Sayings of Jesus on the Cross Musical Settings of Jesus Seven Last Words on the Cross

Sayings of Jesus on the Cross
Musical Settings of Jesus Seven Last Words on the Cross

Contents
1 Sayings of Jesus on the cross 1
1.1 Seven sayings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 1. Father, forgive them, for they do not know what they do . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 2. Today you will be with me in paradise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 3. Behold your son: behold your mother . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.4 4. My God, my God, why have you forsaken me? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.5 5. I thirst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.6 6. It is ﬁnished . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.7 7. Father, into your hands I commit my spirit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Theological interpretations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Other interpretations and translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Historicity of the sayings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 Musical settings of The Seven Last Words of Christ 7
2.1 Chronological list of settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.1 16th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.2 17th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.3 18th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.4 19th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.5 20th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.6 21st century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3 Three Hours’ Agony 9
3.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4 Life of Jesus in the New Testament 10
i

ii CONTENTS
4.1 Genealogy and Nativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.2 Ministry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.2.1 Locations of Ministry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.2.2 Baptism and temptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.2.3 Calling the disciples and early Ministry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.2.4 Ministry and miracles in Galilee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.2.5 Proclamation as Christ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.2.6 Transﬁguration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.2.7 Final journey to Jerusalem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.2.8 Final week in Jerusalem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.3 Passion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.3.1 Betrayal and arrest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.3.2 Trials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.3.3 Cruciﬁxion and burial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.4 Resurrection and Ascension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.4.1 Resurrection appearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.4.2 Ascension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5 Language of Jesus 25
5.1 Cultural and linguistic background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.2 Aramaic phrases in the Greek New Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.2.1 Talitha kum (Ταλιθά κούμ[ι]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.2.2 Ephphatha (Εφφαθά) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.2.3 Abba (Αββά[ς]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.2.4 Raca (Ρακά) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.2.5 Mammon (Μαμωνάς) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.2.6 Rabbuni (Ραββουνί) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.2.7 Maranatha (Μαραναθά) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.2.8 Eli Eli lema sabachthani (Ηλί Ηλί λιμά σαβαχθανί) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.2.9 Jot and tittle (Ἰῶτα ἓν ἢ μία κεραία) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.2.10 Korban (Κορβάν) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.2.11 Sikera (Σίκερα) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.2.12 Hosanna (Ωσαννά) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.3 Aramaic personal names in the New Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.3.1 Boanerges (Βοανεργές) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.3.2 Cephas (Κηφάς) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.3.3 Thomas (Θωμάς) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.3.4 Tabitha (Ταβιθά) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

CONTENTS iii
5.4 Aramaic place names in the New Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.4.1 Gethsemane (Γεθσημανή) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.4.2 Golgotha (Γολγοθάς) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.4.3 Gabbatha (Γαββαθάς) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.4.4 Akeldama (Ακελδαμά) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.4.5 Pool of Bethesda (Βηθσαϊδά) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.7 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.7.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.7.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.7.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Chapter 1
Sayings of Jesus on the cross
Crucifixion, seen from the Cross by James Tissot, c. 1890
The Sayings of Jesus on the cross (also called the Seven
Last Words from the Cross) are seven expressions bib-
lically attributed to Jesus during his crucifixion. Tradi-
tionally, the brief sayings have been called “words”. They
are gathered from the four Canonical Gospels.[1][2]
Three
of the sayings appear only in the Gospel of Luke and three
only in the Gospel of John. The other saying appears both
in the Gospel of Mark and the Gospel of Matthew.[3]
In
Mark and Matthew, Jesus cries out to God. In Luke, he
forgives his killers, reassures the penitent thief, and com-
mends his spirit to the Father. In John, he speaks to his
mother, says he thirsts, and declares the end of his earthly
life.
A person’s final articulated words said prior to death or
as death approaches generally are taken to have particu-
lar significance in meaning. These seven sayings, being
"last words", may provide a way to understand what was
ultimately important to this man who was dying on the
cross.[4]
The sparsity of sayings recorded in the biblical
accounts suggests that Jesus remained relatively silent for
the hours he hung there.[5]
Since the 16th century they have been widely used in ser-
mons on Good Friday, and entire books have been written
on theological analysis of them.[3][6][7][8]
The Seven Last
Words from the Cross are an integral part of the liturgy
in the Anglican, Catholic, Protestant, and other Christian
traditions.[9][10]
The seven-sayings tradition is an example of the Chris-
tian approach to the construction of a Gospel harmony in
which material from different Gospels is combined, pro-
ducing an account that goes beyond each Gospel.[3][11]
Several composers have set the Seven Last Words to mu-
sic.
1.1 Seven sayings
The seven sayings form part of a Christian meditation that
is often used during Lent, Holy Week and Good Friday.
The traditional order of the sayings is:[12]
1. Luke 23:34: Father, forgive them, for they do not
know what they do.
2. Luke 23:43: Truly, I say to you, today you will be
with me in paradise.
3. John 19:26–27: Woman, behold your son. Son Be-
hold your mother.
4. Matthew 27:46 & Mark 15:34 My God, My God,
why have you forsaken me?
5. John 19:28: I thirst.
6. John 19:30: It is finished. (From the Greek “Tete-
lestai” which is also translated “It is accomplished.”)
7. Luke 23:46: Father, into your hands I commit my
spirit.
Traditionally, these seven sayings are called words of 1.
Forgiveness, 2. Salvation, 3. Relationship, 4. Abandon-
ment, 5. Distress, 6. Triumph and 7. Reunion.[13]
As can be seen from the above list, not all seven sayings
can be found in any one account of Jesus’ crucifixion. The
ordering is a harmonisation of the texts from each of the
1

2 CHAPTER 1. SAYINGS OF JESUS ON THE CROSS
four canonical gospels. In the gospels of Matthew and
Mark, Jesus is quoted in Aramaic, shouting the fourth
phrase only, and cries out wordlessly before dying. In
Luke’s Gospel, the first, second, and seventh sayings oc-
cur. The third, fifth and sixth sayings can only be found
in John’s Gospel. In other words:
• In Matthew and Mark :
• My God, My God, why have you forsaken me?
• In Luke:
• Father, forgive them, for they know not what
they do
• Truly, I say to you today, you will be with me in
paradise (in response to one of the two thieves
crucified next to him)
• Father, into your hands I commit my spirit (last
words)
• In John:
• Woman, behold your son: behold your mother
(directed at Mary, the mother of Jesus, either
as a self-reference, or as a reference to the
beloved disciple and an instruction to the dis-
ciple himself)
• I thirst (just before a wetted sponge, mentioned
by all the Canonical Gospels, is offered)
• It is finished (last words)
1.1.1 1. Father, forgive them, for they do
not know what they do
Luke 23:34
Then Jesus said, “Father, forgive them, for they
do not know what they do”.
This first saying of Jesus on the cross is tradition-
ally called “The Word of Forgiveness”.[13]
It is theo-
logically interpreted as Jesus’ prayer for forgiveness for
those who were crucifying him: the Roman soldiers,
and apparently for all others who were involved in his
crucifixion.[14][15][16][17]
Some early manuscripts do not include this sentence in
Luke 23:34.[18]
1.1.2 2. Today you will be with me in par-
adise
Luke 23:43
And he said to him, “Truly, I say to you, today
you will be with me in paradise”.
This saying is traditionally called “The Word of
Salvation”.[13]
According to Luke’s Gospel, Jesus was
crucified between two thieves (traditionally named
Dismas and Gestas), one of whom supports Jesus’ inno-
cence and asks him to remember him when he comes
into his kingdom. Jesus replies, “Truly, I say to you...”
(ἀμήν λέγω σοί, amēn legō soi), followed with the only
appearance of the word "Paradise" in the Gospels (παρα-
δείσω, paradeisō, from the Persian pairidaeza "paradise
garden").
A seemingly simple change in punctuation in this say-
ing has been the subject of doctrinal differences among
Christian groups, given the lack of punctuation in the
original Greek texts.[19]
Protestant Christians usually use
a version which reads “today you will be with me in
Paradise”.[19]
This reading assumes a direct voyage to
Heaven and has no implications of purgatory.[19]
On the
other hand, Catholics have used a reading which empha-
sizes “I say to you today”, leaving open the possibility that
the statement was made today, but arrival in Heaven may
be later.[19]
1.1.3 3. Behold your son: behold your
mother
Crucifixion depicted as Stabat Mater with the Virgin Mary, Porto
Alegre, Brasil, 19th century.
John 19:26-27
Jesus saw his own mother, and the disciple

1.1. SEVEN SAYINGS 3
standing near whom he loved, he said to his
mother, “Woman, behold your son”. Then he
said to the disciple, “Behold your mother”. And
from that hour, he took his mother into his fam-
ily.
This statement is traditionally called “The Word of Rela-
tionship” and in it Jesus entrusts Mary, his mother, into
the care of "the disciple whom Jesus loved".[13]
Methodist minister Adam Hamilton's 2009 interpreta-
tion: “Jesus looked down from the cross to see his mother
standing nearby. As far as we know, only one of the
twelve apostles was there at the foot of the cross: “the
disciple whom Jesus loved,” usually identified as John.
Naked and in horrible pain, he thought not of himself but
was concerned for the well-being of his mother after his
death. This shows Jesus’ humanity and the depth of love
he had for his mother and the disciple into whose care he
entrusted her.”[4]
1.1.4 4. My God, my God, why have you
forsaken me?
Matthew 27:46
Around the ninth hour, Jesus shouted in a loud
voice, saying “Eli Eli lama sabachthani?" which
is, “My God, my God, why have you forsaken
me?"
Mark 15:34
And at the ninth hour, Jesus shouted in a loud
voice, “Eloi Eloi lama sabachthani?" which is
translated, “My God, my God, why have you
forsaken me?"
It is the only saying that appears in more than one
Gospel,[13]
and is a quote from King David in Psalm 22:1.
This saying is taken by some as an abandonment of the
Son by the Father. Other theologians understand the cry
as that of one who was truly human and who felt for-
saken. Put to death by his foes, very largely deserted by
his friends, he may have felt also deserted by God.[20]
Others point to this as the first words of Psalm 22 and
suggest that Jesus recited these words, perhaps even the
whole psalm, “that he might show himself to be the very
Being to whom the words refer; so that the Jewish scribes
and people might examine and see the cause why he
would not descend from the cross; namely, because this
very psalm showed that it was appointed that he should
suffer these things.” [21]
Theologian Frank Stagg points to what he calls “a mystery
of Jesus’ incarnation: "...he who died at Golgotha (Cal-
vary) is one with the Father, that God was in Christ, and
that at the same time he cried out to the Father”.[22]
1.1.5 5. I thirst
John 19:28
He said, “I thirst”.
This statement is traditionally called “The Word of Dis-
tress” and is compared and contrasted with the encounter
of Jesus with the Samaritan Woman at the Well in John
4:4-26.[13]
As in the other accounts, the Gospel of John says Jesus
was offered a drink of sour wine, adding that this per-
son placed a sponge dipped in wine on a hyssop branch
and held it to Jesus’ lips. Hyssop branches had figured
significantly in the Old Testament and in the Book of
Hebrews.[23]
This statement of Jesus is interpreted by John as fulfil-
ment of the prophecy given in Psalm 69:21 (cf. Psalm
22:15), hence the quotation from John’s Gospel includes
the comment “to fulfil the scriptures”.
1.1.6 6. It is finished
John 19:30
Jesus said, Tetelestai, meaning “It is finished”.
This statement is traditionally called “The Word of Tri-
umph” and is theologically interpreted as the announce-
ment of the end of the earthly life of Jesus, in anticipation
for the Resurrection.[13]
Adam Hamilton writes: “These last words are seen as a
cry of victory, not of dereliction. Jesus had now com-
pleted what he came to do. A plan was fulfilled; a sal-
vation was made possible; a love shown. He had taken
our place. He had demonstrated both humanity’s broken-
ness and God’s love. He had offered himself fully to God
as a sacrifice on behalf of humanity. As he died, it was
finished. With these words, the noblest person who ever
walked the face of this planet, God in the flesh, breathed
his last.”[4]:p.112
The verse has also been translated as “It is
consummated.”[24]
1.1.7 7. Father, into your hands I commit
my spirit
Luke 23:46
And speaking in a loud voice, Jesus said, “Fa-
ther, into your hands I commit my spirit”.
From Psalm 31:5, this saying, which is an announcement
and not a request, is traditionally called “The Word of

