Senior Sem. Medieval v. Classical Eras. Thesis Paper. Final

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Out of the Medieval Backwater;
Confronting the Myth of the Middle Ages
Catherine Tierney
Tuesday, December 15, 2015

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A peasant walking through the streets of a 13th century medieval town was surrounded by
decay and human waste. His clothes were tattered and grey to match the color of grime and soot
that covered his face. He did not bathe, nor did anyone else. His life consisted of waking up
early, going out into the fields and doing back-breaking manual labor all day, the fruits of which
were taken away from him by his abusive lord. At the end of the day, his family did not even
have enough food to eat. Many of his children died of hunger, and those who survived were
constantly on the brink of starvation. If they did not die of hunger, disease was a constant threat
that came along with a lack of hygiene and a life spent living in one’s own waste. Peasants and
kings alike believed that disease was an act of God, trusting more in superstition than in reason
to give them solutions. People of all statuses were ignorant, illiterate and lacking any form of
high culture. Along with their disinterest in wisdom came shortfalls in the arts. The work
produced during the Middle Ages was unrealistic and showed that medieval artists lacked skill
and an appreciation of beauty. The medieval individual was uncultured and knew nothing of the
glorious classical civilizations from which his period had fallen from into the depths of
ignorance. Humankind in the Middle Ages lived in a state of being no greater than that of the
animals that they shared their homes with.
One doesn’t have to look beyond books, movies and television shows to find this harsh
“story” of the Middle Ages. According to this negative “story” of the Middle Ages, which is
well known in popular culture and in early modern scholarship, during the medieval period1
quality of life and appreciation of higher culture were poor, but these failures are compounded
when the gloom of the Middle Ages is compared to the glory of the Romans who came before
1 For the sake of this paper, the “Middle Ages” will be defined as beginning in 500 A.D. and
ending in 1500 A.D.

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them. The absence of reason, culture and prosperity in the Middle Ages is an even more terrible
loss considering the great accomplishments in reason and art that came before them, and that
were lost as the Roman Empire fell. In contrast to the negativity of the Middle Ages, the “story”
displays the roman period as representing the height of human accomplishment.
Ancient Rome calls to mind images of strong, well-groomed men and beautiful women in
pristine white togas. A second century man was sure to bathe regularly and exercised to keep
himself in peak physical condition. He was a free citizen who had a say in his political system
and was involved in his community, but he also enjoyed his luxury time. The ancients enjoyed
sipping wine while discussing philosophy. The power and influence of the Roman state
throughout the Mediterranean, along with its extensive trade routes outside the empire, brought a
wide variety of foods and luxury goods to its people. Roman morals championed truth, honor
and wisdom. Its society was well developed with rich art forms, magnificent public buildings
with large walls and outer defenses to protect the extraordinary community from the rage of the
uncivilized barbarians outside. In the 5th century the barbarians broke through Roman defenses
and sacked the city of Rome numerous times, ending the prosperity the Romans had created and
plunging the entire continent into a millennia of darkness that we know as the Middle Ages.
In comparison to the ancients, the medieval period marked a decline in human greatness.
The Romans represented an age of light in contrast to the darkness of the Middle Ages. The
problem with this “story” is that people living during the Middle Ages did not think of
themselves as living in a time of regression. As far as the medievals were aware, society was
advancing and entering into the philosophical light of Christianity after being trapped in the
darkness of paganism for so long. This is the point where “story” of the Middle Ages turns into a

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“myth” with contrasting narratives. It was only at the tail end of the Middle Ages that the notion
of everything following the fall of the Roman Empire was a regression came to be.2
Francisco Petrarch (1304-1374) was the first to refer to the period from the appearance of
Christianity in Rome up until his own time as a period “of darkness” in his 1359 letter to Agapito
Colonna.3 Writing in the mid-1300s, Petrarch was highly critical of his own period and did not
see the revival of Rome in the near future. He lived in the hope that Rome could be revived “if
only Rome but began to know herself.”4 His critique of the medieval period primarily bemoaned
the simplification of the Latin language and the degradation literature, which in his opinion had
not lived up to its ancient predecessors.5 However, he also generally praised Rome from a
historical and cultural perspective, stating in his Apologia, “What else, then, is all history, if not
the praise of Rome?”6 Petrarch was so enraptured by the memory of Rome that, in his study of
history, he chose to set clear limits on the dates that were and were not worth studying. The
neglect of studying post Christian Rome clearly outlines his negative feelings towards the
2 Fried, Johannes, and Peter Lewis. The Middle Ages. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard
University, 2015.123.
3 Summit, Jennifer. "Topography as Historiography: Petrarch, Chaucer, and the Making of
Medieval Rome." Topography as Historiography: Petrarch, Chaucer, and the Making of
Medieval Rome 30.2 (2000). 234.
4 Ibid. 233.
5 Logan, John Frederick. "The French Philosophies and Their Enlightening Medieval Past." Rice
University Studies, 1972. 84.
6 Summit, Jennifer. "Topography as Historiography: Petrarch, Chaucer, and the Making of
Medieval Rome." Topography as Historiography: Petrarch, Chaucer, and the Making of
Medieval Rome 30.2 (2000). 237.

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direction that society took after the fact. In a sense, he was rejecting everything that occurred
outside of this time frame as worthless due to its inferior culture.7
As the Middle Ages came to an end, Petrarch was the first to propose this historical
criticism. Beginning with the Reformation movement, and followed by the Enlightenment, the
leaders of these ideas found themselves calling for a revolution against the entrenched views of
society, which they saw as originating after the fall of Rome and dominating European society
ever since. The best way to gather support for the revolution against medieval ideas was to
spread the “myth” of the medieval backwater that still dominates our biases today. By idealizing
Roman values, which aligned with their own, and portraying medieval values of faith as
superstition, proponents were able to justify turning their back on recent medieval society by
citing the Roman higher culture as precedent. This reversion towards the rebirth of Rome would
continue through its peak during the Renaissance.
Enlightenment philosophers leading the charge against the values of the Middle Ages
included well-known names such as Voltaire, Montesquieu, Immanuel Kant and Nicolas de
Condorcet. These men were largely responsible for painting the grim picture of the Middle Ages
that we see today. Fontanelle did so by using the analogy that “medieval Europe was a sick man
[who] forgot the work that begun in good health.”8 They attacked every important aspect of
medieval life, pointing out where their values had gone astray. Montesquieu tore apart religion
writing that “while Religion afflicts us, Despotism -spread everywhere- overwhelms us.” 9
University, 2015. 125.
8 Logan, John Frederick. "The French Philosophies and Their Enlightening Medieval Past." Rice
University Studies, 1972. 83.
9 Ibid. 87.

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D’Alembert went so far as to accuse the medievals of allowing, “a great abuse of intelligence”10
falling victim to “the conditions of slavery into which almost all of Europe plunged.”11 Voltaire’s
account of human nature during the medieval period was a gruesome “chaos in which the
strongest raised himself over the weakest -only in order to be [himself] thrown down by
others.”12 Even the highest accomplishments of the era were torn down. Voltaire’s account of
Gothic architecture described new Gothic architecture as only changed by “add[ing] defective
ordainments to a base even more defective.”13 To sum up Enlightenment feelings towards the
Middle Ages, Concordat described them as a “disastrous epoch [in which] we will see the human
spirit descend rapidly from the height to which it had been raised and ignorance follows after
it.”14 This is the “myth” of the Middle Ages that the Enlightenment philosophers built up and
that has been propagated by scholars through the early modern period and is still permanent in
our popular culture today.
Following Petrarch, likeminded Enlightenment thinkers viewed the Roman period as the
height of human achievement. To them, the fall of Rome to the barbarians was the ultimate
tragedy for mankind. Ever since then, Europeans regressed intellectually and artistically. These
writers believed that their period was the beginning of a recovery from the cultural reversion of
the Middle Ages. In order to paint themselves and their ideas as more enlightened than the
entrenched ideas that their society had been built on, they constructed a new narrative of life in
the Middle Ages as the dark, dirty backwater that popular media knows it as today. The goal of
this paper is to examine the two eras during the height of their success: in the 2nd century A.D
10 Ibid. 85.
11 Ibid. 87.
12 Ibid. 86.
13 Ibid. 84.
14 Ibid. 83-84.

