The document discusses the scientific method and its application in social sciences. It provides definitions of science from various scholars and outlines the key characteristics of a scientific method including verifiability, generality, predictability, objectivity, and systematic investigation. It acknowledges some challenges in applying the scientific method in social sciences due to issues like complexity of human behavior, lack of predictability, difficulty quantifying social phenomena, inability to do controlled experiments, and challenges verifying conclusions. Overall, the document provides an overview of the scientific method and perspectives on both its use and limitations in the social sciences.

1. Dr. Rupasi Tiwari
Pr. Scientist and Incharge ATIC
Indian Veterinary Research Institute
Izatnagar, UP-243122, India

2.  Science means the accumulation of
systematic knowledge.
 The goal of science is knowledge and the
method used in reaching the goal is
systematic in nature.

3.  Science may be defined in terms of six major processes
that take place with in it. These are testing, verification,
definitions, classifications, organization, orientation,
which includes prediction and application. (L.L. Bernard )
 Scientific method consist of systematic method,
classification and interpretation of data. (George A.
Lundberg )
 There is no shortcut to the truth, no way to gain
knowledge of the universe except through gateway of
scientific method. (Karl Pearson)

4.  Science is an objective, logical & systematic method of
analysis of phenomena devised to permit the accumulation of
reliable knowledge. It is a systematized form of analysis, not
any particular body of knowledge (Lastrucci)
 In the words of Science is the captured territory. As soon as a
field of enquiry yields knowledge susceptible of exact
formulation it is called science (Will Durant)
 Thus science can be defined as a body of systematic
knowledge accumulated through objective & logical means,
which is capable of being verified at any point of time.

5. Verifiability
 The conclusion drawn through a scientific
method are subject to verification at any point
of time. Verifiability presupposes that the
phenomenon must be capable of being observed
and measured.
 For example: Better feeding in animals affects
their production performance, or Adoption is
positively related to an individuals knowledge
about the technology.

6. Generality
 Scientific laws are universal in their application. The aim of
science is to trace order in nature. Science seeks to ascertain
the common characteristics of types of objects or general laws
or conditions of events.
 Common universality is only a myth and is rarely achieved in
social sciences. This is mainly due to heterogeneous nature of
social phenomenon. In physical sciences, universality is
possible due to homogeneity of basic qualities which is very
hard to find in case of social phenomena.
 Universality in case of laws of social sciences, thus means
limited universality and they are true only under given
conditions. For example: The adoption of a technology may be
due to profitability of it one region but may be still rejected
in other region due to cultural incompatibility.

7. Predictability:
 The results of scientific method can be predicted
with sufficient accuracy. Predictability is based
on two factors:
 Fixity of relationship between cause and effect (
Hydrogen baloon will fly high)
 Stability of causative factors themselves.( A new
hydrogen gas that is different)
 For example: If we throw a ball in air it will again
fall on the ground. Predictability thus depends on
one hand upon the nature of phenomena itself and
on the other, upon our knowledge of various
causative factors.

8. Objectivity
 When a phenomena is observed in its true form
without being affected by observer’s own views it
may be termed as objective observation.
 The main criterion of objectivity is that all persons
should arrive at the same conclusion, about the
phenomena.
 The objectivity therefore, is fundamental to all
sciences, as the very purpose of science is to arrive
at the naked truth. Also objectivity is essential for
verification.
 For example: Sun is round is an objective statement,
whereas all females are good cooks is not an
objective statement.

9. System:
 Earlier four characteristics deals with the result
obtained from the scientific method whereas system
pertains to the method of reaching at the result.
 The scientific conclusions are not only true but also they
are born of systematic mode of investigation. It is only
under these circumstances that the results can be
verified.
 In every science there is accepted mode of investigation
and inference which must be adhered to.
 The results arrived at by means of haphazard methods
even if true, can not be called scientific because their
accuracy is purely accidental.

10.  It is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena ,
acquiring new knowledge , or correcting and integrating
previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of
inquiry must be based on empirical and measurable
evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning.
 The Oxford english dictionary says that scientific method
is: "a method or procedure consisting of systematic
observation, measurement, and experiment, and the
formulation, testing, and modification of hypothesis ."
(Wikipedia)
 The main difference between our day to day
generalization and the conclusion usually recognized as
scientific method lies in the degree of formality,
rigorousness, verifiability and general validity of the latter.