Reunion” and is theologically interpreted as the procla-
mation of Jesus joining God the Father in Heaven.[13]
Hamilton has written that “When darkness seem to pre-
vail in life, it takes faith even to talk to God, even if it is
to complain to him. These last words of Jesus from the
cross show his absolute trust in God: 'Father, into your
hands I commit my spirit'. This has been termed a model
of prayer for everyone when afraid, sick, or facing one’s
own death. It says in effect:"
I commit myself to you, O God. In my
living and in my dying, in the good times
and in the bad, whatever I am and have,
I place in your hands, O God, for your
safekeeping.[4]:p.112
1.2 Theological interpretations
The last words of Jesus have been the subject of a wide
range of Christian teachings and sermons, and a number
of authors have written books specifically devoted to the
last sayings of Christ.[25][26][27]
Priest and author Timothy Radcliffe states that in the
Bible, seven is the number of perfection, and he views the
seven last words as God’s completion of the circle of cre-
ation and performs analysis of the structure of the seven
last words to obtain further insight.[28]
1.3 Other interpretations and
translations
The saying “My God, my God, why have you forsaken
me” is generally given in transliterated Aramaic with a
translation (originally in Greek) after it. This phrase is
the opening line of Psalm 22, a psalm about persecution,
the mercy and salvation of God. It was common for peo-
ple at this time to reference songs by quoting their first
lines. In the verses immediately following this saying, in
both Gospels, the onlookers who hear Jesus’ cry under-
stand him to be calling for help from Elijah (Eliyyâ). The
slight differences between the two gospel accounts are
most probably due to dialect. Matthew’s version seems to
have been more influenced by Hebrew, whereas Mark’s is
perhaps more colloquial.
The phrase could be either:
• [ ‫עזבתני‬ ‫למה‬ ‫אלי‬ ‫אלי‬ēlî ēlî lamâ
azavtanî ];or
• [ ‫שבקתני‬ ‫למא‬ ‫אלי‬ ‫אלי‬ēlî ēlî lamâ
šabaqtanî ];or
• [ ‫שבקתני‬ ‫למא‬ ‫אלהי‬ ‫אלהי‬ēlâhî ēlâhî lamâ
šabaqtanî]
Michelangelo: Crucifixion of Christ, 1540
The Aramaic word šabaqtanî is based on the verb šabaq,
'to allow, to permit, to forgive, and to forsake', with the
perfect tense ending -t (2nd person singular: 'you'), and
the object suffix -anî (1st person singular: 'me').[29]
A. T. Robertson noted that the “so-called Gospel of Peter
1.5 preserves this saying in a Docetic (Cerinthian) form:
'My power, my power, thou hast forsaken me!'"[30]
1.4 Historicity of the sayings
James Dunn considers the seven sayings weakly rooted
in tradition and sees them as a part of the elabora-
tions in the diverse retellings of Jesus’ final hours.[31]
Dunn, however, argues in favour of the authenticity of
the Mark/Matthew saying in that by presenting Jesus
as seeing himself 'forsaken' it would have been an em-
barrassment to the early Church, and hence would not
have been invented.[31]
Geza Vermes, states that the first
saying from (Mark and Matthew) is a quotation from
Psalm 22, and is therefore occasionally seen as a theolog-
ical and literary device employed by the writers.[32]
Ac-
cording to Vermes, attempts to interpret the expression
as a hopeful reference to scripture provide indirect evi-
dence of its authenticity.[33]
Leslie Houlden, on the other
hand, states that Luke may have deliberately excluded the
Mark/Matthew saying from his Gospel because it did not

1.6. NOTES 5
fit in the model of Jesus he was presenting.[3][7]
1.5 See also
• Aramaic of Jesus
• Crucifixion of Jesus
• Life of Jesus in the New Testament
• Musical settings of The Seven Last Words of Christ
• Three Hours’ Agony
1.6 Notes
[1] Geoffrey W. Bromiley, International Standard Bible En-
cyclopedia, Eerdmans Press 1995, ISBN 0-8028-3784-0
p. 426
[2] Joseph F. Kelly, An Introduction to the New Testament for
Catholics Liturgical Press, 2006 ISBN 978-0-8146-5216-
9 p. 153
[3] Jesus: the complete guide by Leslie Houlden 2006 ISBN
0-8264-8011-X p. 627
[4] Hamilton, Adam. 24 Hours That Changed the World.
Abingdon Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0-687-46555-2
[5] Wilson, Ralph F. “The Seven Last Words of Christ from
the Cross”.<http://www.jesuswalk.com/7-last-words/>
[6] Jesus of Nazareth by W. Mccrocklin 2006 ISBN 1-59781-
863-1 p. 134
[7] Jesus in history, thought, and culture: an encyclopedia,
Volume 1 by James Leslie Houlden 2003 ISBN 1-57607-
856-6 p. 645
[8] The Seven Last Words From The Cross by Fleming Rut-
ledge 2004 ISBN 0-8028-2786-1 p. 8–10
[9] Richard Young (Feb 25, 2005). Echoes from Calvary:
meditations on Franz Joseph Haydn’s The seven last words
of Christ, Volume 1. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN
9780742543843. Retrieved 1 April 2012. Interestingly,
the Methodist Book of Worship adopted by the General
Conference of 1964 presented two services for Good Fri-
day: a Three Hours’ Service for the afternoon and a Good
Friday evening service that includes the “Adoration at the
Cross” (the Gospel, Deprecations, and Adoration of the
Cross) but omits a communion service, which would be
the Methodist equivalent of the Mass of the Presanctified.
[10] The Encyclopædia Americana: a library of universal
knowledge, Volume 13. Encyclopedia Americana. 1919.
Retrieved 1 April 2012. The 'Three Hours’ Devotion, bor-
rowed from Roman usage, with meditation on the 'seven
last words’ from the Cross, and held from 12 till 3, when
our Lord hung on the Cross, is a service of Good Friday
that meets with increasing acceptance among the Angli-
cans.
[11] Ehrman, Bart D.. Jesus, Interrupted, HarperCollins,
2009. ISBN 0-06-117393-2
[12] Jan Majernik, The Synoptics, Emmaus Road Press: 2005
ISBN 1-931018-31-6, p. 190
[13] The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia by Geof-
frey W. Bromiley 1988 ISBN 0-8028-3785-9 p. 426
[14] Vernon K. Robbins in Literary studies in Luke-Acts by
Richard P. Thompson (editor) 1998 ISBN 0-86554-563-4
pp. 200–201
[15] Mercer dictionary of the Bible by Watson E. Mills, Roger
Aubrey Bullard 1998 ISBN 0-86554-373-9 p. 648
[16] Reading Luke-Acts: dynamics of Biblical narrative by
William S. Kurz 1993 ISBN 0-664-25441-1 p. 201
[17] Luke’s presentation of Jesus: a Christology by de:Robert F.
O'Toole 2004 ISBN 88-7653-625-6 p. 215
[18] Steven L. Cox, Kendell H. Easley, 2007 Harmony of the
Gospels ISBN 0-8054-9444-8 p. 234
[19] The Blackwell Companion to Catholicism by James Buck-
ley, Frederick Christian Bauerschmidt and Trent Pom-
plun, 2010 ISBN 1-4443-3732-7 p. 48
[20] Conner, W.T. The Cross in the New Testament. Nashville:
Broadman Press, 1954. ASIN: B0007EIIPI p.34
[21] “Pulpit Commentary”. See Mark 15:34, http://biblehub.
com/commentaries/pulpit/mark/15.htm
[22] Stagg, Frank. New Testament Theology. Broadman Press,
1962. ISBN 0-8054-1613-7
[23] Hyssop. cf. Exodus 12:22: used to sprinkle the blood
of the Passover lamb above the doors of the Israelite’s
dwellings when the firstborn of the Egyptians were killed;
Leviticus 14: hyssop wrapped in yarn was used to sprin-
kle blood and water upon the lepers; Leviticus 14: hyssop
wrapped in yarn also used on the ceremonially unclean
so they might be made clean again; Psalm 51:7: David,
in his prayer of confession, cried out to God, “Purge me
with hyssop, and I shall be clean."; and Hebrews 9:19-20:
after Moses gave the people the Ten Commandments, “he
took the blood of calves and goats, with water and scarlet
wool and hyssop, and sprinkled both the scroll itself and
all the people, saying, 'This is the blood of the covenant
that God has ordained for you.'" Hamilton, Adam (2009).
24 Hours That Changed the World. Nashville: Abington
Press. ISBN 978-0-687-46555-2
[24] Bible Hub - John 19:30
[25] David Anderson-Berry, The Seven Sayings of Christ on the
Cross, Glasgow: Pickering & Inglis Publishers, 1871
[26] Arthur Pink, The Seven Sayings of the Saviour on the
Cross, Baker Books 2005, ISBN 0-8010-6573-9
[27] Simon Peter Long, The wounded Word: A brief meditation
on the seven sayings of Christ on the cross, Baker Books
1966
[28] Timothy Radcliffe, 2005 Seven Last Words, ISBN 0-
86012-397-9 p. 11

[29] Dictionary of biblical tradition in English literature by
David L. Jeﬀrey 1993 ISBN 0-8028-3634-8 p. 233
[30] Robertson’s Word Pictures of the New Testament
(Broadman-Holman, 1973), vol. 1. ISBN 0-8054-1307-
3.
[31] James G. D. Dunn, Jesus Remembered, Eerdmans, 2003,
pp. 779–781.
[32] Geza Vermes, The Passion, Penguin 2005, p. 75.
[33] Vermes, Géza. The authentic gospel of Jesus. London,
Penguin Books. 2004.
1.7 References
• The Reader’s Encyclopedia, Second Edition 1965,
publisher Thomas Y. Crowell Co., New York, edi-
tions 1948, 1955. Library of Congress Catalog Card
No. 65-12510, pp. 917–918
1.8 External links
• The Seven Last Words of Christ, Rev. Dr. Mark D.
Roberts, Patheos
• The Seven Last Words of Christ: free scores in the
Choral Public Domain Library (ChoralWiki)