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under the Roman Empire, and in the 13th century in medieval Europe. As factually as possible, I
hope to evaluate the two periods to find qualitative, as well as quantitative, evidence of either
losses or advances in medieval culture as opposed to roman culture. 15
Three primary areas-- innovation, quality of life, and art will be examined to establish
whether medieval society regressed. Innovations during the era will determine whether people
were able to live better than they had before, and whether the pursuit of wisdom was still valued.
Assessing innovations will uncover whether society progressed, while examining whether
classical learning was lost will determine if there were any major gaps in knowledge between the
two periods. The topic of quality of life is directed at the majority of people rather than at the
aristocracy, and ultimately asks the question of whether the average person would be better off
living in the 2nd or 13th century. This question is asked in terms of the quality of the basic staples
that a person needs to survive, as well as in terms of the pleasures of day to day life. There are
several areas in medieval art which are critiqued as being “worse” than ancient art, primarily due
to a lack of naturalism. My evaluation of the arts aims to determine if these absences in medieval
art were purposeful, or whether they were due to a loss in ability or vision. If what many see as
shortcomings in medieval art were conscious decisions, then these so-called flaws cannot be
called a shortcoming, but merely a change in tastes.
An analysis of these three sections assessing the “myth” of the Middle Ages confirms
that its claims are not founded in fact. Instead the evidence supports the idea that the “myth” was
a narrative constructed during the Enlightenment which significantly contributed to the idea of
the Middle Ages as a period of degradation. In reality, very little knowledge or passion was lost
from one period to the next; rather many advances came out of the period. Although the ideas
University, 2015. 10.

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and values shifted from the classical period to the medieval period, the differences between the
two eras were merely changes rather than regressions. Ultimately, human nature’s attraction
towards innovation and artistic expression was not lost after the fall of Rome; it did, however,
evolve.
As European society transitioned from a belief in its Pagan foundations to Christian base,
the philosophical interests of the people of Europe changed. New developments in the wisdom of
the medieval period were largely centered on that Christian base; however the knowledge of
earlier Pagan philosophers was not lost. Medical wisdom was preserved by the upper scholastic
part of society, and later organized into hospitals and medical universities, while local healers
continued practices that had sustained communities for centuries. Knowledge of birth control and
abortifacient were known and practiced throughout the period as they had been for centuries. As
medical knowledge was preserved under the Romans, a number of new practical innovations
would change society for the better as an agricultural revolution swept across the medieval
world. These new discoveries would make labor less difficult and food more abundant for people
of all social classes than it ever was in the past. The Enlightenment thinkers who created the
“myth” of the Middle Ages criticize the superstition perpetuated by the church without crediting
the monasteries with the vast amounts of wisdom that they preserved. Furthermore, they do not
acknowledge the innovations during the Middle Ages that would make all subsequent societies
better off.
--
The primary goal of all civilizations is to provide for basic survival needs. It is only after
a culture has a comfortable supply of food, water and shelter that it can begin to explore higher
learning. After a water source and shelter have been provided, for the most part, they can be

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pushed to the side; however, finding enough food is a constant concern. The most important
innovation during the medieval period happened in the agricultural sector during a period known
as the agricultural revolution. Because of the ability to produce more food more reliably and
easily than ever before, people were able to have a higher quality of life than their ancient
ancestors experienced. Fewer people were starving, and population skyrocketed.16 The surplus of
food also enabled an increased number of citizens to stop farming and focus on trade careers.
Blacksmiths, tanners and other crafts thrived because of the increased ease of food production.17
The agricultural revolution enabled a focus on the arts and the accumulation of wisdom to
flourish in ways that they would not have been able to if food were as big of a concern as it had
been in antiquity. Thus, the agricultural innovations set the stage for the other accomplishments
during the medieval era.
The most notable medieval innovation in agriculture was the type of plow that was used.
The invention of the heavy plow, or the moldboard plough, drastically reduced the time and
effort that had to go into preparing the field for harvest. The ard, the type of plow that had been
used in antiquity, was a simple plow. i It was essentially a post for scratching into the ground and
digging a trough. It could be pulled either by men or by draft animals, while another man stood
behind the post, pushing downwards on it to force it into the ground. This plow required a
significant amount of effort on the part on the man behind the post, and although it dug into the
top soil by making the initial cut, it was not able to turn the soil, or to cut through harder soils.18
The heavy plow made its first appearance in 5th century Scandinavia, and made its way down to
16 Wells, Peter S. Barbarians to Angels: The Dark Ages Reconsidered. New York, New York:
W.W. Norton, 2008. 136.
17 Ibid. 131.
18 Wigglesworth, Jeffrey R. Science and Technology in Medieval European Life. Westport,
Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2006. 7.

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Italy by the 8th century.19 The heavy plow had a number of advantages over the ard plow. iiThe
heavy plough was able to cut deeper into soils, including through clays and rocks. It also was
able to reach nutrients buried deeper in the ground, allowing farmers to plant in soils which had
previously been too harsh to plant on. The heavy plow could turn soil and bury weeds,
eliminating a step from the ancient preparation process and retrieving many more nutrients. The
need for a man in back of the plow applying downward force on the plow was also eliminated
due to a new design which forced the blade of the plow down without the help of a third party.
Frequently, the addition of a wheel helped with this process and made it so that only one man
was needed to do the less laborious task of directing the plow with relatively little effort.20
Rather than seeing agriculture during the Middle Ages as backbreaking work, we can see it as
easier and more productive than it had ever been before.
Another invention which made agricultural work significantly more productive came
with the switch from using oxen as work animals to using horses. Horses are faster and have
more endurance than oxen do, making them the ideal animal to pull the plow.21 However, due to
the anatomy of the horse, using a standard yoke, as was used for oxen, would choke the horse’s
longer neck.22 Because of the difficulty of harnessing horses, farmers during antiquity had to use
oxen, leaving them at a significant disadvantage. The integration of the horse collar around the
8th century allowed the horse to breathe without issue while pulling heavy loads. Due to its lower
location over the horse’s front legs, and supported on the horse’s back rather than on its neck, the
19 Ibid.
20 Ibid. 130.
Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2006.8.
22 Postman, Neil. Technopoly: The Surrender of Culture to Technology. New York: Vintage
Books, 1993. 24.

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weight was better dispersed over the strongest part of the horse’s body.iii With the new collar,
horses were able to do an average of two hours more work per day than the oxen that had been
used during antiquity had been able to do. The horse collar allowed a stronger, more efficient
animal to plow the fields with less difficulty, allowing more food to be produced23
During the medieval period, horses were used more efficiently for hauling loads in
general. It was discovered and became common knowledge that by linking horses together, one
in front of the other, the amount that they are able to pull as a unit was significantly higher than
that of one individual horse. Thus, horse teams were established among those with the resources
to put them together.24 Horseshoes were another piece of technology which made horses more
effective workers, especially on the hard roads which connected northern communities. Although
there is evidence that the Romans began protecting their horses’ feet around 100 B.C., the shoes
which they used were more likely similar to boots, called horsesandals, made out of leather and
strapped onto the legs of work animals such as horses and mules.25 Between 500 A.D. and 1000
A.D. the horse shoe disappears from the archaeological records.26 After reappearing in Europe
in the 10th century, the use of horseshoes spread across Europe, as can be found in both the
archaeological, as well as in the written records.27iv When foot protection for working animals
made a comeback, the shoes were far superior to those worn during antiquity. Iron nailed on
23Wigglesworth, Jeffrey R. Science and Technology in Medieval European Life. Westport,
24 Postman, Neil. Technopoly: The Surrender of Culture to Technology. New York: Vintage
Books, 1993. 24.
26 Ibid. 10.