11.  Scientific research involves a systematic process that focuses on being
objective and gathering a multitude of information for analysis so that
the researcher can come to a conclusion.
 The process focuses on testing hunches or ideas through a systematic
process.
 In this process, the study is documented in such a way that another
individual can conduct the same study again. This is referred to as
replicating the study.
 Any research done without documenting the study so that others can
review the process and results is not an investigation using the scientific
research process.
 The scientific research process is a multiple-step process where the steps
are interlinked with the other steps in the process. If changes are made
in one step of the process, the researcher must review all the other steps
to ensure that the changes are reflected throughout the process.

12. Step 1: Identify the Problem
 The first step in the process is to identify a
problem or develop a research question. The
research problem may be something the
agency identifies as a problem, some
knowledge or information that is needed by
the agency

13. Step 2: Review the Literature
 Now that the problem has been identified, the researcher
must learn more about the topic under investigation. To do
this, the researcher must review the literature related to
the research problem.
 This step provides foundational knowledge about the
problem area. The review of literature also educates the
researcher about what studies have been conducted in the
past, how these studies were conducted, and the
conclusions in the problem area.
 The information discovered during this step helps the
researcher fully understand the magnitude of the problem,
recognize the future consequences of problem, and
identify a strategy to combat problem.
 Two types: Conceptual review and Empirical review

14.  Step 3: Clarify the Problem
 Many times the initial problem identified in the first step of the process is too large
or broad in scope. In step 3 of the process, the researcher clarifies the problem and
narrows the scope of the study. This can only be done after the literature has been
reviewed.
 The knowledge gained through the review of literature guides the researcher in
clarifying and narrowing the research project.
 For example, the researcher has identified poor adoption of livestock technologies
as the problem and the purpose of the study. This topic is very broad and could be
studied based on various technologies, at various stakeholders levels, in various
states of country.
 All of these areas cannot be investigated in a single study; therefore, the problem
and purpose of the study must be more clearly defined.
 The researcher has decided that the purpose of the study is to determine if
enhancing the awareness of the livestock technology viz., FMD vaccination will
improve its adoption level. This purpose is more narrowly focused and researchable
than the original problem.

15.  Step 4: Clearly Define Terms and Concepts
 Terms and concepts are words or phrases used in the purpose statement
of the study or the description of the study. These items need to be
specifically defined as they apply to the study.
 Terms or concepts often have different definitions depending on who is
reading the study.
 To minimize confusion about what the terms and phrases mean, the
researcher must specifically define them (operational definition) for the
study. In the adoption study, the concept of “adoption of FMD vaccine”
can be defined as “Continued use of the vaccine by the farmer as a
prophylactic measure for his farm animals” or Peri Urban area “The area
within 10 km radius of the city)
 By defining the terms or concepts more narrowly, the scope of the study
is more manageable for the researcher, making it easier to collect the
necessary data for the study. This also makes the concepts more
understandable to the reader.

16. Step 5: Define the Population
 Research projects can focus on a specific group of people, facilities,
personnells evaluation, programs, financial status, marketing efforts, or the
integration of technology into the operations.
 For example, if a researcher wants to examine a specific group of people in
the community, the study could examine a specific age group, males or
females, people living in a specific geographic area, or a specific ethnic
group. (eg. Communication pattern among young farm women in villages”
 Literally thousands of options are available to the researcher to specifically
identify the group to study.
 The research problem and the purpose of the study assist the researcher in
identifying the group to involve in the study.
 In research terms, the group to involve in the study is always called the
population. Defining the population assists the researcher in several ways.
 First, it narrows the scope of the study from a very large population to one
that is manageable.
 Second, the population identifies the group that the researcher’s efforts will
be focused on within the study.
 This helps ensure that the researcher stays on the right path during the
study. Finally, by defining the population, the researcher identifies the group
that the results will apply to at the conclusion of the study.

17. Step 6: Develop the research design
 The plan for the study is referred to as the research design.
 The research design serves as the road map for the entire study, specifying
who will participate in the study; how, when, and where data will be
collected; and the content of the program.
 Also called blue print, this plan is composed of numerous decisions and
considerations.
 The group of participants is called the sample, which is a smaller group
selected from the population specified for the study. The study cannot
possibly include every unit of population, so a smaller group is used to
represent the population.
 The researcher develops the plan for the study, indicating what data will be
collected, when and how the data will be collected, who will collect the
data, and how the data will be analyzed. The research design specifies all the
steps that must be completed for the study. This ensures that the researcher
has carefully thought through all these decisions and that she provides a step-
by-step plan to be followed in the study.