Chapter 2
Musical settings of The Seven Last Words
of Christ
The Seven Last Words of Christ refers to the seven
short phrases uttered by Jesus on the cross, as gathered
from the four Christian Gospels. The Crucifixion of Je-
sus has served as inspiration to a great many visual artists
and composers over the centuries. In particular, at least
16 composers have written musical settings of the Seven
Last Words, for various combinations of voice and/or
instruments.[1]
The best known of these settings is probably the instru-
mental setting by Joseph Haydn (see below), who pro-
duced two different arrangements of his own work—one
of them for choir—and approved a third.
2.1 Chronological list of settings
Early Latin motet settings of the ultima septem verba can
be found from 1500.[2][3]
2.1.1 16th century
• Orlande de Lassus: Septem verba Domini Jesu
Christi 5 voc.
2.1.2 17th century
• Heinrich Schütz: Die sieben Worte Jesu Christi am
Kreuz, SWV 478 (1645), German cantata.
• Augustin Pfleger: Passio, sive Septem Verba Christi
in cruce pendentis (c.1670)
2.1.3 18th century
• Pergolesi: Septem verba a Christo in cruce moriente
prolata (attributed, 1730-1736)
• Christoph Graupner: Die sieben Worte des Heilands
am Kreuz cantata cycle, Darmstadt (1743)
• Joseph Haydn: The Seven Last Words of Christ
(1787), an instrumental meditation commissioned
for Cadiz in Lent. Haydn later arranged it as an
oratorio and for string quartet, and approved his
publisher’s arrangement for solo piano.
• Francisco Javier García Fajer: Septem ultima verba
christi in cruce (1787), Latin oratorio
• Giuseppe Giordani alias «Giordaniello»: Tre ore
dell’Agonia di N.S. Gesù Cristo (1790), oratorio[4]
2.1.4 19th century
• Nicola Antonio Zingarelli: Tre ore dell’Agonia
(1825), oratorio[5]
• Saverio Mercadante: Le sette ultime parole di Nostro
Signore Gesù Cristo (1838), oratorio
• Andrea De Simone: Agonia di Gesù (1841),
oratorio[6]
• Charles Gounod: Les Sept Paroles de Notre Seigneur
Jésus-Christ sur la Croix (1855), choral work
• César Franck: Les Sept Paroles du Christ sur la Croix
(1859), choral work
• Théodore Dubois: Les sept paroles du Christ (1867),
choral work
• Fernand de La Tombelle: Les sept Paroles de Notre
Seigneur Jésus-Christ
• José Alexandrino de Sousa: As Sete Palavras de N.
S. Jesus Christo na Cruz
2.1.5 20th century
• Charles Tournemire Sept Chorals-Poèmes pour les
sept Paroles du Christ for organ (1935)
• Knut Nystedt: “Jesu syv ord på korset”, Motett-
passion op. 47, for bl. kor a cappella. The Seven
Words from the Cross (1961).[7]
7

8 CHAPTER 2. MUSICAL SETTINGS OF THE SEVEN LAST WORDS OF CHRIST
• Alan Ridout The Seven Last Words for organ (1965)
• “The Crucifixion” from Jesus Christ Superstar
(1969), by Tim Rice and Andrew Lloyd Webber
• Douglas Allanbrook The Seven Last Words for
mezzo-soprano, baritone, chorus and orchestra
(1970)
• Sofia Gubaidulina Sieben Worte for cello, bayan, and
strings (1982)
• James MacMillan: Seven Last Words from the Cross,
cantata for choir and strings (1993)
• Ruth Zechlin: Die sieben letzten Worte Jesu am
Kreuz for organ (1996)
2.1.6 21st century
• Benedikt Burghardt The 7 Last Words for mixed
choir, 2 violins, violoncello, double bass and organ
(2004)
• Benjamin Cornelius-Bates The Seven Last Words of
Christ on the Cross for SATB choir, baritone soloist,
organ, string quartet and trumpet (2009)
• Jerome Malek: Seven Last Words, cantata for choir,
five soloists and orchestra (2010)
• Tristan Murail: Les Sept Paroles for orchestra, cho-
rus and electronics (2010)
• Gareth Wilson: Logos for unaccompanied choir
(2010)
• Daan Manneke: The Seven Last Words Oratorio for
chamber choir (2011)
• Daniel Elder Seven Last Words from the Cross for
unaccompanied choir (2012)
• Fabrizio Bastianini Sette parole for SATB choir,
mezzo-soprano, tenore, baritone and strings (2013)
• Paul Carr Seven Last Words from the Cross for
soloist, choir and orchestra (2013)[8]
• Stephen DeCesare The Seven Last Words of Christ
for SATB choir, Solo (either male or female), Tenor
Solo, Strings, Oboe, French Horn, Piano and Organ
(2015)
2.2 See also
• Three Hours’ Agony
• The Crucifixion in classical music
2.3 References
[1] Church Music – 1973 – Page 10 “Eventually these settings
of the Seven Words became a separate form of Passion
music. Perhaps the most outstanding work in this genre in
the Lutheran tradition is the work of Heinrich Schiitz.10
A number of composers in the first generations ...”
[2] Literature, Music, Fine Arts – 22-24 1989 p189-190
“Langrock, Klaus. Die sieben Worte Jesu am Kreuz. Ein
Beitrag zur Geschichte der Passionsmusik (Ph.D., Musi-
cology, Bochum, 1987) ...The present book, a dissertation
of the University of Bochum, deals with settings of the
Seven Words on the Cross, which are ... France and Italy
since 1500, published or unpublished, which are based on
the text of all the Words on the Cross.”
[3] Raymond Dittrich Die sieben letzten Worte Jesu in der
Musik – 2001
[4] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S7vDO_PzBEw
[5] https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=rkgFJ5Z3Sa0
[6] http://www.kallistimusic.com/Agonia.html
[7] Carl Halter, Carl Schalk A Handbook of church music
1978- Page 167 “Examples of settings of the Seven Words
appropriate for church use are: Nystedt, Knut. The Seven
Words from the Cross. Minneapolis: Augsburg Publish-
ing House, 1961. Setting for choir and soloist. Schuetz,
Heinrich. The Seven Words of ...”
[8] “Browse sheet music by Composer”
2.4 External links
• Free scores of The Seven Last Words of Christ in
the Choral Public Domain Library (ChoralWiki)

Chapter 3
Three Hours’ Agony
The Three Hours’ Agony, “Tre Ore”. or Three Hours’
Devotion is a service held in some Roman Catholic,
Anglican, and Lutheran churches on Good Friday from
noon till 3 o'clock to commemorate the Passion of Christ.
It may include meditation on the seven sayings of Jesus
on the cross,[1]
and often occurs between the Stations of
the Cross at noon and the Liturgy of the Lord’s Passion
at 3PM.
The Jesuit priest Alphonsus Messia (died 1732) is said
to have devised this devotion in Lima, Peru. It was intro-
duced to Rome around 1788 and spread around the world.
In 1815, Pope Pius VII decreed a plenary indulgence to
those who practise this devotion on Good Friday.[2]
3.1 References
[1] Sermons on the Three Hours’ Agony at CatholicCul-
ture.org
[2] Raccolta - Jesus Cruciﬁed
This article incorporates text from a publication now
in the public domain: Wood, James, ed. (1907).
"article name needed
". The Nuttall Encyclopædia. London and
New York: Frederick Warne.
9

Chapter 4
Life of Jesus in the New Testament
The Maestà by Duccio, (1310) depicting the Life of Christ, with
26 central scenes devoted to the Passion and Resurrection.[1]
The four canonical gospels of the New Testament are the
primary sources of information for the narrative of the
life of Jesus.[2][3]
However, other parts of the New Testa-
ment, such as the Pauline epistles which were likely writ-
ten decades before them, also include references to key
episodes in his life such as the Last Supper.[2][3][4]
And
the Acts of the Apostles (1:1-11) says more about the
Ascension episode than the canonical gospels.[5][6]
The genealogy and Nativity of Jesus are described in two
of the four canonical gospels: Matthew and Luke. Luke
and Matthew describe Jesus being born in Bethlehem, in
Judea, to a virgin mother. In Matthew, wise men fol-
low a star to Bethlehem to bring gifts to Jesus, born the
King of the Jews. King Herod orders the massacre of all
male children under two years old in Bethlehem to kill
Jesus, but the holy family flees to Egypt and later settles
in Nazareth.[7][8]
In the gospels, the ministry of Jesus starts with his Bap-
tism by John the Baptist, when he is about thirty years
old. Jesus then begins preaching in Galilee and gathers
disciples.[9][10]
After the proclamation of Jesus as Christ,
three of the disciples witness his Transfiguration.[11][12]
After the death of John the Baptist and the Transfigu-
ration, Jesus starts his final journey to Jerusalem, having
predicted his own death there.[13]
Jesus makes a triumphal
entry into Jerusalem, and once there friction with the
Pharisees increases and one of his disciples agrees to be-
tray him for thirty pieces of silver.[14][15][16]
In the gospel accounts, towards the end of the final week
in Jerusalem, Jesus has the Last Supper with his disciples,
and the next day is betrayed, arrested and tried.[17]
The
trial ends in his crucifixion and death. Three days after his
burial, he is resurrected and appears to his disciples over
a 40-day period, after which he ascends to Heaven.[18] [19]
4.1 Genealogy and Nativity
Main articles: Genealogy of Jesus and Nativity of Jesus
Two of the four canonical gospels provide accounts of
“Adoration of the Shepherds” by Gerard van Honthorst, 1622
the genealogy and birth of Jesus.[20]
While Luke traces
the genealogy upwards towards Adam and God, Matthew
traces it downwards towards Jesus.[21]
Both gospels state
that Jesus was begotten not by Joseph, but by God.[22]
Both accounts trace Joseph back to King David and from
there to Abraham. These lists are identical between Abra-
ham and David (except for one), but they differ almost
completely between David and Joseph.[23][24]
Matthew
gives Jacob as Joseph’s father and Luke says Joseph was
the son of Heli. Attempts at explaining the differences
between the genealogies have varied in nature.[25][26][27]
10

4.2. MINISTRY 11
Much of modern scholarship interprets them as literary
inventions.[28]
The Luke and Matthew accounts of the birth of Jesus
have a number of points in common; both have Jesus
being born in Bethlehem, in Judea, to a virgin mother.
In the Luke account Joseph and Mary travel from their
home in Nazareth for the census to Bethlehem, where
Jesus is born and laid in a manger.[29]
Angels proclaim
him a savior for all people, and shepherds come to adore
him; the family then returns to Nazareth. In Matthew,
astrologers follow a star to Bethlehem, where the family
are living, to bring gifts to Jesus, born the King of the
Jews. King Herod massacres all males under two years
old in Bethlehem in order to kill Jesus, but Jesus’s fam-
ily flees to Egypt and later settles in Nazareth. Over the
centuries, biblical scholars have attempted to reconcile
these contradictions,[30]
while modern scholarship mostly
views them as legendary.[31][32][33][34][35]
Generally, they
consider the issue of historicity as secondary, given that
gospels were primarily written as theological documents
rather than chronological timelines.[36][37][38][39]
4.2 Ministry
Main article: Ministry of Jesus
See also: Chronology of Jesus
The five major milestones in the New Testament narra-
Jesus commissioning the Twelve Apostles depicted by
Ghirlandaio, 1481.
tive of the life of Jesus are his Baptism, Transfiguration,
Crucifixion, Resurrection and Ascension.[40][41][42]
In the gospels, the ministry of Jesus begins with his bap-
tism in the countryside of Roman Judea and Transjordan,
near the river Jordan, and ends in Jerusalem, following the
Last Supper with his disciples.[10]
The Gospel of Luke
(3:23) states that Jesus was “about 30 years of age” at the
start of his ministry.[43][44]
A chronology of Jesus typi-
cally has the date of the start of his ministry estimated at
around 27-29 and the end in the range 30-36.[43][44][45][46]
Jesus’ Early Galilean ministry begins when after his Bap-
tism, he goes back to Galilee from his time in the Judean
desert.[47]
In this early period he preaches around Galilee
and recruits his first disciples who begin to travel with him
and eventually form the core of the early Church[9][10]
as
it is believed that the Apostles dispersed from Jerusalem
to found the Apostolic Sees. The Major Galilean ministry
which begins in Matthew 8 includes the commissioning of
the Twelve Apostles, and covers most of the ministry of
Jesus in Galilee.[48][49]
The Final Galilean ministry begins
after the death of John the Baptist as Jesus prepares to go
to Jerusalem.[50][51]
In the Later Judean ministry Jesus starts his final journey
to Jerusalem through Judea.[11][12][52][53]
As Jesus travels
towards Jerusalem, in the Later Perean ministry, about
one third the way down from the Sea of Galilee (actually a
fresh water lake) along the River Jordan, he returns to the
area where he was baptized.[54][55][56]
The Final ministry
in Jerusalem is sometimes called the Passion Week and
begins with Jesus’ triumphal entry into Jerusalem.[57]
The
gospels provide more details about the final ministry than
the other periods, devoting about one third of their text
to the last week of the life of Jesus in Jerusalem.[58]
4.2.1 Locations of Ministry
Main article: New Testament places associated with Jesus
In the New Testament accounts, the principle locations
Galilee, Perea and Judea at the time of Jesus
for the ministry of Jesus were Galilee and Judea, with
activities also taking place in surrounding areas such as
Perea and Samaria.[9][10]
The gospel narrative of the ministry of Jesus is tradition-