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shoes were more durable, and provided more protection than the leather shoes.28 They also
provided more traction and allowed the horse to dig more forcefully into the soil while working,
which helped them plow more effectively.29 The horse collar and horseshoe allowed horses to
become another powerful addition to the agricultural revolution in medieval Europe, enabling
more work to be done more efficiently.
A final change in agricultural techniques which made efficient use of labor was the
introduction of the three field crop rotation method. Two field crop rotation had been around
since antiquity, in which a farmer’s land was divided in two. Half was planted while the other lay
fallow, unplanted to replenish nutrients, and fertilized by domestic animals that could also use
the land for grazing. Three crop rotation followed the same general idea, but rather than having
two fields going at once, farmers would divide fields into three spaces. Again, one was left
fallow to replenish itself, but in this case the other two thirds of the field were planted on, one
with a summer crop such as barley or oats, and the other third with a winter crop such as wheat
or rye. This allowed more of the field to be used at once. Because two different cops, requiring
different sets of nutrients, were used on each active section, the soil still had a chance to
replenish.30
Furthermore, it meant that farmers could be working in the fields full time instead of
having seasons of incredible heavy work followed by periods of inactivity. Instead of harvesting
in autumn and needing those crops to last the entire year until the next growing season, villagers
had two harvest periods. This allowed stocks to be replenished half way through the year, and
allowed new adjustments to be made the rationing of goods, giving medieval peasants a better
28 Ibid.
29 Ibid.
30 Ibid. 6.

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chance to survive difficult harvest years.31 Another positive aspect of having two growth seasons
and two separate times is that if one season were to go poorly, due to famine, drought, bad
weather, etcetera, society would not be doomed to starve until the spring when the next growing
season would arrive, but only until the winter harvest.32 Having two growing seasons meant that
there was a greater chance that one of the two harvests would be successful. The three field crop
rotation systems allowed more food to be produced with a greater chance of good harvests, and
encouraged a more even distribution of food stocks and labor exerted.
The spread of the heavy plow, the use of horses, the introduction of energy producing
technologies and the techniques of three field crop rotation all enabled the people of 13th century
medieval Europe to eat better than their ancestors with fewer concerns about whether they could
survive season to season than peasants under the Roman Empire in 2nd century A.D.. In fact, they
were eating so much better that population was able to explode by 38 percent between 600 and
1000, largely due to decreased child mortality and less costly famines. Society had less to worry
about in terms of basic survival needs, which led to the expansion of higher learning, especially
after the 8th century under the Carolingian empire.33 Charlemagne encouraged an increased
attention to art, architecture and the collection of knowledge. The agricultural revolution directly
led to the boom in intellectual learning that the Middle Ages is known for through monastic
schools, scholasticism, the invention of universities and the formalization of medical learning
and practice.
Medical knowledge is a specific example which shows that ancient learning was not lost
during the medieval period, but rather it was organized and taught in a scientific way. Many of
31 Ibid.
32 Ibid. 7.
33 Ibid. 5.

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the ancient bases for medical knowledge were still accepted as truth by medieval people. The
humors were an example of a classical medical idea which remained an important part of
medieval thinking after the fall of Rome.34 The Greek philosopher, Hippocrates (460-370 B.C.),
was the first to suggest that there were four governing liquids in the body; black bile, yellow bile,
blood and phlegm. An excess or deficiency of any of these four substances was thought to cause
poor health. Some of the ways that healers would try to rebalance the humors were by inducing
vomiting, evacuating the bowels and most famously, bloodletting.35 Dieting or eating foods of
different temperaments were also ways to rebalance the humors.
A second major tool to balance the body, also promoted by Hippocrates, was to balance
the six non-naturals.36 The non-naturals were external things that could affect health, but that did
not come directly from the body. The six non-naturals were air, exercise, sleep, consumption
(food and drink), excretions and emotions.37 A healthy person was one who was balanced in all
of these categories. They didn’t eat too much or too little. They worked out, but made time for
rest as well.38 Balance was a key aspect in all parts of Greek and Roman life, and would continue
to be a major theme throughout the Middle Ages. Attention was paid to the humors and to the
non-naturals throughout the Middle Ages as can be seen in the story of Peter the Venerable, a
sick monk who saw many medics about his illness39. The Consilia, or medical pamphlets
34 Siraisi, Nancy G. Medieval & Early Renaissance Medicine: An Introduction to Knowledge and
Practice. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990. 105.
35 Ibid.
36 Ibid. 101.
W.W. Norton, 2008. 154.
Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2006. 154

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offering medical advice written between the 15th and 13th centuries, also drew heavily from
classical wisdom as well as from their contemporaries. 40
Local healers and educated doctors were both carrying on classical medical traditions as
well as expanding upon classical thought. Although the church discouraged the use of
contraceptives, abortion drugs and the practice of infanticide, the church at this time did not try
and to suppress the knowledge and wisdom associated with how to concoct medicines for these
purposes. In fact, this information was preserved throughout the medieval period primarily
through the writings of monks as they preserved other ancient medical wisdoms. These monks
and other scholars were the first to record mixtures or doses of various drugs, which had not been
done in antiquity. Many of these drugs were likely reasonably effective according to what is
known about them by modern science. Ingredients which likely had the desired effect were
juniper and rue. Clover was another ingredient that appeared repeatedly in ancient and medieval
sources which is known to kill domestic animals if enough of it got into the feed, and therefore
could likely abort a fetus. Based on church sermons condemning the use of contraceptives and
abortifacients, it can be surmised that the medieval populous was able to pass on knowledge of
the drugs, likely through midwifes and local healers, and perpetuate knowledge of the drugs
among common women.41
One example of how a medieval physician who built upon ancient medical wisdom was
an unknown physician in the 13th century. This physician evolved further diagnostic techniques,
which we now know have grounds in medical facts. Galen (129–200 A.D.), another Greek
philosopher living under the Roman Empire, as well as thinkers before him, believed that the
40 Ibid. 120.
41
Riddle, John M. Contraception and Abortion from the Ancient World to the Renaissance.
Cambridge,: Harvard University Press, 1992.

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health of a person could be determined by examining their urine and by feeling his or her pulse;
however it was under this physician during the Middle Ages that the 20 colors of urine were
categorized, and the examination of urine became organized and solidified into the practice
known as uroscopy.42 As a waste product filtering toxins from the blood, urine can tell
physicians a lot about what is going on inside the body. Color, smell and taste can indicate a
number of different health issues including liver and kidney problems, cancers, infections,
inflammation and diabetes as the kidneys clear out toxins. Hydration, vitamin intake, and some
basic dietary facts can also be determined through urine. Although the specifics of these diseases
were not all known at the time, the idea that medical health can be signaled by urine is certainly
backed by modern science, and the use of the urine flask, and the various diagnostic charts
created by this 13th century writer helped medieval caretakers to determine symptoms and begin
the treatment of the patient.43
Pulse could be judged based on speed and consistency. Neither medieval nor ancient
physicians had a comprehensive understanding of what the blood did, or how it worked in the
body, but they did know that it was important for sustaining life.44 One conceptual step forward
for medieval doctors was the realization that blood moves between chambers in the heart, and
that as part of this motion, blood was pushed around the body. This was a very early 13th to 14th
century concept of circulation, but it was a step forwards never the less. Other ideas surrounding
the purpose of pulse were also conceived of at this time, such as Peter d’Abano’s theory that
42 Wigelsworth, Jeffrey R. Science and Technology in Medieval European Life. Westport, Conn.:
Greenwood Press, 2006. 113.
43 Ibid.

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pulse had a musical base that was tied to a natural human beat.45 Medical thought and philosophy
was very much alive in continuous development in the 13th century. Medical learning of the
ancients was also being formalized and codified by scholars, such as those establishing the first
medical university at Salerno, and doctors working in the first hospitals ever available to the
public throughout Italy.46
--
Quality of life is another major aspect of society that needs to be taken into account when
considering whether the Middle Ages were a period of backwardness. Was the average person
better off living in the medieval world in the 13th century, or in the ancient world in the 2nd
century? The primary area that needs to be examined is whether or not people had access to the
basics that were needed to sustain life, such as quality and quality of nutrition, housing and
health. Afterwards, the level of higher personal attainment can be examined. Some areas to
consider when evaluating higher attainment include grooming, spiritual growth and the
advancement of the average person. The first portion of quality of life, access to the necessities,
is a fairly quantitative analysis, relying on inventions that were developed over time to determine
if medieval people had access to tools for better living that medieval people did not. The study of
higher attainment entails more objectivity, meaning that the values of either culture might appeal
more to one person than to another. In this case, the goal is not to establish one set of values as
superior to the other, but instead to establish whether opportunities for development were
available to individuals in each society.
45 Ibid. 126.
46
Wigelsworth, Jeffrey R. Science and Technology in Medieval European Life. Westport, Conn.:
Greenwood Press, 2006. 114.