18. Step 7: Collect Data
 Once the research design is completed, the actual study begins
with the collection of data.
 The collection of data is a critical step in providing the
information needed to answer the research question.
 Every study includes the collection of some type of data—
whether it is from the literature or from subjects—to answer the
research question.
 Data can be collected through a survey with interview schedule,
with a questionnaire, through observations, case studies or from
the literature.
 Once the data are collected on the variables, the researcher is
ready to move to the final step of the process, which is the data
analysis.

19. Step 8: Analyze the Data
 All the time, effort, and resources dedicated to steps 1 through 7
of the research process culminate in this final step. The
researcher finally has data to analyze so that the research
question can be answered.
 In the research design, the researcher specified how the data will
be analyzed. The researcher now analyzes the data according to
the plan. The results of this analysis are then reviewed and
summarized in a manner directly related to the research
questions.
 Various statistical procedures such as frequency, mean,
percentage, SD, t test, Ztest, F test, ANOVA, correlation etc are
used to analyse
 A study using the scientific research process cannot be completed
when time is limited or the study is done at the last minute.
Researchers who do this conduct studies that result in either
false conclusions or conclusions that are not of any value to the
organization

20. CONCLUSIONS AND PUBLISHING
 This stage is where, technically, the hypothesis is stated
as proved or disproved.
 However, the bulk of research is never as clear-cut as that,
and so it is necessary to filter the results and state what
happened and why. This stage is where interesting results
can be earmarked for further research and adaptation of
the initial hypothesis.
 There may be trends that, whilst not significant
staistically , lead to further research and refinement of
the process.
 The results are usually published and shared with the
scientific community, allowing verification of the findings
and allowing others to continue research into other areas.

21.  Social data is complex in nature: Human behavior is influenced
by so many factors, physical, social temperamental,
psychological that observer is simply confused at the complexity
of data.
 Social data is unpredictable: Now we know that one of the
characteristics of science is its predictability. Social behavior is
sufficiently irregular and unpredictable. Personal moods and
whims so dominate the actions of human beings, that we can
never be quite sure what they would do under certain given
circumstances.
 Social phenomena are subjective and intangible: Social
phenomena are known only symbolically through words
representing such phenomena as traditions, customs attitude,
values and the whole realm of so called subjective world. It is
very difficult that all persons may visualize abstract and
subjective things like customs, attitude etc. in the same manner.

22.  Difficulty in using empirical methods: According to Lundberg- “Exact
science tends to become increasingly quantitative in its units, measure,
and terminology while most of the matter of social sciences is qualitative
and does not admit to quantitative statement. We can talk of
urbanization, cultural assimilation etc. but is very difficult to measure
and quantify”. Researchers are still trying to quantify various attributes
such as innovative proneness or market orientation etc.
 Homogeneity is lacking: It is generally argued that no two persons are
alike and therefore the conclusions drawn from the study of any one case
may not be applicable to other cases.
 Experimental methods can rarely be used: Most of the physical sciences
have one advantage. They can be subjected to laboratory test under
specified conditions. Thus the analysis is more thorough and the
deductions more accurate and universal. Besides this, they can be tested
and verified at any time. This advantage gives good deal of exactness to
the physical sciences. In case of social sciences such a facility is
completely lacking. We can never hope to put human beings to laboratory
test. Still our experimentation involves pre and post exposure of
individuals to an intervention but the control is not so rigorous as the
physical sciences.

23.  No clear demarcation of cause & effect relationship: In case of social
phenomena the cause and the effect are interdependent and one
stimulates the other. It is, therefore, very difficult to find as to what is
the cause and what is the effect. For example, is illiteracy the cause of
poverty or poverty a cause of illiteracy.
 Social phenomena are dynamic in nature: Most of the physical sciences
deal with inanimate things. In case of human beings it is not so. Human
society is constantly changing, improving itself by past knowledge.
Therefore what was true of the past may not be true of the present or
future. Thus not only the deductions based on past studies, but even the
technique used in the past may prove useless. SES scale of 1963 cant be
used now but measurement of physical sciences like ht , wt., energy still
hold true.
 Difficulty in the Verification of the Inferences: In social science
research, the events of social sciences are non repetitive and the social
scientists are ill-equipped with their tools to verify inferences. Tools are
there but need to be validated with every new research endeavour.