12 CHAPTER 4. LIFE OF JESUS IN THE NEW TESTAMENT
ally separated into sections that have a geographical na-
ture.
• Galilean ministry: Jesus’ ministry be-
gins when after his baptism, he returns
to Galilee, and preaches in the syna-
gogue of Capernaum.[47][59]
The first dis-
ciples of Jesus encounter him near the
Sea of Galilee and his later Galilean
ministry includes key episodes such
as Sermon on the Mount (with the
Beatitudes) which form the core of his
moral teachings.[60][61]
Jesus’ ministry in
the Galilee area draws to an end with the
death of John the Baptist.[50][51]
• Journey to Jerusalem: After the death
of the Baptist, about half way through
the gospels (approximately Matthew 17
and Mark 9) two key events take place
that change the nature of the narrative
by beginning the gradual revelation of his
identity to his disciples: his proclamation
as Christ by Peter and his transfigura-
tion.[11][12]
After these events, a good
portion of the gospel narratives deal with
Jesus’ final journey to Jerusalem through
Perea and Judea.[11][12][52][53]
As Jesus
travels towards Jerusalem through Perea
he returns to the area where he was
baptized.[54][55][56]
• Final week in Jerusalem: The final part
of Jesus’ ministry begins (Matthew 21
and Mark 11) with his triumphal en-
try into Jerusalem after the raising of
Lazarus episode which takes place in
Bethany. The gospels provide more de-
tails about the final portion than the
other periods, devoting about one third
of their text to the last week of the life
of Jesus in Jerusalem which ends in his
crucifixion.[58]
The New Testament ac-
counts of the resurrection appearances of
Jesus and his ascension are also in Judea.
4.2.2 Baptism and temptation
Main articles: Baptism of Jesus and Temptation of Jesus
The Baptism of Jesus marks the beginning of his public
ministry. This event is recorded in the Canonical Gospels
of Matthew, Mark and Luke. In John 1:29-33, rather than
a direct narrative, John the Baptist bears witness to the
episode.[63][64]
In the New Testament, John the Baptist preached a
"baptism with water", not of forgiveness but of penance
or repentance for the remission of sins (Luke 3:3), and
Francesco Albani's 17th century Baptism of Christ is a typical
depiction with the sky opening and the Holy Spirit descending as
a dove.[62]
declared himself a forerunner to one who would bap-
tize 'with the Holy Spirit and with fire' (Luke 3:16).
In so doing he was preparing the way for Jesus.[65]
Je-
sus came to the Jordan River where he was baptized
by John.[65][66][67][68]
The baptismal scene includes the
Heavens opening, a dove-like descent of the Holy Spirit,
and a voice from Heaven saying, “This is my beloved Son
with whom I am well pleased.”[65][69]
Most modern scholars view the fact that Jesus was bap-
tized by John as an historical event to which a high degree
of certainty can be assigned.[70][71][72][73]
James Dunn
states that the historicity of the Baptism and crucifixion
of Jesus “command almost universal assent”.[74]
Along
with the crucifixion of Jesus most scholars view it as one
of the two historically certain facts about him, and often
use it as the starting points for the study of the historical
Jesus.[74]
The temptation of Jesus is detailed in the gospels of
Matthew,[75]
Mark,[76]
and Luke.[77]
In these narratives,
after being baptized, Jesus fasted for forty days and nights
in the Judaean Desert. During this time, the devil ap-
peared to Jesus and tempted him. Jesus having refused
each temptation, the devil departed and angels came and
brought nourishment to Jesus.

4.2. MINISTRY 13
4.2.3 Calling the disciples and early Min-
istry
See also: First disciples of Jesus
The calling of the first disciples is a key episode in the
Calling of the disciples and the miraculous catch of fish, by
Raphael, 1515
gospels which begins the active ministry of Jesus, and
builds the foundation for the group of people who fol-
low him, and later form the early Church.[78][79]
It takes
place in Matthew 4:18-22, Mark 1:16-20 and Luke 5:1-
11 on the Sea of Galilee. John 1:35-51 reports the first
encounter with two of the disciples a little earlier in the
presence of John the Baptist. Particularly in the Gospel
of Mark the beginning of the ministry of Jesus and the
call of the first disciples are inseparable.[80]
In the Gospel of Luke (5:1–11),[81]
the event is part of
the first miraculous catch of fish and results in Peter as
well as James and John, the sons of Zebedee, joining Je-
sus vocationally as disciples.[82][83][84]
The gathering of
the disciples in John 1:35-51 follows the many patterns
of discipleship that continue in the New Testament, in
that who have received someone else’s witness become
witnesses to Jesus themselves. Andrew follows Jesus be-
cause of the testimony of John the Baptist, Philip brings
Nathanael and the pattern continues in John 4:4-26 where
the Samaritan Woman at the Well testifies to the town
people about Jesus.[85]
This early period also includes the first miracle of Jesus in
the Marriage at Cana, in the Gospel of John where Jesus
and his disciples are invited to a wedding and when the
wine runs out Jesus turns water into wine by performing
a miracle.[86][87]
4.2.4 Ministry and miracles in Galilee
Jesus’ activities in Galillee include a number of mira-
cles and teachings. The beginnings of this period include
The Centurion’s Servant (8:5-13) and Calming the storm
(Matthew 8:23-27) both dealing with the theme of faith
overcoming fear.[88][89][90]
In this period, Jesus also gath-
ers disciples, e.g. calls Matthew.[91]
The Commissioning
the twelve Apostles relates the initial selection of the
twelve Apostles among the disciples of Jesus.[92][93][94]
In the Mission Discourse, Jesus instructs the twelve apos-
tles who are named in Matthew 10:2-3 to carry no be-
longings as they travel from city to city and preach.[48][49]
Separately in Luke 10:1-24 relates the Seventy Disciples,
where Jesus appoints a larger number of disciples and
sent them out in pairs with the Missionary’s Mandate to
go into villages before Jesus’ arrival there.[95]
Walking on water, by Veneziano, 1370
After hearing of the Baptist’s death, Jesus withdraws by
boat privately to a solitary place near Bethsaida, where he
addresses the crowds who had followed him on foot from
the towns, and feeds them all by "five loaves and two fish"
supplied by a boy.[96]
Following this, the gospels present
the Walking on water episode in Matthew 14:22-23, Mark
6:45-52 and John 6:16-21 as an important step in devel-
oping the relationship between Jesus and his disciples, at
this stage of his ministry.[97]
The episode emphasizes the
importance of faith by stating that when he attempted to
walk on water, Peter began to sink when he lost faith and
became afraid, and at the end of the episode, the disci-
ples increase their faith in Jesus and in Matthew 14:33
they say: “Of a truth thou art the Son of God”.[98]
Major teachings in this period include the Discourse on
Defilement in Matthew 15:1–20 and Mark 7:1–23 where
in response to a complaint from the Pharisees Jesus states:
“What goes into a man’s mouth does not make him 'un-
clean,' but what comes out of his mouth, that is what
makes him 'unclean.'".[99]
Following this episode Jesus withdraws into the “parts
of Tyre and Sidon" near the Mediterranean Sea where
the Canaanite woman’s daughter episode takes place in
Matthew 15:21–28 and Mark 7:24-30.[100]
This episode
is an example of how Jesus emphasizes the value of faith,
telling the woman: “Woman, you have great faith! Your
request is granted.”[100]
The importance of faith is also
emphasized in the Cleansing ten lepers episode in Luke
17:11-19.[101][102]
In the Gospel of Mark, after passing through Sidon Jesus
enters the region of the Decapolis, a group of ten cities
south east of Galilee, where the Healing the deaf mute
miracle is reported in Mark 7:31-37, where after the heal-
ing, the disciples say: “He even makes the deaf hear and
the mute speak.” The episode is the last in a series of nar-

rated miracles which builds up to Peter’s proclamation of
Jesus as Christ in Mark 8:29.[103]
4.2.5 Proclamation as Christ
Main article: Confession of Peter
The Confession of Peter refers to an episode in the New
Pietro Perugino's depiction of the “Giving of the Keys to Saint
Peter” by Jesus, 1492
Testament in which in response to Jesus’ question to his
disciples: “Who do you say that I am?" Apostle Pe-
ter proclaims Jesus to be Christ - the expected Messiah.
The proclamation is described in the three Synoptic
Gospels: Matthew 16:13-20, Mark 8:27–30 and Luke
9:18–20.[104][105]
Peter’s Confession begins as a dialogue between Jesus and
his disciples in which Jesus begins to ask about the current
opinions about himself among “the multitudes”, asking:
“Who do the multitudes say that I am?"[104]
The disciples
provide a variety of the common hypotheses at the time.
Jesus then asks his disciples about their own opinion: But
who do you say that I am? Only Simon Peter answers
him: You are the Christ, the Son of the living God.[105][106]
In Matthew 16:17 Jesus blesses Peter for his answer,
and later indicates him as the rock of the Church, and
states that he will give Peter “the keys of the kingdom of
heaven”.[107]
In blessing Peter, Jesus not only accepts the titles Christ
and Son of God which Peter attributes to him, but declares
the proclamation a divine revelation by stating that his
Father in Heaven had revealed it to Peter.[108]
In this as-
sertion, by endorsing both titles as divine revelation, Jesus
unequivocally declares himself to be both Christ and the
Son of God.[108]
The proclamation of Jesus as Christ is
fundamental to Christology and the Confession of Peter,
and Jesus’ acceptance of the title is a definitive statement
for it in the New Testament narrative.[109]
While some of
this passage may well be authentic, the reference to Jesus
as Christ and Son of God is likely to be an addition by
Matthew.[110]
4.2.6 Transfiguration
Main article: Transfiguration of Jesus
The Transfiguration of Jesus is an episode in the
Transfiguration by Alexandr Ivanov, 1824
New Testament narrative in which Jesus is transfigured
(or metamorphosed) and becomes radiant upon a
mountain.[111][112]
The Synoptic Gospels (Matthew 17:1–
9, Mark 9:2-8, Luke 9:28–36) describe it, and 2 Peter
1:16–18 refers to it.[111]
In these accounts, Jesus and three
of his apostles go to a mountain (the Mount of Transfig-
uration). On the mountain, Jesus begins to shine with
bright rays of light. Then the prophets Moses and Elijah
appear next to him and he speaks with them. Jesus is then
called "Son" by a voice in the sky, assumed to be God the
Father, as in the Baptism of Jesus.[111]
The Transfiguration is one of the miracles of Jesus in the
Gospels.[112][113][114]
This miracle is unique among others
that appear in the Canonical gospels, in that the miracle
happens to Jesus himself.[115]
Thomas Aquinas consid-
ered the Transfiguration “the greatest miracle” in that it
complemented baptism and showed the perfection of life
in Heaven.[116]
The Transfiguration is one of the five ma-
jor milestones in the gospel narrative of the life of Jesus,
the others being Baptism, Crucifixion, Resurrection, and
Ascension.[40][41]
In the New Testament, Transfiguration
is a pivotal moment, and the setting on the mountain is
presented as the point where human nature meets God:
the meeting place for the temporal and the eternal, with
Jesus himself as the connecting point, acting as the bridge
between heaven and earth.[117]
4.2.7 Final journey to Jerusalem
After the death of John the baptist and the Transfigura-
tion, Jesus starts his final journey to Jerusalem, having
predicted his own death there.[13][118][119]
The Gospel of
John states that during the final journey Jesus returned to
the area where he was baptized, and John 10:40-42 states
that “many people believed in him beyond the Jordan”,
saying “all things whatsoever John spake of this man were
true”.[54][55][56]
The area where Jesus was baptised is in-
ferred as the vicinity of the Perea area, given the activities