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The inventions created during the agricultural revolution meant that growing enough food
for a community was no longer nearly as much of a struggle for medieval individuals as it was
for individuals living under the Roman Empire. Inventions such as horse collars and shoes to
allow more productive horses to work the fields, as well as the introduction of three field crop
rotation made farms more productive, meaning that more food could be grown, and was
therefore accessible. Meanwhile, the invention of the heavy plough significantly reduced the
amount of back breaking labor that had to be put into getting the job accomplished. Throughout
Europe, people of all classes ate more on the whole. The poor were able to feed their families
better, and population in Europe exploded.47
The average Medieval community had all that it needed to survive and grow. Despite the
collapse of Rome as a central power, communities were able to get enough to eat, and to
continue trading. The community of Berbieres in modern day France is typical of post-Roman
Empire medieval communities. By the 6th century, the old Roman provinces were already living
well and eating diverse diets. Around 96 percent of the meat protein consumed was from
domesticated animals, ensuring a stable source of protein. Pottery was painted, glass vessels
were used for special ceremonies and a significant number of bone combs functioned as
grooming tools, showing that people within the community were well enough off to spend their
energy on such aesthetic pursuits.48 Bronze, copper and tin are not found in the area, but have
been discovered at the site, showing that trade was available in the community. Luxury goods
scattered throughout the site and the absence of sprawling mansions for Roman elites
demonstrate a smaller wealth gap between elites and peasants than there had been in the province
W.W. Norton, 2008. 136.
48 Ibid. 136.

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during the Roman period. Graves at the time show that although the quality of food for the upper
classes was typically higher, people of all classes had access to proteins and ate similarly varied
diets. There is no evidence to be found showing that life in the community was unusually harsh
after the collapse of Roman power in the region.49
Taxation and stringent commercial systems under Roman authority dictated what
communities would produce. Under these systems, no community was self-sufficient, and mass
amounts of energy were put into carting food and other goods to where they were needed. Under
the command based economy of the Roman Empire, communities typically produced goods
uniformly, meaning that diets were less diverse that they were in the more autonomous, market
based economy of the Middle Ages.50 Evidence of trade such as metals, foods and spices that
would not occur naturally at sites, tell us that relationships between communities were still
important, but, for the most part, villages could make textiles, pottery and tools for themselves.51
The increased ease of food production freed up men and women, who were previously needed on
the farm, to pursue other trades at levels that had been impossible during antiquity, which further
allowed higher levels of autonomy in communities.52
A higher number of trade-specific structures tend to be found in medieval sites compared
with ancient sites, suggesting that goods were being produced within individual communities at
higher levels and with greater diversity. A medieval peasant had more opportunities to go into
trade labor and to learn diverse skills, where previously farming was the only career available to
them. It was common for a secondary structure to be found on a peasant’s plot of land that was
W.W. Norton, 2008. 134-135 .
50 Ibid. 138.
51 Ibid.
52 Ibid. 131.

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designed for a specific trade such as pottery, meatal working, or textile production. Excavations
show that common people throughout Europe tended to use pottery for cooking and for dining
which was made from clay local to the area, providing evidence that in many communities a
substructure on a property might have belonged to a part time potter or community artisan who
would form and paint the pieces. We can also see evidence of wool being processed, died and
either woven or turned into felt in communities as the need arose rather than relying on trade for
these commodities. The increased self-sufficiency that is found in Medieval communities would
have saved time and energy that no longer had to be spent carting goods and resources to where
it was estimated that they may have been needed.
None of the basics of construction were lost from ancient to medieval housing in terms of
quality. However, there were advances in living conditions as the medieval period continued,
including the invention of chimneys and different styles of framing for houses, which gave
significant advantages to medieval peasants. Peasants, ancient and medieval, typically began
building basic housing structures using techniques that had been around since the Neolithic
period, known as “wattle and daub” housing.53 Wattle and daub houses were built by weaving
what were green, flexible branches together to create a wall or barrier. Once the basic frame was
constructed, it was covered with daub and allowed to dry until a fairly strong, solid wall had
formed. The wall could then be whitewashed to further keep out the elements if the climate
demanded it. 54 Thatched roofs were almost always utilized, a technique which may surprise
modern individuals with its ability to keep water out of homes. In fact, a number of homes in
modern Europe still utilize the thatched roof technique due to its high effectiveness.55
53 Ibid. 135.
54 Ibid. 135.
55 Ibid.

21
It was during the medieval period that homes built with stone floors, rather than simply
dirt floors became more common for the average person. Along with this new trend came new
building styles. Typically, builders had relied on post construction for all structures, in which
homes are built by sticking base posts into the ground, and framing the house from around them.
However, as harder floors became more popular, the frame construction technique emerged. In
this technique, posts were not set into the ground and built off of, but rather, the frame of the
house was built on its own on top of the hard foundation.56 This adjustment moved society
toward modern housing styles, where floor are considered essential for what is considered to be a
civilized life style, and where bugs and grime can more easily be kept out of the house. Not only
that, but these floors encouraged the adaptive innovation of post construction which was an
stronger, more durable building style.v
Another innovation in housing which benefited the poor, as well as the wealthy, was the
chimney. The climate for most of the late medieval period was actually pleasantly warm from
around 950 to 1250, a time in which most of Europe experienced what was known as the
“Medieval Optimum”. Around 1250, the relatively warmer climate began to change. As
temperatures plummeted back down below where they were before the Medieval Optima, many
who had not been as dependent on fires to keep their families warm found themselves lighting
fires in their homes much more frequently. Up until the 12th century, the only relief that families
had from smoke filling their homes was to cut a hole into the roof of the house. This would allow
smoke to filter out, but not before filling the entire room with smoke first.57
56Wigglesworth, Jeffrey R. Science and Technology in Medieval European Life. Westport,
Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2006.152
57 Ibid. 24.

22
The invention of the chimney to alleviate smoke from homes at this particular time as
opposed to earlier in history was a result of a shocking temperature change, known as the Little
Ice Age. The invention of the chimney had far reaching effects for the design of homes. First, the
chimney acted as a back bone for homes, which allowed them to be built with multiple stories
much more easily. Fireplaces could also use the same chimney to heat the second level of a
house, making expansion more convenient.58 The chimney also allowed fireplaces to be more
maneuverable. They no longer had to be placed in the center of the house where smoke could
easily filter out. After the 12th century they could be placed against walls where the family was
more protected from the flames.59 This new ability helped with a growing trend beginning in the
thirteenth century to separate space for individuals and animals, which had never presented itself
as a concern before, as both ancient and medieval farmers lived among their animals without a
second thought.60 Furthermore, the family no longer needed to sleep clustered around one fire for
warmth, and to contain the smoke to one room. Instead they were able to spread out and begin
adding more rooms to houses, which could still be heated though alternative fireplaces.
Archaeologists find more examples of multi-room homes for people of different classes after the
invention and spread of the chimney. More individual rooms with dividing walls, often made out
of limestone or timer, were built in older homes.61
After establishing that people ate better during the Middle Ages, that their housing
conditions were very similar, but improved, less quantitative questions can be asked. Another
important aspect of quality of life that needs to be taken into account is the social structure that
W.W. Norton, 2008.
59 Aries, Philippe. A History of Private Life. V.1. From Pagan Rome to Byzantium. Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994. 453.
60 Ibid. 448.
61Ibid. 448.

