence people's understanding and expression of their gender.

1. Sociological Perspectives of Gender

2. Our knowledge about society and how society
functions comes from various sociological
theories. These theories help to understand the
connection between society and class, society and
caste and such other identities. Like all other social
identities, gender is also socially constructed.
Sociological perspective states that biology alone
does not determine gender identity. Society
contributes greatly to gender identity

3. Through the process of gender socialisation, a
person learns the expectations associated with
his or her sex. Family, peers, school, religious
organisations, mass media are some agents
through which gender socialisation takes shape.
This process of gender socialisation strengthens
our gender roles. Sociological theories can be
used to interpret how gender roles have
emerged. A brief description of four theories
that impact gender roles is given below:

4. 1. Functionalist Perspective of Gender:
Functionalism has its origin in the work
of Emile Durkheim who studied how
society remains stable. The functionalist
perspective of gender roles suggests that
gender roles maximise social efficiency and
help society to remain stable. Society is a
complex interplay of persons and
relationships. For any society to function
smoothly, each individual and groups of
individuals need to perform their functions.

5. These are often in synchronisation with socially accepted
norms. The functionalist theory suggests that in the pre-
industrialist society, gender roles involved division of
labour to maintain social equilibrium. Role specialisation,
according to gender, was a functional necessity. In the
hunting society, the man had to be away from home for
long.
A woman’s role, therefore, was child bearing, bringing up
children and looking after the domestic chores. The male,
on the other hand, was assigned the role of earning a
livelihood to support the family. Contemporary families
do not fit into the functionalist models. Supporters of the
feminist movement opine that such functionalism results
in the suppression of women.

6. 2. Conflict Theory: Supporters of the conflict theory
assert that social order is maintained through
exercising of power by one social class over another
social class. This theory has originated from the writings
of Karl Marx where he stated that ‘society is a stage on
which the struggle for power and dominance are acted
out’. Hence in capitalist society, one finds a struggle
between the dominant ruling class (bourgeoisie) and the
workers (proletariat). Friedrich Engels, the collaborator
of Karl Marx extended these assumptions to the family
and to gender roles by suggesting that the exploiter
exploited relationships are also seen at the household
level. The household becomes an autocracy and the
supremacy of the husband is unquestioned.

7. According to him, the woman’s domestic
labour was often considered insignificant and
therefore, the shift of power was towards the
male. He maintained that ‘The emancipation
of woman will only be possible when women
can take part in production on a large social
scale, and domestic work no longer claims
but an insignificant amount of her time.’
Other

8. conflict theorists also agree with Engels by suggesting
that when women gain economic strength by becoming
wage earners, their power inside the home is
strengthened and this can lead to more egalitarian
arrangements. Research shows that since household
labour is unpaid and associated with lack of power, the
homemaker takes on all domestic chores. The more
powerful spouse performs lesser amount of household
work. This theory has been criticised for its
overemphasis on economic basis of inequality. The
theory does not take into account the consensus that
might exist between husband and wife over task
allocation

9. 3.Symbolic Interaction Theory: The symbolic
interaction theory notes that social interaction is a
dynamic process in which people continually modify their
behaviour as a result of interaction. Sociologist Max
Weber introduced the basics of this theory by saying that
individuals act according to their interpretation of the
meaning of their world. Herbert Blumer coined the term
‘symbolic interaction’. By this he meant that people do
not respond directly to the world but they respond to the
meaning they bring to it. Blumer outlined three tenets of
this theory.