4.3. PASSION 15
Sixth century mosaic of the Raising of Lazarus, church of
Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna, Italy.
of the Baptist in Bethabara and Ænon in John 1:28 and
3:23.[120][121]
Scholars generally assume that the route Je-
sus followed from Galilee to Jerusalem passed through
Perea.[56]
This period of ministry includes the Discourse on the
Church in which Jesus anticipates a future community of
followers, and explains the role of his apostles in lead-
ing it.[122][123]
It includes the parables of The Lost Sheep
and The Unforgiving Servant in Matthew 18 which also
refer to the Kingdom of Heaven. The general theme
of the discourse is the anticipation of a future commu-
nity of followers, and the role of his apostles in leading
it.[123][124]
Addressing his apostles in 18:18, Jesus states:
“what things soever ye shall bind on earth shall be bound
in heaven; and what things soever ye shall loose on earth
shall be loosed in heaven”. The discourse emphasizes
the importance of humility and self-sacrifice as the high
virtues within the anticipated community. It teaches that
in the Kingdom of God, it is childlike humility that mat-
ters, not social prominence and clout.[123][124]
At the end of this period, the Gospel of John includes
the Raising of Lazarus episode in John 11:1-46 in which
Jesus brings Lazarus of Bethany back to life four days
after his burial.[57]
In the Gospel of John, the raising of
Lazarus is the climax of the “seven signs” which gradually
confirm the identity of Jesus as the Son of God and the
expected Messiah.[125]
It is also a pivotal episode which
starts the chain of events that leads to the crowds seeking
Jesus on his Triumphal entry into Jerusalem - leading to
the decision of Caiaphas and the Sanhedrin to plan to kill
Jesus.[126]
4.2.8 Final week in Jerusalem
See also: Triumphal entry into Jerusalem
The description of the last week of the life of Jesus (often
The Last Supper has been depicted by many artistic masters.[127]
called the Passion week) occupies about one third of the
narrative in the canonical gospels.[58]
The narrative for
that week starts by a description of the final entry into
Jerusalem, and ends with his crucifixion.[57][128]
The last week in Jerusalem is the conclusion of the jour-
ney which Jesus had started in Galilee through Perea and
Judea.[57]
Just before the account of the final entry of
Jesus into Jerusalem, the Gospel of John includes the
Raising of Lazarus episode, which builds the tension be-
tween Jesus and the authorities. At the beginning of
the week as Jesus enters Jerusalem, he is greeted by the
cheering crowds, adding to that tension.[57]
The week begins with the Triumphal entry into
Jerusalem. During the week of his “final ministry in
Jerusalem”, Jesus visits the Temple, and has a conflict
with the money changers about their use of the Temple
for commercial purposes. This is followed by a debate
with the priests and the elder in which his authority is
questioned. One of his disciples, Judas Iscariot, decides
to betray Jesus for thirty pieces of silver.[129]
Towards the end of the week, Jesus has the Last Sup-
per with his disciples, during which he institutes the
Eucharist, and prepares them for his departure in the
Farewell Discourse. After the supper, Jesus is betrayed
with a kiss while he is in agony in the garden, and is
arrested. After his arrest, Jesus is abandoned by most of
his disciples, and Peter denies him three times, as Jesus
had predicted during the Last Supper.[130][131]
The final
week that begins with his entry into Jerusalem, concludes
with his crucifixion and burial on that Friday.
4.3 Passion

4.3.1 Betrayal and arrest
Main articles: Agony in the Garden, Kiss of Judas and
Arrest of Jesus
See also: Holy Hour
In Matthew 26:36-46, Mark 14:32-42, Luke 22:39-46
Kiss of Judas (1304–06), fresco by Giotto, Scrovegni Chapel,
Padua, Italy
and John 18:1, immediately after the Last Supper, Jesus
takes a walk to pray, Matthew and Mark identifying this
place of prayer as Garden of Gethsemane.[132][133]
Jesus is accompanied by Peter, John and James the
Greater, whom he asks to “remain here and keep watch
with me.” He moves “a stone’s throw away” from them,
where he feels overwhelming sadness and says “My
Father, if it is possible, let this cup pass me by. Nev-
ertheless, let it be as you, not I, would have it.”[133]
Only
the Gospel of Luke mentions the details of the sweat of
blood of Jesus and the visitation of the angel who com-
forts Jesus as he accepts the will of the Father. Returning
to the disciples after prayer, he finds them asleep and in
Matthew 26:40 he asks Peter: “So, could you men not
keep watch with me for an hour?"[133]
While in the Garden, Judas appears, accompanied by a
crowd that includes the Jewish priests and elders and peo-
ple with weapons. Judas gives Jesus a kiss to identify him
to the crowd who then arrests Jesus.[133][134]
One of Je-
sus’ disciples tries to stop them and uses a sword to cut
off the ear of one of the men in the crowd.[133][134]
Luke
states that Jesus miraculously healed the wound and John
and Matthew state that Jesus criticized the violent act, in-
sisting that his disciples should not resist his arrest. In
Matthew 26:52 Jesus makes the well known statement:
all who live by the sword, shall die by the sword.[133][134]
4.3.2 Trials
Main articles: Sanhedrin trial of Jesus, Pilate’s court and
Jesus at Herod’s court
See also: Ecce homo
In the narrative of the four canonical gospels after the
Jesus about to be struck in front of the High Priest Annas, as in
John 18:22, depicted by Madrazo, 1803.
betrayal and arrest of Jesus, he is taken to the Sanhedrin,
a Jewish judicial body.[135]
Jesus is tried by the San-
hedrin, mocked and beaten and is condemned for making
claims of being the Son of God.[134][136][137]
He is then
taken to Pontius Pilate and the Jewish elders ask Pilate to
judge and condemn Jesus—accusing him of claiming to
be the King of the Jews.[137]
After questioning, with few
replies provided by Jesus, Pilate publicly declares that he
finds Jesus innocent, but the crowd insists on punishment.
Pilate then orders Jesus’ crucifixion.[134][136][137][138]
Al-
though the Gospel accounts vary with respect to various
details, they agree on the general character and overall
structure of the trials of Jesus.[138]
After the Sanhedrin trial Jesus is taken to Pilate’s court in
the praetorium. Only in the Gospel of Luke, finding that
Jesus, being from Galilee, belonged to Herod Antipas' ju-
risdiction, Pilate decides to send Jesus to Herod. Herod
Antipas (the same man who had previously ordered the
death of John the Baptist) had wanted to see Jesus for a
long time, because he had been hoping to observe one
of the miracles of Jesus.[139]
However, Jesus says almost
nothing in response to Herod’s questions, or the vehement
accusations of the chief priests and the scribes. Herod
and his soldiers mock Jesus, put a gorgeous robe on him,
as the King of the Jews, and sent him back to Pilate. And
Herod and Pilate become friends with each other that day:
for before they were at enmity.[140]
After questioning Je-
sus and receiving very few replies, Herod sees Jesus as no
threat and returns him to Pilate.[141]
After Jesus’ return from Herod’s court, Pilate publicly de-
clares that he finds Jesus to be innocent of the charges,
but the crowd insists on capital punishment. The uni-
versal rule of the Roman Empire limited capital punish-

4.4. RESURRECTION AND ASCENSION 17
ment strictly to the tribunal of the Roman governor[142]
and Pilate decided to publicly wash his hands as not be-
ing privy to Jesus’ death. Pilate thus presents himself as
an advocate pleading Jesus’ case rather than as a judge
in an official hearing, yet he orders the crucifixion of
Jesus.[143][144][145]
4.3.3 Crucifixion and burial
Main articles: Crucifixion of Jesus and Entombment of
Christ
See also: Sayings of Jesus on the cross
Jesus’ crucifixion is described in all four canonical
The Crucifixion (1622) by Simon Vouet; Church of Jesus, Genoa
gospels, and is attested to by other sources of that age
(e.g. Josephus and Tacitus), and is regarded as an histor-
ical event.[146][147][148]
After the trials, Jesus made his way to Calvary (the path
is traditionally called via Dolorosa) and the three synoptic
gospels indicate that he was assisted by Simon of Cyrene,
the Romans compelling him to do so.[149][150]
In Luke
23:27-28 Jesus tells the women in multitude of people
following him not to cry for him but for themselves and
their children.[149]
Once at Calvary (Golgotha), Jesus was
offered wine mixed with gall to drink — usually offered
as a form of painkiller. Matthew’s and Mark’s gospels
state that he refused this.[149][150]
The soldiers then crucified Jesus and cast lots for his
clothes. Above Jesus’ head on the cross was the in-
scription King of the Jews, and the soldiers and those
passing by mocked him about the title. Jesus was cru-
cified between two convicted thieves, one of whom re-
buked Jesus, while the other defended him.[149][151]
Each
gospel has its own account of Jesus’ last words, com-
prising the seven last sayings on the cross.[152][153][154]
In
John 19:26-27 Jesus entrusts his mother to the disciple
he loved and in Luke 23:34 he states: “Father, forgive
them; for they know not what they do”, usually inter-
preted as his forgiveness of the Roman soldiers and the
others involved.[152][155][156][157]
In the three synoptic gospels, various supernatural events
accompany the crucifixion, including darkness of the
sky, an earthquake, and (in Matthew) the resurrection of
saints.[150]
The tearing of the temple veil, upon the death
of Jesus, is referenced in the synoptic.[150]
The Roman
soldiers did not break Jesus’ legs, as they did to the other
two men crucified (breaking the legs hastened the cruci-
fixion process), as Jesus was dead already; this further ful-
filled prophecy, as noted in John 19:36, “For these things
were done, that the scripture should be fulfilled, A bone
of him shall not be broken.” One of the soldiers pierced
the side of Jesus with a lance and blood and water flowed
out.[151]
In Mark 15:39, impressed by the events the Ro-
man centurion calls Jesus the Son of God.[149][150][158][159]
Following Jesus’ death on Friday, Joseph of Arimathea
asked the permission of Pilate to remove the body. The
body was removed from the cross, was wrapped in a clean
cloth and buried in a new rock-hewn tomb, with the assis-
tance of Nicodemus.[149]
In Matthew 27:62-66 the Jews
go to Pilate the day after the crucifixion and ask for guards
for the tomb and also seal the tomb with a stone as well as
the guard, to be sure the body remains there.[149][160][161]
4.4 Resurrection and Ascension
Main article: Resurrection of Jesus
See also: Empty tomb and Resurrection of Jesus in Chris-
tian art
The gospels state that the first day of the week after the
crucifixion (typically interpreted as a Sunday), The fol-
lowers of Jesus encounter him risen from the dead, after
his tomb was discovered to be empty.[5][6][162][163]
The
New Testament does not include an account of the “mo-
ment of resurrection” and in the Eastern Church icons do
not depict that moment, but show the Myrrhbearers, and
depict scenes of salvation.[164][165]
The resurrected Jesus then appears to his followers that
day and a number of times thereafter, delivers sermons
and has supper with some of them, before ascending to
Heaven. The gospels of Luke and Mark include brief
mentions of the Ascension, but the main references to
it are elsewhere in the New Testament.[5][6][163]