23
person lives in to see whether the average medieval person was subjugated to worse conditions
and to more abuses from authority due to his place in the social hierarchy. In this section, Roman
slaves will be compared to medieval serfs to see how much downward pressure the workers in
society were under. This question is important not only for establishing facts about the
differences in equality during the different periods, but also for pointing out one of the most
important factors in the existence of the “myth” of the Middle Ages that medieval serfs were
abused by the aristocracy, while Roman elites lived easily without needing to abuse the less
fortunate.62
Ultimately, when questioning when the quality of life is better for the average person,
what is being asked is whether it was better to be an ancient laborer, or a medieval serf. Slaves
made up a quarter of the population of the labor force of rural Italy after the birth of Christ, and
around 1/5 of the free population would have been considered impoverished “paupers” who
scraped by season to season.63 There was no welfare system in the Roman Empire, meaning that
if someone wasn’t able to work in some capacity, he or she would starve. There are many
accounts of these paupers to sell themselves into slavery to avoid starvation in times of
hardship.64 The poor were looked down upon, and the trend of compassion towards the less
fortunate would not take off until after the establishment of Christianity. The upper 1/5 of the
empire was considered elite, who by definition didn’t work at all.65 The social structure of
Ancient Rome was incredible unbalanced in terms of the lavish life styles of the rich, which were
built on the backs of the majority poor. The luxurious life style of Roman Citizens that has been
62 Aries, Philippe, and George Duby. A History of Private Life. V.2. Revelations of the Medieval
World. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994. 56.
63 Ibid. 36.
64Ibid. 88.
65 Ibid. 134.

24
engrained by the “myth” is not false; however, it does not address the lives of slaves, who
comprised up to 9/10 of the population in the city of Rome.66 While it is not true that the Roman
workforce outside of Italy was based on slave labor, it was a considerable share of the population
under the Empire, and even middle class homes would have two or three slaves.67
Slaves living after the second century lived in a very precarious position in society.
Masters expected unconditional love from their slaves in the same way that any object would not
disobey.68 The best parallel to the status of a slave in antiquity would be to that of an object of
possession today. One might have a favorite chair, and they might love that chair for the work
that it does. It is expected that the chair will work well and loyally provide for its owner
unconditionally. If something happens to the chair and it breaks, the owner might feel sadness
for the loss of the chair and for the work that the chair did for him that was lost. He would not,
however, be sad for the chair’s fate; he would merely mourn the loss of his valued possession. If
an owner had a bad chair which worked poorly or hurt the master, or that for any reason the
master decided that he did not like, it could be locked away, punished or burned without needing
to justify the cause. A maser is free to do with a slave what he wished without fear of judgment
or repercussion.69
Ancient slaves were absolutely subhuman. They were incapable of the emotions of a free
person. Slaves could not marry, partly because they were not thought to be capable of romantic
love.70 Often owners would scoff and joke with their friends when a slave would display signs of
being in love the same way that a parent might find it cute when their young child says that they
66 Ibid. 187.
67 Ibid. 57.
68 Ibid. 51.
69 Ibid. 57.
70Ibid. 51.

25
are in love with another classmate. It is an imitation of something that they are too immature to
portray. An example of the subhuman status of slaves in ancient society can be illustrated by the
poet Horace as he describes himself walking alone in his garden. He clearly sees himself as
enjoying the solitude and writes that he often finds himself enjoying being alone, yet as the
reader finds out a few lines later, Horace was actually being accompanied by multiple slave as he
walks “alone”. He describes this walk in much the same way that a modern individual might
describe themselves as walking “alone” alongside their dog.71 This example shows the Roman
slave as a non-person with whom the master should not be concerned.72
In a culture without any form of welfare for the poor, it was dangerous for slaves to
attempt to escape from their masters, not only for fear of being caught, but because of the
difficulties of surviving in the Empire without a support structure. Rather than dreaming of
escape, slaves would hope for their freedom as a path to independence.73 Although there were
still risks associated with a slave striking out on one’s own, even legally, there were more
options available for them to fit into society than fugitive slaves had. It was not uncommon for
slaves to be freed. Loyal slaves who served their master well for many years may be freed upon
their master’s death.74 Slaves used as concubines were often freed after their usefulness had worn
out rather than being turned into domestic slaves.75 For better or for worse, these women were
often given their freedom, although any children that they mothered were kept in service.76
Although free people could be captured or sold into slavery, and slaves could be freed, it was
considered taboo to openly discuss that fact that anyone had ever had a different freedom status
71 Ibid. 73.
72 Ibid. 62.
73 Ibid. 64.
74 Ibid. 86.
75 Ibid. 57.
76 Ibid. 81.

26
because it would disturb the facade that Roman society was dependent on that slaves were
naturally inferior and obviously different from free people in society.77
Slaves lacked the sense of freedom and independence enjoyed by medieval surfs. While
slaves lived in their masters’ household crowded into a separate room which functioned as slave
quarters, serfs at least had the freedom to control their own households and to live within family
units that could not be divided by a master.78 Unlike slaves, serfs were allowed to marry and held
the right to guardianship over their own children. A slave family structure was drastically
different. Slaves couldn’t marry since they couldn’t love, yet they still had a responsibility to
provide their master with children in the second century.79 It was stated in law that a female slave
could not refuse a pregnancy until she had provided her owner with at least three children, and
although she may care for the children, none of them belonged to her. 80 Upon birth they became
the possession of the master who could chose to sell or kill the children according to his needs.81
It was not unheard of for a master, often one lacking a male heir to raise a child conceived
between himself and a slave woman as his own.
Another critical area to examine when it comes to addressing whether the quality of life
for the average thirteenth century person had degraded relates to hygiene and to the popular
cultural depiction which states that medieval commoners were constantly dirty and poorly kept.
Although they would be considered dirty compared to modern individuals, there is no reason to
think that the typical medieval person was as ignorant to the importance of hygiene as the
“myth” of the Middle Ages claims. Because of written sources, including medical texts, such as
77 Ibid. 59.
79 Ibid. 81.
80 Ibid. 9.
81 Ibid. 52.

27
the Salerno Regimen, we do know that the basic importance of hygiene and self-cleaning was
understood by thirteenth century individuals, just as it was during the second century.82 Not only
were medieval people encouraged to keep their appearance up through hand washing, as well as
tooth and hair care, but it was also possible to advance one’s appearance through cosmetics,
perfumes and decorative adornments. Based primarily on ideal self-care suggested in etiquette
books, in monastic rules and in medical texts, it can be seen that society did expect all people,
regardless of class rank, to take care of themselves physically.83
When comparing the hygiene levels of the two civilizations, it is important to understand
the changes between the values of second century Romans to people throughout the medieval
period in terms of what constituted self-improvement or self-care. For the Greeks, the ideal
person built oneself up physically through rigorous exercise in the gymnasium.84 For the
Romans, gymnasiums were largely replaced by baths as structures of growth and community
assemblage.85 The value of physical cleanliness under the Roman Empire replaced the value of
physical perfection in Greece. The medievals, on the other hand, largely due to the morals
introduced by the Christianity, replaced the emphasis on the physical with the spiritual.86 Instead
of focusing on physical cleanliness as was championed by the Romans, Christianity focused on
the cleanliness of the soul as part of the effort to turn away from the obsession with temporal
growth that had plagued the ancient world and refocused on spiritual growth, which they saw as
more important. Unlike second century Romans who congregated for physical purification in the
82 Smith, Virginia. A History of Personal Hygiene and Purity. Annotated ed. Oxford: Oxford
University Press:, 2007. 155.
83 Ibid. 155.
84 Ibid. 89.
85 Ibid. 103.
86 Ibid. 127.