10. (i) We act towards people and things based on the
meaning we interpret from them.
(ii) Those meanings are the product of social interaction
between people.
(iii)Meaning-making and understanding is an ongoing
interpretive process, during which the initial meaning
might remain the same, evolve slightly, or change
radically. Thus, society and its institutions exist due to
human interactions. People interact according to how
they perceive a situation. Their response to a situation
also, depends upon how they perceive other people’s
perception of a situation. Each person’s definition of
the situation influences others

11. 4.Feminist Sociological Theory: The feminist
theory is concerned about giving a voice to
women in society and highlighting the
contribution of women. There are four types of
feminist theories that attempt at explaining the
societal differences between men and women. The
gender difference perspective examines how
women’s experience of social situations is
different from a man’s experience of the same
situation. Since different values are associated
with womanhood and femininity, men and women
tend to experience the social world differently.
The patriarchal society has always considered

12. Psychological Perspectives of Gender
Psychology is the study of the mind and all human
behaviour. An individual’s psychology is influenced
by his/her biology (nature) as well as his/her
environmental influences (nurture). Since biological
and social influences manifest differently for men and
women, one finds individual psychology strongly
affected by gender. Alcohol dependence and antisocial
tendencies are more in For example, research shows
that depression, stress and anxiety are more profound
in women than in men. men than in women. Some
theories regarding psychological perspectives towards
gender are discussed below.

13. The Evolutionary Theory:
The evolutionary approach suggests that since our genes are
adaptive, they hold the key to our behaviour. This approach argues
that over 10,000 years ago our ancestors were hunter-gatherers,
depending upon nature for their food. As a solution to challenges
faced, gender role divisions emerged. These were a result of the
mind’s instincts to survive and reproduce. Hence the male went to
hunt and procure food and the female stayed at home to rear and
nurture children. This was nothing but division of labour. The male
had to be agile to hunt and hence he developed his physical prowess.
As time elapsed, this was manifested in the form of gender
differences with the man becoming aggressive and competitive
(traits necessary for survival) and the woman becoming nurturing
and caring (traits necessary to reproduce and bring up the family).

14. The Biosocial Theory of Gender Role Development: This
theory by proposed by John Money and Anke Ehrhardt in 1972,
is an approach where nature (genetic factors) and nurture
(environmental factors) both play a vital role in gender
development. This theory is based on case studies where it was
seen that children born genetically as females but raised up as
males thought of themselves as boys. According to this theory,
children are gender neutral at birth. Gender identity and
adherence to one’s gender role start after the age of three. Social
labelling and treatment given by society, interacts with biological
factors to direct the child’s development. Society and its
expectations influence the child’s gender identity. As the child
grows up, the child herself/himself begins to follow certain
expectations. This is reflected in the choice of games, toys and
friends.

15. Social Learning Theory: Albert Bandura’s Social
Learning Theory explains that gender roles
are learned through observation and modelling. The child
observes how others of the same sex behave and imitates
their behaviour. When such behaviour is reinforced through
reward or punishment by significant others such as parents,
peers or adults, the behaviour becomes part of the
personality of the individual. For example, girls watch their
mothers cooking and imitate this behaviour. A boy may be
impressed by the way his father or a male relative rides a
motorbike and he imitates this behaviour. It is interesting to
note how adults contribute to development of gender
perceptions in children.

16. Gender Schema Theory:
This theory suggests that children learn what it
means to be a male or a female from their interaction
with society. This theory was introduced by Sandra Bem
in 1981 and further expanded by Carol Martin and
Charles Haverson. According to this theory, children
first form a gender identity and then form gender
schemas. A gender schema is an organised set of gender
related beliefs that influence one’s behaviour. These
schemas organise and regulate our behaviour.
They depend upon the child’s observations of what
society expects from a male and a female. The child
makes meaning of new social information based on the
schemas formed. For example, the child has observed
how males and females dress differently

17. Gender schemas influence our interaction in life.
Self esteem is also influenced by gender schema.
Martin and Halvorson conducted an experiment
where the target group consisted of children
between five and six years of age. They were
shown pictures of children involved in activities
consistent with their gender schema such as
pictures of girls playing with dolls as well as
pictures where the actions were inconsistent with
the gender schema such as girls playing with
trucks. A week later, the group was asked to recall
the pictures

18. It was easier to recall those pictures consistent
with their gender schema. In case of pictures not
consistent with their gender schema, children
reported distorted memories. For example they
remembered the girl playing with a truck as a boy
playing with a truck.
They remembered the picture of a male fire
fighter more easily than the picture of a male
nurse. Thus, Martin and Halvorson found that
children actively construct gender identity based
on their own experiences