Resurrection by Lucas Cranach, 1558
The four gospels have variations in their account of the
resurrection of Jesus and his appearances, but there are
four points at which all gospels converge:[166]
the turn-
ing of the stone that had closed the tomb, the visit of
the women on “the first day of the week;" that the risen
Jesus chose first to appear to women (or a woman) and
told them (her) to inform the other disciples; the promi-
nence of Mary Magdalene in the accounts.[164][167]
Vari-
ants have to do with the precise time the women visited
the tomb, the number and identity of the women; the pur-
pose of their visit; the appearance of the messenger(s)—
angelic or human; their message to the women; and the
response of the women.[164]
In Matthew 28:5, Mark 16:5, Luke 24:4 and John 20:12
his resurrection is announced and explained to the follow-
ers who arrive there early in the morning by either one or
two beings (either men or angels) dressed in bright robes
who appear in or near the tomb.[5][6][163]
The gospel ac-
counts vary as to who arrived at the tomb first, but they
are women and are instructed by the risen Jesus to inform
the other disciples. All four accounts include Mary Mag-
dalene and three include Mary the mother of Jesus. The
accounts of Mark 16:9, John 20:15 indicate that Jesus ap-
peared to the Magdalene first, and Luke 16:9 states that
she was among the Myrrhbearers who informed the dis-
ciples about the resurrection.[5][6][163]
In Matthew 28:11-
15, to explain the empty tomb, the Jewish elders bribe the
soldiers who had guarded the tomb to spread the rumor
that Jesus’ disciples took his body.[6]
4.4.1 Resurrection appearances
Main article: Resurrection appearances of Jesus
See also: Noli me tangere, Doubting Thomas, Great
Commission and Road to Emmaus appearance
After the discovery of the empty tomb, the gospels in-
Noli me Tangere by Antonio da Correggio, c. 1534
dicate that Jesus made a series of appearances to the
disciples.[5][6]
In John 20:15-17 Jesus appears to Mary Magdalene soon
after his resurrection. At first she does not recognize him
and thinks that he is the gardener. When he says her
name, she recognizes him yet he tells her Noli me Tan-
gere, do not touch me, “for I am not yet ascended to my
Father.”
Later that day, at evening, Jesus appears to the disciples
and shows them the wounds in his hands and his side in
John 20:19-21. Thomas the Apostle is not present at that
meeting and later expresses doubt about the resurrection
of Jesus. As Thomas is expressing his doubts, in the well
known Doubting Thomas episode in John 20:24-29 Je-
sus appears to him and invites him to put his finger into
the holes made by the wounds in Jesus’ hands and side.
Thomas then professes his faith in Jesus. In Matthew
28:16–20, in the Great Commission Jesus appears to his
followers on a mountain in Galilee and calls on them to
baptize all nations in the name of the “Father, Son, and
Holy Spirit”.

4.5. SEE ALSO 19
Luke 24:13-32 describes the Road to Emmaus appear-
ance in which while a disciple named Cleopas was walk-
ing towards Emmaus with another disciple, they met Je-
sus, who later has supper with them. Mark 16:12-13 has
a similar account that describes the appearance of Jesus
to two disciples while they were walking in the country,
at about the same time in the Gospel narrative.[168]
In the
Miraculous catch of 153 ﬁsh Jesus appears to his disci-
ples on the Sea of Galilee, and thereafter Jesus encour-
ages Apostle Peter to serve his followers.[5][6][163]
4.4.2 Ascension
Main article: Ascension of Jesus
See also: Ascension of Jesus in Christian art
The Ascension of Jesus (anglicized from the Vulgate
Ascension of Christ by Garofalo 1520
Latin Acts 1:9-11 section title: Ascensio Iesu) is the
Christian teaching found in the New Testament that the
resurrected Jesus was taken up to heaven in his resur-
rected body, in the presence of eleven of his apostles,
occurring 40 days after the resurrection. In the biblical
narrative, an angel tells the watching disciples that Jesus’
second coming will take place in the same manner as his
ascension.[169]
The canonical gospels include two brief descriptions of
the Ascension of Jesus in Luke 24:50-53 and Mark 16:19,
in which it takes place on Easter Sunday.[170]
A more de-
tailed account of Jesus’ bodily Ascension into the clouds
is given in the Acts of the Apostles (1:9-11) where the
narrative starts with the account of Jesus’ appearances af-
ter his resurrection and describes the event as taking place
forty days later.[171][172]
Acts 1:9-12 speciﬁes the location of the Ascension as the
"mount called Olivet" near Jerusalem. Acts 1:3 states that
Jesus: :"showed himself alive after his passion by many
proofs, appearing unto them by the space of forty days,
and speaking the things concerning the kingdom of God”.
After giving a number of instructions to the apostles Acts
1:9 describes the Ascension as follows:"And when he had
said these things, as they were looking, he was taken up;
and a cloud received him out of their sight.” Following
this two men clothed in white appear and tell the apostles
that Jesus will return in the same manner as he was taken,
and the apostles return to Jerusalem.[172]
In Acts 2:30-33, Ephesians 4:8-10 and 1 Timothy 3:16
(where Jesus as taken up in glory) the Ascension is spoken
of as an accepted fact, while Hebrews 10:12 describes
Jesus as seated in heaven.[173]
4.5 See also
Gospels, chronology and historicity
• Baptism of Jesus
• Christ myth theory
• Chronology of Jesus
• Detailed Christian timeline
• Gospel harmony
• Historical Jesus
• Jesus in Christianity
• Life of Christ in art
• Life of Jesus in the New Testament
• Ministry of Jesus
• Timeline of the Bible
Associated sites
• Ænon
• Al Maghtas
• Bethabara
• New Testament places associated with Jesus
• Qasr el Yahud

4.6 Notes
[1] Medieval Italy: An Encyclopedia by Christopher Klein-
henz (Nov 2003) Routledge, ISBN 0415939305 page 310
[2] Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey by
Craig L. Blomberg 2009 ISBN 0-8054-4482-3 pages 441-
442
[3] The encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 4 by Erwin
Fahlbusch, 2005 ISBN 978-0-8028-2416-5 pages 52-56
[4] The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary by Craig
A. Evans 2003 ISBN 0-7814-3868-3 pages 465-477
[5] The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary: Matthew-
Luke, Volume 1 by Craig A. Evans 2003 ISBN 0-7814-
3868-3 pages 521-530
[6] The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament edited
by John F. Walvoord, Roy B. Zuck 1983 ISBN 978-0-
88207-812-0 page 91
Aubrey Bullard 1998 ISBN 0-86554-373-9 p. 556
[8] Jesus and the Gospels by Clive Marsh, Steve Moyise 2006
ISBN 0-567-04073-9 p. 37
[9] The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospelsy Douglas Red-
ford 2007 ISBN 0-7847-1900-4 pages 117-130
[10] Christianity: an introduction by Alister E. McGrath 2006
ISBN 978-1-4051-0901-7 pages 16-22
[11] The Christology of Mark’s Gospel by Jack Dean Kingsbury
1983 ISBN 0-8006-2337-1 pages 91-95
[12] The Cambridge companion to the Gospels by Stephen C.
Barton ISBN 0-521-00261-3 pages 132-133
[13] St Mark’s Gospel and the Christian faith by Michael Keene
2002 ISBN 0-7487-6775-4 pages 24-25
[14] The people’s New Testament commentary by M. Eugene
Boring, Fred B. Craddock 2004 ISBN 0-664-22754-6
pages 256-258
3868-3 page 381-395
[16] All the Apostles of the Bible by Herbert Lockyer 1988
ISBN 0-310-28011-7 page 106-111
[17] The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 4 by Erwin
Fahlbusch, 2005 ISBN 978-0-8028-2416-5 pages 52-56
3868-3 pages 521-530
88207-812-0 page 91
[20] Luke 3:23–38 Matthew 1:1–17
[21] Where Christology began: essays on Philippians 2 by Ralph
P. Martin, Brian J. Dodd 1998 ISBN 0-664-25619-8 page
28
[22] The purpose of the Biblical genealogies by Marshall D.
Johnson 1989 ISBN 0-521-35644-X pages 229-233
[23] Joseph A. Fitzmyer, The Gospel According to Luke I–IX.
Anchor Bible. Garden City: Doubleday, 1981, pp. 499–
500.
[24] I. Howard Marshall, The Gospel of Luke (The New Inter-
national Greek Testament Commentary). Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 1978, p. 158.
[25] The Gospel of Luke by William Barclay 2001 ISBN 0-664-
22487-3 pages 49-50
[26] Luke: an introduction and commentary by Leon Morris
1988 ISBN 0-8028-0419-5 page 110
[27] Cox (2007) pp. 285-286
[28] Marcus J. Borg, John Dominic Crossan, The First Christ-
mas (HarperCollins, 2009) page 95.
[29] “biblical literature.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Ency-
clopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica,
2011. Web. 22 January 2011. .
[30] Mark D. Roberts Can We Trust the Gospels?: Investigating
the Reliability of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John Good
News Publishers, 2007 p. 102
[31] Casey, Maurice (2010). Jesus of Nazareth: An Inde-
pendent Historian’s Account of His Life and Teaching.
Bloomsbury. pp. 145–6.
[32] The Gospel of Matthew by Daniel J. Harrington 1991
ISBN 0-8146-5803-2 p. 47
[33] Vermes, Géza (2006-11-02). The Nativity: History and
Legend. Penguin Books Ltd. p. 64. ISBN 0-14-102446-
1.
[34] Sanders, E. P. The historical ﬁgure of Jesus. Penguin,
1993. pp. 85–88.
[35] Jeremy Corley New Perspectives on the Nativity Contin-
uum International Publishing Group, 2009 p. 22.
[36] Interpreting Gospel Narratives: Scenes, People, and The-
ology by Timothy Wiarda 2010 ISBN 0-8054-4843-8 pp.
75–78
[37] Jesus, the Christ: Contemporary Perspectives by Brennan
R. Hill 2004 ISBN 1-58595-303-2 p. 89
[38] The Gospel of Luke by Timothy Johnson 1992 ISBN 0-
8146-5805-9 p. 72
[39] Recovering Jesus: the witness of the New Testament
Thomas R. Yoder Neufeld 2007 ISBN 1-58743-202-1 p.
111
[40] Essays in New Testament interpretation by Charles Francis
Digby Moule 1982 ISBN 0-521-23783-1 page 63
[41] The Melody of Faith: Theology in an Orthodox Key by Vi-
gen Guroian 2010 ISBN 0-8028-6496-1 page 28