28
baths, thirteenth century Europeans congregated for purification of the soul in churches and in
cathedrals.
The importance of basic levels of hygiene was not disregarded by medieval Europeans,
but they did seek to rebalance the obsession that their predecessors had with caring for their
appearance.87 They still saw the social and health benefits of taking care of one’s self physically.
Monastic rules, for example, frequently wrote in suggestions referring to bathing and self-care
that aimed to avoid what they saw as the fault of vanity.88 Vanity served as a selfish distraction
from higher intellectual and spiritual achievements. The Benedictine Rule, written in the sixth
century, would come to be a basic foundation for many monasteries and monastic rules
throughout the Middle Age. St. Benedict prescribed baths as a source of healing for the sick, but
he also warns of the dangers of over indulging one’s self with baths, especially for the young
who are easily corrupted by vanity and selfish obsession.89 The danger of vanity was highlighted
in the story of “The Deacon Who Washed Too Much”. The story warned that if the body is too
clean, the heart will be neglected, which in the case of this deacon, led to his death.90
While it can be said that second century Romans likely did wash more than thirteenth
century Europeans due to differences in their values, it would be a gross exaggeration to suggest
that medieval people did not wash enough, or that they neglected self-care contrary to human
instincts. The numbers of public baths in Rome and in other major cities that Roman citizens
depended on were higher to give elites and their supporters access to the luxuries that they
craved. However, outside of Italy and other major Roman centers, peasants had significantly less
87 Ibid. 147.
88 Ibid. 148.
89 Fry, Timothy. RB 1980: The Rule of St. Benedict in English. Collegeville, Minnesota, 1982.
ch. 36

29
access to warm or running water which made bathing more difficult, and evened out to levels of
cleanliness between the provinces and Medieval Europe.91 Bathing was not an easy task for
many non-elites in pre-modern civilizations. For wealthy and the poor alike living outside of
cities gathering water, warming it, and then disposing of the resource was a challenge that made
bathing more difficult for all people. This was especially true in Northern Europe where washing
the entire body was considered dangerous in cold weather.92
Washing specific body parts was much more common than taking full baths. The vast
majority of households across thirteenth century Europe had basins for washing hands before and
after meals, and for rinsing the face and arms in the morning before starting the day.93 Based on
the sources available in literature, as well as in archaeological sites, basins for rinsing the body
were regularly used and their remanences are commonly found in medieval houses. Etiquette
books, such as Lydgate’s Dietary or John of Burgundy’s Regimen, for example, recommend
washing of the hands and face first thing in the morning, followed by cleaning ones hair and
teeth to make sure that steady balances were being struck between self-indulgence and self-
neglect. 94 Because the sources that we have on daily routines portray the ideal, recommended
regime, we cannot say that every person took as good care of themselves as these writers would
hope. To an extent, we have to assume that not everyone observed these recommendations to the
fullest. However, what we can take from them is that these self-care measures were important to
society at large. For example, washing the poor was an act of virtue, and all monasteries required
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994. 202. 105.
92 Ibid. 202.
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994. 202. 155.

30
washing.95 To turn away from self-care entirely would be contrary to natural human tendencies
to keep one healthy.96 Instead the medievals recognized the dangers of imbalance in all aspects
of life, but especially as it related to the balancing of the humors and the non-naturals. The
importance of washing for health purposes was well recognized and acknowledged by all of
society, so for health reasons, medieval people were aware that they could not neglect their
temporal bodies entirely.
While the presence of bodily waste in medieval society would likely be enough to disturb
first and second world moderns, medieval communities did a better job disposing of their waste
than they are given credit for. An excellent piece of evidence to show that waste must have been
managed well enough is the fact that the medieval period was relatively free of disease,
especially diseases caused by human waste, such as cholera and typhoid. Using the city of
London, England as a case study, it is seen that large scale cholera outbreaks did not overwhelm
the city until the nineteenth century. Large medieval cities, such as London, knew that waste
needed to be taken care of, which led the city to provide public toilets for the use of all its
citizens, but especially for the poor similar to those provides by major cities in antiquity.97 Many
London homes also had basement latrines made out of wooden seats and shoots which dropped
waste into tanks under the streets which needed to be cleaned out twice a year.98 In rural areas,
most homes had substructures behind the house which would be used as a private outhouse.99
96 Ibid. 145.
97 Hanawalt, Barbara. Growing up in Medieval London: The Experience of Childhood in History.
New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. 29.
98 Ibid. 28.

31
The most noticeable change in self-care in terms of physical appearance was in the type
of attire that people wore. In the second century, Romans tended to wear loose fitting cloth
which was either tied shut or held closed by pins, such as the togas that we tend to associate with
this period.100 During the medieval period, however, a trend towards fitted clothing took hold for
both upper and lower classes that had taken hold across the entirety of Europe by the thirteenth
century.101 Garments were sewn together, and were typically tailored for the individual.102
Undergarments made an appearance for the first time in history, following this movement toward
tight fitting shirts, pants and dresses. Fitted clothing took time and energy to tailor to a person’s
form, showing that fashion was an important priority for the medievals. Tight clothes have the
drawback of trapping in more bacteria than loose fitting clothes, which led to more bacteria, and
therefore more smells, being trapped in the fabric.103 However the appearance of undergarments
allowed easier and more frequent washing and protected outer clothes from contact with the
body. It is also untrue that medieval clothing was all bland and colorless. Dies were fairly
abundant throughout Europe, meaning that adding color to cloths was one of the easiest, cheapest
ways to improve one’s appearance.104 In fact, dark greys and blacks were primarily reserved for
widows and for the poorest of the poor who often received grey fabrics as donations through the
102 Ibid. 157.
W.W. Norton, 2008.

32
church.105 Clothing is one area where we can clearly see the Middle Ages as a stepping stone in
the development between the ancient period and our own.106 The trend of fitted pants and shirts
surpassing loose, draped cloths, as well as the necessity of undershirts and pants is still at the
base of our fashion trends today.
--
Art is one of the easiest areas of medieval society to critique. The techniques used during
the medieval period do not concentrate on visual accuracy the way that artists did during the
Roman period. Medieval painting lacks perspective, naturalism and shading. Busts and life sized
statues disappeared from the record for approximately 500 years. Upon further study, it is easy to
see that critics of medieval art do so without an understanding of the art in the context of the
period. Modern critics of medieval work attack it for being unrealistic, when in fact; abstraction
was a purposeful stylistic trend at the time. Medieval artists did not forget the artistic skills of the
Romans as the “myth” states; were not trying to replicate the naturalism of the Romans. The
icons of ancient art were gone during the medieval period, but artistic drive was not. The change
in art was not due to a lack of talent or vision being passed down to later generations, nor was it
due to a disappearance of artistic style. Medieval art was not inferior to ancient art; it was simply
different. Medieval people, largely through new Christian teachings, had different values and
artistic goals than their ancestors, which was reflected in the style of art during the period. The
primary artistic difference between the two periods was the exchange of naturalism for
philosophical meaning in medieval images. 107 Rather than focusing on realism and visual
107 Stokstad, Marilyn. Medieval Art. 2nd ed. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 2004. 334.

33
accuracy, medieval artists choose to use symbolism and metaphor to unlock the meaning behind
the object rather than focusing on superficial visual aspects of the object.108
After the introduction and widespread adoption of Christianity, artists of all mediums
were challenged with deeper philosophical issues of how to depict subjects that their pagan
predecessors did not deal with. Rather than being asked to simply replicate an object, medieval
artists had to replicate something that God in His perfection had designed and created.109 To try
and recreate something made by the Perfect would be foolish and a mockery of God’s work. It
would be pretentious for anyone to pretend that they could capture anything that God created
properly. Therefore, the only way to begin to try and capture the true meaning of something was
not superficially, but through abstraction. Each line in medieval art is drawn with this
philosophical question in mind.110
Another important reason for the choice of medieval artists to use abstraction rather than
naturalism in their work is directly connected to the medieval focus on the spiritual rather than
on the temporal. The material world, the body and everything visible around us is temporary, the
spirit, however, lives on forever.111 We can see their principles play out in the lives of many
religious figures who give up the pleasures of the material world in exchange for spiritual
fulfillment and closeness to the divine. Hermits, such as St. Benedict of Nursia in the 6th century
and St. Bruno of Cologne in the 11th century, would subject themselves to lives of isolation in the
wilderness in efforts to reject the physical world.112 All European Christians fasted and were
108 Ibid. 8.
109 Ibid. 59.
110 Kleiner, Fred, and Christin Mamiya. Gardner's Art through the Ages: The Western
Perspective. 12th ed. Vol. I. Belmont: Thomas Wadsworth, 2006. 92.