4.6. NOTES 21
[42] Scripture in tradition by John Breck 2001 ISBN 0-88141-
226-0 page 12
[43] The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to
the New Testament by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott
Kellum 2009 ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 page 114
[44] Paul L. Maier “The Date of the Nativity and Chronology
of Jesus” in Chronos, kairos, Christos: nativity and chrono-
logical studies by Jerry Vardaman, Edwin M. Yamauchi
1989 ISBN 0-931464-50-1 pages 113-129
[45] Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New
Testament Times by Paul Barnett 2002 ISBN 0-8308-
2699-8 pages 19-21
[46] Sanders, E. P. (1993). “The Historical Figure of Jesus”.
pp. 11, 249.
[47] The Gospel according to Matthew by Leon Morris ISBN
0-85111-338-9 page 71
[48] A theology of the New Testament by George Eldon Ladd
1993ISBN page 324
[49] The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels by Douglas
Redford 2007 ISBN 0-7847-1900-4 pages 143-160
[50] Steven L. Cox, Kendell H Easley, 2007 Harmony of the
Gospels ISBN 0-8054-9444-8 pages 97-110
Gospels ISBN 0-8054-9444-8 page 137
Aubrey Bullard 1998 ISBN 0-86554-373-9 page 929
[58] Matthew by David L. Turner 2008 ISBN 0-8010-2684-9
page 613
[59] Jesus in the Synagogue of Capernaum: The Pericope and its
Programmatic Character for the Gospel of Mark by John
Chijioke Iwe 1991 ISBN 9788876528460 page 7
[60] The Sermon on the mount: a theological investigation by
Carl G. Vaught 2001 ISBN 978-0-918954-76-3 pages xi-
xiv
[61] The Synoptics: Matthew, Mark, Luke by Ján Majerník,
Joseph Ponessa, Laurie Watson Manhardt, 2005, ISBN
1-931018-31-6, pages 63–68
[62] Medieval art: a topical dictionary by Leslie Ross 1996
ISBN 978-0-313-29329-0 page 30
[63] Jesus of history, Christ of faith by Thomas Zanzig 2000
ISBN 0-88489-530-0 page 118
[64] The Gospel and Epistles of John: A Concise Commen-
tary by Raymond Edward Brown 1988 ISBN 978-0-8146-
1283-5 pages 25-27
[65] Harrington, Daniel J., SJ. “Jesus Goes Public.” America,
Jan. 7-14, 2008, pp.38ﬀ
[66] [Mt 3:13-17]
[67] 2 Cor. 5:21; Hebrews 4:15; 1 Peter 3:18
[68] Pope Benedict XVI. Jesus of Nazareth. Doubleday Reli-
gion, 2007. ISBN 978-0-385-52341-7
[69] [Mt 3:17] [Mk 1:11] [Lk 3:21-22]
ISBN 0-8146-5803-2 page 63
[71] Christianity: A Biblical, Historical, and Theological Guide
by Glenn Jonas, Kathryn Muller Lopez 2010 ISBN pages
95-96
[72] Studying the historical Jesus: evaluations of the state of
current research by Bruce Chilton, Craig A. Evans 1998
ISBN 90-04-11142-5 page 187-198
[73] Jesus as a ﬁgure in history: how modern historians view
the man from Galilee by Mark Allan Powell 1998 ISBN
0-664-25703-8 page 47
[74] Jesus Remembered by James D. G. Dunn 2003 ISBN 0-
8028-3931-2 page 339
[75] Matthew 4:1-11, New International Version
[76] Mark 1:12-13, NIV
[77] Luke 4:1-13, NIV
[78] The Gospel according to Matthew by Leon Morris 1992
ISBN 0-85111-338-9 pages 83
[79] Luke by Fred B. Craddock 1991 ISBN 0-8042-3123-0
page 69
[80] The beginning of the Gospel: introducing the Gospel ac-
cording to Mark by Eugene LaVerdiere 1999 ISBN 0-
8146-2478-2 page 49
[81] “Luke 5:1-11, New International Version”. Biblegateway.
Retrieved 2012-07-18.
[82] John Clowes, The Miracles of Jesus Christ published by
J. Gleave, Manchester, UK, 1817, page 214, available on
Google books
[83] The Gospel of Luke by Timothy Johnson, Daniel J. Har-
rington, 1992 ISBN 0-8146-5805-9 page 89
[84] The Gospel of Luke, by Joel B. Green 1997 ISBN 0-8028-
2315-7 page 230
[85] John by Gail R. O'Day, Susan Hylen 2006 ISBN 0-664-
25260-5 page 31
[86] H. Van der Loos, 1965 The Miracles of Jesus, E.J. Brill
Press, Netherlands page 599

[87] Dmitri Royster 1999 The miracles of Christ ISBN 0-
88141-193-0 page 71
[88] The Gospel according to Matthew: an introduction and
commentary by R. T. France 1987 ISBN 0-8028-0063-7
page 154
[89] Michael Keene 2002 St Mark’s Gospel and the Christian
faith ISBN 0-7487-6775-4 page 26
[90] John Clowes, 1817 The Miracles of Jesus Christ published
by J. Gleave, Manchester, UK page 47
[91] The Gospel of Matthew by R. T. France 2007 ISBN 0-
8028-2501-X page 349
[92] The first gospel by Harold Riley, 1992 ISBN 0-86554-
409-3 page 47
[94] The life of Jesus by David Friedrich Strauss, 1860 pub-
lished by Calvin Blanchard, page 340
[95] Luke by Sharon H. Ringe 1995 ISBN 0-664-25259-1
pages 151-152
[96] Robert Maguire 1863 The miracles of Christ published by
Weeks and Co. London page 185
[97] Merrill Chapin Tenney 1997 John: Gospel of Belief ISBN
0-8028-4351-4 page 114
[98] Dwight Pentecost 2000 The words and works of Jesus
Christ ISBN 0-310-30940-9 page 234
[99] Jesus the miracle worker: a historical & theological study
by Graham H. Twelftree 1999 ISBN 0-8308-1596-1 page
79
[100] Jesus the miracle worker: a historical & theological study
by Graham H. Twelftree 1999 ISBN 0-8308-1596-1
pages 133-134
[101] Berard L. Marthaler 2007 The creed: the apostolic faith in
contemporary theology ISBN 0-89622-537-2 page 220
[102] Lockyer, Herbert, 1988 All the Miracles of the Bible ISBN
0-310-28101-6 page 235
[103] Lamar Williamson 1983 Mark ISBN 0-8042-3121-4
pages 138-140
[104] The Collegeville Bible Commentary: New Testament by
Robert J. Karris 1992 ISBN 0-8146-2211-9 pages 885-
886
[105] Who do you say that I am? Essays on Christology by
Jack Dean Kingsbury, Mark Allan Powell, David R. Bauer
1999 ISBN 0-664-25752-6 page xvi
[106] Christology and the New Testament by Christopher Mark
Tuckett 2001 ISBN 0-664-22431-8 page 109
[107] The people’s New Testament commentary by M. Eugene
Boring, Fred B. Craddock 2004 ISBN 0-664-22754-6
page 69
[108] One teacher: Jesus’ teaching role in Matthew’s gospel by
John Yueh-Han Yieh 2004 ISBN 3-11-018151-7 pages
240-241
[109] The Gospel of Matthew by Rudolf Schnackenburg 2002
ISBN 0-8028-4438-3 pages 7-9
[110] Casey, Maurice (2010). Jesus of Nazareth. Bloomsbury.
pp. 188–189.
[111] Transfiguration by Dorothy A. Lee 2005 ISBN 978-0-
8264-7595-4 pages 21-30
[112] Lockyer, Herbert, 1988 All the Miracles of the Bible ISBN
0-310-28101-6 page 213
[113] Clowes, John, 1817, The Miracles of Jesus Christ pub-
lished by J. Gleave, Manchester, UK page 167
[114] Henry Rutter, Evangelical harmony Keating and Brown,
London 1803. page 450
[115] Karl Barth Church dogmatics ISBN 0-567-05089-0 page
478
[116] Nicholas M. Healy, 2003 Thomas Aquinas: theologian of
the Christian life ISBN 978-0-7546-1472-2 page 100
[117] Transfiguration by Dorothy A. Lee 2005 ISBN 978-0-
8264-7595-4 page 2
[118] The temptations of Jesus in Mark’s Gospel by Susan R. Gar-
rett 1996 ISBN 978-0-8028-4259-6 pages 74-75
[119] Matthew for Everyone by Tom Wright 2004 ISBN 0-664-
22787-2 page 9
[120] Big Picture of the Bible - New Testament by Lorna Daniels
Nichols 2009 ISBN 1-57921-928-4 page 12
[121] John by Gerard Stephen Sloyan 1987 ISBN 0-8042-3125-
7 page 11
[122] Preaching Matthew’s Gospel by Richard A. Jensen 1998
ISBN 978-0-7880-1221-1 pages 25 & 158
[123] Behold the King: A Study of Matthew by Stanley D. Tous-
saint 2005 ISBN 0-8254-3845-4 pages 215-216
[124] Matthew by Larry Chouinard 1997 ISBN 0-89900-628-0
page 321
Kellum 2009 ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 pages 312-313
[126] Francis J. Moloney, Daniel J. Harrington, 1998 The
Gospel of John Liturgical Press ISBN 0-8146-5806-7
page 325
[127] Gospel figures in art by Stefano Zuffi 2003 ISBN 978-0-
89236-727-6 pages 254-259
Craig L. Blomberg 2009 ISBN 0-8054-4482-3 page 224-
229
[129] All the Apostles of the Bible by Herbert Lockyer 1988
ISBN 0-310-28011-7 page 106-111