34
careful not to spend too much time grooming their bodies in efforts not to be consumed by the
temporal.113 Artists turned to abstraction to help them focus on the spiritual unseen truth rather
than the merely what is visible to the eye. By making the choice not to acknowledge form as
important, the artist is focusing on the essence of the subject rather than on its earthly
imperfections.
Another way that artists focused their attention away from the temporal was by ignoring
rules of perspective and altering the natural laws that govern the physical world to focus on
higher, spiritual narratives instead. Saint Matthew’s portrait preceding his Gospel in the
Lindisfarne Gospels is a great example of the effort on the part of artists to bend the laws that the
natural world is dependent on to focus on essential truths.114vi In this 8th century image, the
unknown artist sets the natural world to the side by reconstructing an earlier Byzantine work,
“The Scribe Ezra”, in two dimensions concentrating primarily on the use of line to distort the
naturalism in the original Byzantine image. By using his visual skills, the artist was able to use
the linear patterns and layering to create the idea of depth in an image that is clearly done in only
two dimensions; a difficult feat. This effect is particularly clear in the way that St. Matthew is
positioned between the bench and the stool. The artist takes the concept of constructing an image
free from natural laws a step further as he defies physics, reimagining the foot stool depicted in
the original image as a floating stool, disregarding the importance of the stool’s legs all
together.115
115 Ibid. 97.

35
This image also shows the importance of abstraction for the insertion of symbolism into
art, which was common during the medieval period. The floating head peeking out from behind
the curtain likely belongs to Moses. He holds in his hand a closed copy of the Old Testament, as
Matthew sits at his bench writing the life of Christ in an open book that would become part of
the New Testament. The symbolic contrast between the closed Old Testament and the open New
Testament tells the reader the underlying theme; that Jesus was relaying a new Truth which
Matthew was recording. However, because of the use of abstraction, the artist was able to convey
this message without inhibiting the central narrative of the image; Matthew writing his Gospel.
Instead of discussing the message outright it is insinuated through symbolism. Abstraction
allows the symbolic scene to play out in a way that the naturalist style of the Romans never
could. Moses is not an important figure in the image. He does not need to be taking center stage
because his presence is not required for the central narrative and he is not supposed to be
interacting with Matthew. However, he and his book are important for the symbolic effect that
they have on the underlying theme which is the arrival of the New Testament. The artist takes
liberty in posing Moses to the side with only his head and book visible, the only two important
pieces for the symbolic story that the image is trying to tell. In this way, the page is still focused
on Matthew and his work, but it does not lack the deeper meaning of the contrasting Testaments
which is made possible through the technique of abstraction.116
Throughout history, artistic preferences tend to cycle back and forth between tendencies
for naturalism or for abstraction. Art is in constant flux in terms of the importance of realistic
depictions. Even as enlightenment thinkers glorified classical naturalism, they neglected to
recognize that the Greeks were not entirely realistic in their art either in that they chose to depict
116 Ibid.

36
the perfect person. Greek statues featured idealized representations of the person. Ideal subjects
were in their late twenties, well-groomed and at the height of physical perfection. The Romans
drew upon Greek techniques of sculpting, but they replaced Greek idealism their own value of
pure naturalism. Roman sculptures featured perfectly realistic forms of the people in question
with all of their flaws. Suddenly, crooked noses and double chins started making appearances on
the art scene as the Romans moved away from Hellenistic abstractions.117
After the naturalism of the Romans, art fell back into abstraction through the medieval
period but then reverted to naturalism during the renaissance through the Neo-classical and
Realism periods.118 From there the cycle continued towards abstraction as Impressionism moved
deeper into the abstract styles of Cubism then and into Abstract Expressionism, which is widely
accepted as a legitimate art form today. Modern Abstract Expressionism relies on many of the
same concepts that medieval artists championed such as symbolism, the use of color and the goal
of capturing the essence of the subject. Abstraction today may not be considered a high, classical
art form, but it is becoming more accepted in modern popular culture. Modern critiques of
Jackson Pollock’s work do not question whether Pollock lost the ability to see perspective, or to
replicate the world as it should be.vii Overtime, it has largely become accepted and appreciated
that through other techniques, artists can still tell a story that is true, even if it does not look
realistic. The same thoughts should be applied to the evaluation of medieval art.119
After the fall of Rome in the West, European art was exposed to many diverse artistic
traditions that made their way into art throughout the medieval period, increasing cultural
diversity in the visual arts. The breakup of power around the Mediterranean benefitted the arts
117 Ibid. 8.
118 Ibid.

37
because it encouraged the integration of techniques and ideas from different cultures which
allowed later artisans to grow in diversity. Europe became an amalgam of various artistic
techniques and traditions which had not been exposed to one another previously. The decline of
Roman traditions provoked an explosion of creativity full of new themes and symbols adding
variety to the Greek and Roman classical artistic base. As Muslims and various barbarian groups
from Northern Europe mixed with the fragments of the fallen Roman Empire, more diverse art
forms and traditions became infused with those from the old empire.120
One theme from Northern Europe that became more prominent as a result of cultural
diffusion was the use of images of animals.121 Historically, these tribes used more natural themes
and symbolic animal motifs in their work. After people in Northern Europe began to convert to
Christianity, the traditional animal images that they created took on Christian themes. However,
they did not want to give up their old style; rather the two blended together into a new
interpretation of the two styles. Animals that had previously represented various virtues came to
symbolize Christian figures. The Lion, for example, has been used to symbolize St. Mark, St.
John and Jesus.122viii Animals also took on new virtues which better fit Christian needs. Long
necked birds, such as cranes, became symbolic for the eternal nature of the Holy Spirit.123
Another example of European traditions colliding can be found in the interlocking
patterns and knot line design which originally came from Germanic, Scandinavian and Celtic
traditions. Medieval artists had a much stronger tendency towards using intricate patterns to
decorate pieces. Intertwining animals and dragons can be found in Scandinavian art such as was
121 Nees, Lawrence. Early Medieval Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. 104.
123 Ibid.

38
found on the cover of a purse cover at the Sutton Hoo burial site.ix Early Celtic patterns can be
seen replicated in the High Crosses of Northern Europe, and in illustrated manuscripts such as in
the Lindisfarne Gospels.
The Islamic world had a number of effects on Christian society. Despite the perceived
disgust between the two religious cultures, there is significant evidence of cultural interaction
and exchange of artistic ideas. Both cultures chose to abandon classical artistic techniques of
naturalism and marble sculpting.124 As in Europe, medieval Arabs brought a decorative art to
ceramics and textiles, rather than focusing on sculptures and large pieces. Muslims in North
Africa and in the Middle East quickly transitioned from leftover classical influences to Medieval
Islamic ones after the birth of Islam around 500 A.D.125 Pilgrimages to holy sites in the Near
East were a huge source of exchange between Christians and Muslims. Souvenirs were mass
produced to be sold to traveling Christians, but commissioned pieces were also common.126
There is evidence of canteens, baptismal basins and fabrics from the Middle East, some
decorated with Christian themes, which made their way across the European world. 127
Shared artistic traditions are common between the two cultures as well. Extravagant
patterns covered canvases and walls which were often brightly colored and covered in abstract
designs. These styles originated in the Islamic world and likely crossed into Christian Europe
through Spain in sixth century.128x Evidence of ceramic tiles, which were painted and glazed with
rich colors to adorn walls, were found primarily on the Arabian Peninsula.129 The Visigoths who
127 Ibid.
128 Ibid. 309.
129 Ibid.

39
settled in the Peninsula after the fall of Rome also regularly incorporated the Islamic horseshoe
arch into their architectural designs in basilicas throughout their territory in modern day Spain
after its introduction in the 12th century.130 Invented out of spatial necessity to strengthen the thin
pillars which functioned as entrance ways between rooms in Islamic mosques, these arches were
a remarkable piece of engineering. They also lead to more complex patterns on the walls as tile
artisans worked around the new arch shapes. Both tiled walls and horseshoe arches are present in
a copy of Beatus’ Commentary on the Apocalypse, which was re-printed at the monastery of San
Salvador at Tabara in Spain.131 The book contains an image of the Scriptorium which the book
was copied at.132 The walls of the bell tower have several types of alternating patterns which use
the entire spectrum of colors and are only broken up by horseshoe arch shaped windows. These
new window structures let in far more light than a standard 2nd century Roman window would
have been able to before this more elaborate arch had been invented.133
One area where medieval artists truly excelled compared to their ancient predecessors
was in their attention to detail in design work. Artists at the time rejected naturalism, and their
work was not visually accurate, but these artists were undoubtedly masters at their trade, and
could not be accused of being sloppy or lacking artistic knowhow or vision. Detailed adornment
was particularly prevalent in the illustrated manuscripts, which featured carpet pages, or entire
pages decorated with fine details and bright interwoven patterns. Often, these images in books
functioned not only as an art piece, but also as a visual aid, using the figures in the images to
help tell the story. Pope Gregory the Great defended the use of religious imagery as a tool to
132 Ibid.
133 Ibid.