4.6. NOTES 23
[130] Cox (2007) p. 182
[131] Craig A. Evans 2005 The Bible Knowledge Background
Commentary: John’s Gospel, Hebrews-Revelation ISBN 0-
7814-4228-1 page 122
[132] The Synoptics: Matthew, Mark, Luke by Ján Majerník,
Joseph Ponessa, Laurie Watson Manhardt 2005 ISBN 1-
931018-31-6 page 169
88207-812-0 pages 83-85
3868-3 page 487-500
[135] Brown, Raymond E. An Introduction to the New Testament
Doubleday 1997 ISBN 0-385-24767-2, p. 146.
Craig L. Blomberg 2009 ISBN 0-8054-4482-3 pages 396-
400
[137] Holman Concise Bible Dictionary 2011 ISBN 0-8054-
9548-7 pages 608-609
[138] The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia by Geof-
frey W. Bromiley 1982 ISBN 0-8028-3782-4 pages 1050-
1052
[139] Pontius Pilate: portraits of a Roman governor by Warren
Carter 2003 ISBN 978-0-8146-5113-1 pages 120-121
[140] New Testament History by Richard L. Niswonger 1992
ISBN 0-310-31201-9 page 172
[141] Bromiley, Geoffrey W. (1995), International Standard
Bible Encyclopedia. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. vol.
K-P. p. 929.
[142] International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. by Geoffrey
W. Bromiley 1982 vol. K-P, p. 979.
[143] Bond, Helen Katharine (1998). Pontius Pilate in History
and Interpretation. Cambridge University Press. p. 159.
ISBN 0-521-63114-9.
[144] Matthew (New Cambridge Bible Commentary) by Craig A.
Evans (Feb 6, 2012) ISBN 0521812143 page 454
[145] The Historical Jesus Through Catholic and Jewish Eyes by
Bryan F. Le Beau, Leonard J. Greenspoon and Dennis
Hamm (Nov 1, 2000) ISBN 1563383225 pages 105-106
[146] Funk, Robert W.; Jesus Seminar (1998). The acts of Je-
sus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. San Fran-
cisco: Harper.
[147] John Dominic Crossan, (1995) Jesus: A Revolutionary Bi-
ography HarperOne ISBN 0-06-061662-8 page 145. J. D.
Crossan, page 145 states: “that he was crucified is as sure
as anything historical can ever be.”
[148] The Word in this world by Paul William Meyer, John T.
Carroll 2004 ISBN 0-664-22701-5 page 112
3868-3 page 509-520
Kellum 2009 ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 pages 211-214
[151] Merriam-Webster’s encyclopedia of world religions by
Merriam-Webster, Inc. 1999 ISBN 978-0-87779-044-0
page 271
[152] Geoffrey W. Bromiley, International Standard Bible En-
cyclopedia, Eerdmans Press 1995, ISBN 0-8028-3784-0
page 426
[153] Joseph F. Kelly, An Introduction to the New Testament
2006 ISBN 978-0-8146-5216-9 page 153
[154] Jesus: the complete guide by Leslie Houlden 2006 ISBN
0-8264-8011-X page 627
[155] Vernon K. Robbins in Literary studies in Luke-Acts by
Richard P. Thompson (editor) 1998 ISBN 0-86554-563-4
pages 200-201
[157] Reading Luke-Acts: dynamics of Biblical narrative by
William S. Kurz 1993 ISBN 0-664-25441-1 page 201
[158] The Gospel according to Mark by George Martin 2o05
ISBN 0-8294-1970-5 page 440
[159] Mark by Allen Black 1995 ISBN 0-89900-629-9 page 280
ISBN 0-8146-5803-2 page 404
[161] The Gospel according to Matthew by Leon Morris ISBN
0-85111-338-9 page 727
[162] Matthew 28:1, Mark 16:9, Luke 24:1 and John 20:1
[163] Cox (2007) pp. 216-226
[164] Stagg, Evalyn and Frank. Woman in the World of Jesus.
Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1978, p. 144–150.
[165] Vladimir Lossky, 1982 The Meaning of Icons ISBN 978-
0-913836-99-6 page 185
[166] Mark 16:1–8, Matthew 28:1–8, Luke 24:1–12, and John
20:1–13
[167] Setzer, Claudia. “Excellent Women: Female Witness to
the Resurrection.” Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 116,
No. 2 (Summer, 1997), pp. 259–272
[168] Catholic Comparative New Testament by Oxford Univer-
sity Press 2006 ISBN 0-19-528299-X page 589
[169] “Ascension, The.” Macmillan Dictionary of the Bible.
London: Collins, 2002. Credo Reference. Web. 27
September 2010. ISBN 0333648056
[170] Fred B. Craddock, Luke (Westminster John Knox Press,
2009), page 293

[171] Luke by Fred B. Craddock 2009 ISBN 0664234356 pages
293-294
[172] New Testament Theology by Frank J. Matera 2007 ISBN
066423044X pages 53-54
[173] Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible by D. N. Freedman,
David Noel, Allen Myers and Astrid B. Beck 2000 ISBN
9053565035 page 110
4.7 References
• Cox, Steven L.; Easley, Kendell H (2007). Harmony
of the Gospels. ISBN 0-8054-9444-8.
4.8 Further reading
• Bruce J. Malina: Windows on the World of Jesus:
Time Travel to Ancient Judea. Westminster John
Knox Press: Louisville (Kentucky) 1993
• Bruce J. Malina: The New Testament World: Insights
from Cultural Anthropology. 3rd edition, Westmin-
ster John Knox Press Louisville (Kentucky) 2001
• Ekkehard Stegemann and Wolfgang Stegemann:
The Jesus Movement: A Social History of Its First
Century. Augsburg Fortress Publishers: Minneapo-
lis 1999
• Shailer Mathews (1899). A History of New Testa-
ment Times in Palestine.

Chapter 5
Language of Jesus
It is generally agreed that Jesus and his disciples primarily
spoke Aramaic, the common language of Judea in the first
century AD, most likely a Galilean dialect distinguish-
able from that of Jerusalem.[1]
The towns of Nazareth
and Capernaum in Galilee, where Jesus spent most of his
time, were Aramaic-speaking communities.[2]
5.1 Cultural and linguistic back-
ground
See also: Cultural and historical background of Jesus
Aramaic was the common language of the Eastern
Mediterranean during and after the Neo-Assyrian, Neo-
Babylonian, and Achaemenid Empires (722–330 BC)
and remained a common language of the region in the
first century AD. In spite of the increasing importance
of Greek, the use of Aramaic was also expanding, and
it would eventually be dominant among Jews both in the
Holy Land and elsewhere in the Middle East around 200
AD[3]
and would remain so until the Islamic conquests in
the seventh century.[4][5]
According to Dead Sea Scrolls archaeologist, Yigael
Yadin, Aramaic was the language of Hebrews until Simon
Bar Kokhba’s revolt (132 AD to 135 AD). Yadin noticed
the shift from Aramaic to Hebrew in the documents he
studied, which had been written during the time of the
Bar Kokhba revolt. In his book “Bar Kokhba: The re-
discovery of the legendary hero of the last Jewish Revolt
Against Imperial Rome” Yigael Yadin notes, “It is inter-
esting that the earlier documents are written in Aramaic
while the later ones are in Hebrew. Possibly the change
was made by a special decree of Bar Kokhba who wanted
to restore Hebrew as the official language of the state”
(page 181).
In the book “A Roadmap to the Heavens: An Anthro-
pological Study of Hegemony among Priests, Sages, and
Laymen (Judaism and Jewish Life)" by Sigalit Ben-Zion
(page 155), Yadin said: “it seems that this change came
as a result of the order that was given by Bar Kokhba,
who wanted to revive the Hebrew language and make it
the official language of the state.”
According to Hebrew historian Josephus, Greek wasn't
spoken in first century Palestine. Josephus also points out
the extreme rarity of a Jew knowing Greek.[6]
Josephus wrote:
I have also taken a great deal of pains
to obtain the learning of the Greeks, and
understand the elements of the Greek lan-
guage, although I have so long accustomed
myself to speak our own tongue, that I cannot
pronounce Greek with sufficient exactness;
for our nation does not encourage those that
learn the languages of many nations, and so
adorn their discourses with the smoothness
of their periods; because they look upon this
sort of accomplishment as common, not only
to all sorts of free-men, but to as many of the
servants as please to learn them. But they give
him the testimony of being a wise man who
is fully acquainted with our laws, and is able
to interpret their meaning; on which account,
as there have been many who have done their
endeavors with great patience to obtain this
learning, there have yet hardly been so many
as two or three that have succeeded therein,
who were immediately well rewarded for their
pains.
— Antiquities of Jews XX, XI
Josephus’ testimony is also agreed by Yigael Yadin who
points out that Aramaic was the lingua franca of this time
period.[7]
In the first century AD, the Aramaic language was
widespread throughout the Middle East. This is sup-
ported by the testimony of Josephus in the book The Jew-
ish War.[8]
Josephus points out how people from what are now Iran,
Iraq and remote parts of the Arabian Peninsula knew all
about the war of the Jews against the Romans due to the
books he wrote “in the language of our country”, books
which he then translated into Greek for the benefit of the
Greeks and Romans:
25

26 CHAPTER 5. LANGUAGE OF JESUS
I have proposed to myself, for the sake
of such as live under the government of the
Romans, to translate those books into the
Greek tongue, which I formerly composed
in the language of our country, and sent to
the Upper Barbarians; Joseph, the son of
Matthias, by birth a Hebrew, a priest also, and
one who at first fought against the Romans
myself, and was forced to be present at what
was done afterwards, [am the author of this
work].
— Jewish Wars (Book 1, Preface, Paragraph 1)
I thought it therefore an absurd thing to
see the truth falsified in affairs of such great
consequence, and to take no notice of it; but
to suffer those Greeks and Romans that were
not in the wars to be ignorant of these things,
and to read either flatteries or fictions, while
the Parthians, and the Babylonians, and the
remotest Arabians, and those of our nation
beyond Euphrates, with the Adiabeni, by my
means, knew accurately both whence the war
begun, what miseries it brought upon us, and
after what manner it ended.
— Jewish Wars (Book 1 Preface, Paragraph
2)
H. St. J. Thackeray (who translated Josephus’ Jewish
Wars from Greek into English) also point out this - “We
learn from the proem that the Greek text was not the first
draft of the work. It had been preceded by a narrative
written in Aramaic and addressed to “the barbarians
in the interior”, who are more precisely defined lower
down as the natives of Parthia, Babylonia, and Arabia, the
Jewish dispersion in Mesopotamia, and the inhabitants of
Adiabene, a principality of which the reigning house, as
was proudly remembered, were converts to Judaism (B.
i, 3, 6). Of this Aramaic work the Greek is described
as a “version” made for the benefit of the subjects of the
Roman Empire, i.e. the Graeco-Roman world at large.[9]
In Acts 1:19, the “Field of Blood” was known to all the
inhabitants of Jerusalem in their own language as Akel-
dama which is the transliteration of the Aramaic words
“Haqal Dama”.[10]
The Hebrew Priest Josephus differentiated Hebrew from
his language and that of first-century Israel. Josephus
refers to Hebrew words as belonging to “the Hebrew
tongue” while he refers to Aramaic words as belonging
to “our tongue” or “our language” or “the language of
our country.” Below are some examples from Josephus’
works.
Hebrew
Josephus refers to a Hebrew word with the phrase, “the
Hebrew tongue": “But the affairs of the Canaanites were
at this time in a flourishing condition, and they expected
the Israelites with a great army at the city Bezek, having
put the government into the hands of Adonibezek, which
name denotes the Lord of Bezek, for Adoni in the He-
brew tongue signifies Lord.”[11]
Aramaic
In this example, Josephus refers to an Aramaic word as
belonging to “our language": “This new-built part of the
city was called 'Bezetha,' in our language, which, if in-
terpreted in the Grecian language, may be called 'the New
City.'"[12]
Unlike the Hebrew Priest Josephus and other Hebrew
priests at Jerusalem, the people of first-century Israel
had no knowledge of Hebrew. This has been confirmed
through New Testament. On several occasions in New
Testament, Aramaic words are called Hebrew. For ex-
ample, in John 19:17 (KJV), the gospel-writer narrates
that Jesus, “bearing his cross[,] went forth into a place
called the place of a skull, which is called in the Hebrew
Golgotha.” Even though the gospel-writer calls the word
Hebrew, it is, in fact, an Aramaic word. The word “Gol-
gotha” is a transliteration of an Aramaic word, because
-tha in Golgotha is the Aramaic definite article on a fem-
inine noun in an emphatic state.[13]
5.2 Aramaic phrases in the Greek
New Testament
Main article: Language of the New Testament
The Greek New Testament transliterates a few Semitic
words.[14]
When the text itself refers to the lan-
guage of such Semitic glosses, it uses words meaning
“Hebrew"/"Jewish”,[15]
but this term is often applied to
unmistakably Aramaic words and phrases;[16][17]
for this
reason, it is often interpreted as meaning “the (Aramaic)
vernacular of the Jews” in recent translations.[18]
The
“Semitisms” are mainly words attributed to Jesus by the
Gospel of Mark, and perhaps had a special significance
because of this.
A very small minority believe that most or all of the New
Testament was originally written in Aramaic.[19][20]
How-
ever, such theories are rejected by mainstream Biblical
scholarship. Traditionally parts of the Church of the East
(Nestorian church) have also claimed originality for the
Aramaic New Testament, though this is considered by
scholars to be a translation from Greek. Instead, the con-
sensus among mainstream academia is that although it
is possible that there may be Aramaic source materials
that underpin some portions of the New Testament, the
New Testament was compiled and redacted in the Greek
language. Scholars are also in agreement that there did
exist at one time an early Aramaic/Hebrew version of a
Jewish-Christian gospel, although its relation to the Greek

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