40
explain religious stories and principles to the illiterate: “To adore images is one thing: to teach
with their help what should be adored is another. What scripture is to the educated, images are to
the ignorant who read through scripture what they should accept; they read in them what they
can’t read in books.”134 Medieval art often served a dual function as aesthetic pieces and as tools
to educate the public, a goal that the church promoted across Europe. The tactic of educating
through imagery is common, especially after the eighth century, as Western Christendom under
Pope Gregory used the educational value of art to defend it against the Byzantine iconoclastic
movement.135
However, carpet pages that only feature intricate abstract patterns were not uncommon
either. The Lindisfarne Gospels, for example, contain 15 full page illustrations none of which
illustrate the text. Instead they function purely as decorative adornment in praise of God which
had no comparable precedents in ancient book illustrations.136xi A second carpet page that
precedes Matthew’s gospel depicts one such image.137 As chaotic as this page is, it is comprised
of a carefully predetermined set of diagonal lines and circles which keep the image methodically
ordered.138 The choice to deny visual depth in the image in exchange for geometric complexity is
a stylistic decision that is not done carelessly, or due to a lack of vision as is made evident from
the reminisce of compass pricks and gridlines that still peak through the final product.139 The
exchange of perspective for geometrical emphasis, the interwoven patterns, along with the
animal figures between the cross and the frame has clear influences in Anglo-Saxon and
136 Ibid. 158.
138 Ibid.
139 Ibid. 96.

41
Scandinavian mettle work that influenced the final product.140 The movement and energy in the
image is ultimately stabilized by the cross, just as God stabilizes the chaos of nature.141
Another common type of illumination which we think of as specific to the medieval
period is letter illumination in which the first letter of the text is blown up in size, and the shape
of the letter is formed out of complex patterns in which viewers can see the letter. Other times
entire sentences are done in this elaborate, decorative script, merging words and their intrinsic
meaning with beautiful design work for the first time.142xii There are no ancient precedents for
the marrying of text and art before the medieval period. Similar to carpet pages, these letters
sometimes figured from the story being told. Sometimes the letter is pure abstraction made out of
weaving lines and geometric shapes to create an astatically tasteful, yet well-defined image. One
of the one of the most noted manuscripts for illumination in general is The Book of Kells which
was produced in the late eighth or early ninth century.143 The letter illumination in the book is
particularly impressive, ranging from individual letters to larger words. The page introducing the
birth of Christ portrays the event as so spectacular that only the first three Greek letters of
‘Christ’ appear on the page. The artist chose to imply the splendor of Christ rather than fitting all
of the letters on the page in this intricate design.
The Greek letters chi, rho and iota (X, P and I) begin on the left portion of the page and
work their way right with general outlines forming the letters. Within these outlines, as well as
around them, are an incredible number of smaller images, patterns and geometric images which
link all three letters together into a mass. At first glance, the image looks only like a highly
141Kleiner, Fred, and Christin Mamiya. Gardner's Art through the Ages: The Western

42
detailed set of patterns and shapes, but upon closer inspection, a seemingly unlimited number of
small figures and images take shape. No single narrative is present in this adornment, but rather
many smaller scenes containing angels, human figures, and a wide variety of animals. Two cats
at the bottom of the image defend a Eucharist from being devoured by mice, representing the
struggle between good and evil.144 The letter rho sprouts upwards then curls around into a tight
spiral, the end of which turns into a human head in an example of pure creative abstraction.
Throughout the letters and the individual scenes intricate interlocking design work can be made
out forming complex patterns that were made from a single, uninterrupted line,145 leaving the rest
of the page blank except for two more words. This time in plain print, underneath, which read
“autem generatio” or “Now this is how the birth of Christ came about” when put together.146
--
When examining the “myth” of the Middle Ages it is important not to let engrained
biases determine what portion of history is worth remembering. Some of the differences between
2nd and 13th century Europeans which paint medieval people in a bad light, such as in artistic
style and hygiene, are judged without a complete understanding of the changes in the values of
the two cultures. In other cases, the “myth” is simply quantitatively wrong, such as in the case of
food production and housing where it cannot be denied that medieval societies had improved
technology which resulted in improved qualities of life for all people. Evaluative aspects such as
clothing or societal values are more objective, and may vary from individual to individual.
However, in none of these cases can it be said that people in the medieval period were clearly
worse off. At most, the two periods were different. This finding supports the concept of the Dark
145 Ibid. 98.

43
Ages as a constructed narrative to promote the political needs of rebellious men following in the
steps of Petrarch. As these men rejected the wisdom and advances of the Middle Ages, they
risked being guilty of the same historical ignorance and cultural losses that they accused their
medieval ancestors of.

44
Index
i Ard Plough "Stock Photo - Agriculture Agricultural Work Plowing Roman Farmer with a
Wooden Plough Relief Arel (Arlon) Belgium circa 200 AD Wood Engraving." Alamy. Accessed
December 9, 2015. http://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-agriculture-agricultural-work-plowing-
roman-farmer-with-a-wooden-plough-58480694.html.
ii Heavy plough Langland, William. "Piers Plowman." Medievalistsnet. Accessed December 9,
2015. http://www.medievalists.net/2013/01/24/the-heavy-plough-and-the-european-agricultural-
revolution-of-the-middle-ages/royal-12-f-xiii-f-37v/.

45
"Positive Check." : The Heavy Plough and the Agricultural Revolution in Medieval Europe.
January 15, 2015. Accessed December 15, 2015. http://positivecheck.blogspot.com/2015/01/the-
heavy-plough-and-agricultural.html.

46
iii Horse collar
"Illuminated Manuscript: Farmers Working the Land outside a Castle." Manorialism.
http://www.britannica.com/topic/manorialism.
iv Horse Shoes "Medieval 'Broad Plate' Horseshoe 022653." Medieval 'Broad Plate' Horseshoe
022653. Accessed December 15, 2015. http://www.time-lines.co.uk/medieval-broad-plate-
horseshoe-022653-32952-0.html.

47
viSt. Matthew”, Lindisfarne Gospels, Lindisfarne, Northumbria, early 8th century. Manuscript
Illumination, 13 ½ x 9 3/4in. (34.2 x 24.8cm). The British Library, London.
https://www.oneonta.edu/faculty/farberas/arth/Images/109images/insular/lindisfarne/matthew_po
rt_large.jpg

48
vii "Mural, 1943 by Jackson Pollock." Mural, 1943 by Jackson Pollock. Accessed December 15,
2015. http://www.jackson-pollock.org/mural.jsp.
viii Lion, symbol of Mark, Book of Durrow, ca. 660-680”. Early Medieval Art. Accessed
December 15, 2015. https://cluster6-files.instructure.com/courses/200544/files/2585681/course
files/14-Early-Middle-Ages/Early Medieval
Art?download=1&inline=1&sf_verifier=&ts=&user_id.

49
ix "Sutton Hoo, Purse Lid,." Early Medieval Art. Accessed December 15, 2015. https://cluster6-
files.instructure.com/courses/200544/files/2585681/course files/14-Early-Middle-Ages/Early
Medieval Art?download=1&inline=1&sf_verifier=&ts=&user_id.
x Medieval Books. Fig. 3. Scriptorium in tenth-century Spain (Madrid, Nat. Hist. Archaeological
Museum, Cod., 1097 B, c. 970). http://medievalbooks.nl/category/repost/

50
xi"Lindisfarne Gospels - St Matthew Ff.26v - 27." Virtual Books: Images Only. Accessed
December 15, 2015. http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/ttp/lindisfarne/accessible/pages9and10.html.

51
xii "Folio 34r." The Book of Kells. Accessed December 10, 2015.
http://mseffie.com/assignments/beowulf/book%20of%20kells/kells.html

52
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