This document discusses phylogenetic trees and their construction. It begins with an introduction that defines phylogenetic trees as branching diagrams showing evolutionary relationships among species based on physical and genetic similarities and differences. It then discusses three main types of phylogenetic trees: rooted trees with a common ancestor and unrooted trees without directionality. The document outlines three main methods for constructing phylogenetic trees: distance-based methods, parsimony-based methods, and character-based methods. It also briefly discusses limitations of phylogenetic trees in fully representing species histories.
A phylogenetic tree is a diagram that represents evolutionary relationships among organisms based on the similarities and differences in their genetic and evolutionary characteristics
The pattern of branching in a phylogenetic tree reflects how species or other groups evolved from a series of common ancestors.
The phylogenetic tree is also called the “Tree of Life” or “Dendrogram”
A phylogenetic tree or evolutionary tree is a branching diagram or "tree" showing the inferred evolutionary relationships among various biological species or other entities—their phylogeny—based upon similarities and differences in their physical or genetic characteristics.
A phylogenetic tree is a diagram that represents evolutionary relationships among organisms based on the similarities and differences in their genetic and evolutionary characteristics
The pattern of branching in a phylogenetic tree reflects how species or other groups evolved from a series of common ancestors.
The phylogenetic tree is also called the “Tree of Life” or “Dendrogram”
A phylogenetic tree or evolutionary tree is a branching diagram or "tree" showing the inferred evolutionary relationships among various biological species or other entities—their phylogeny—based upon similarities and differences in their physical or genetic characteristics.
• The method of classifying organisms into monophyletic group of a common ancestor based on shared apomorphic characters is called cladistics.
• Cladistics is now the most commonly used and accepted method for creating phylogenetic system of classifications.
Cladistics produces a hypothesis about the relationship of organisms to predict the morphological characteristics of organism.
892018 South Universityhttpsmyclasses.southuniversity.docxransayo
8/9/2018 South University
https://myclasses.southuniversity.edu/d2l/le/content/34297/viewContent/1114063/View 1/1
Download: Video Transcript (PDF 18KB) (media/week1/SU_W1_L1.pdf?
_&d2lSessionVal=X4ZxS4reQPabhOYfLa2QhfkZb&ou=34297)
The Scienti c Method
Biology consists of a great deal of knowledge. Much of that knowledge takes the form of facts that we
refer to as theories. Or perhaps this is better understood by saying that biologists treat theories as
though they were facts. But, they are special kind of fact. They are not a fact the way your social
security number is a fact. A theory is a fact that has been derived using the scienti c method.
The scienti c method always starts with an observation. And notice carefully that we use the singular
word, observation, and not the plural 'observations', even if a thousand events were observed. The
observation leads to a question. Questions come in many shapes and forms, but the scienti c method
needs to pose only very speci c questions. This is because the question must be able to be worded as a
hypothesis. What is a hypothesis? A hypothesis is a speci c statement in which a cause and effect
scenario is central. For an example, follow along with the scenarios presented in the assigned textbook
readings. You will see that a hypothesis can never be an open ended question. It must be speci c. For
example, this is a hypothesis: If I put a cover over a ame, it will go out. This is not a hypothesis: Why
does the ame go out when I put a cover over it? After you have created a hypothesis, you design
experiments to see if you can support your hypothesis. Keep in mind that in the biological sciences,
while you can support a hypothesis, you can never prove one. This is one of the most misunderstood
concepts in science. You will never account for every possible condition for a given hypothesis;
therefore, you can never prove it beyond any shadow of doubt.
https://myclasses.southuniversity.edu/content/enforced/34297-2405986/media/week1/SU_W1_L1.pdf?_&d2lSessionVal=X4ZxS4reQPabhOYfLa2QhfkZb&ou=34297
CHAPTER 5
Smith, T. M., & Smith, R. L. (2015). Elements of Ecology (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
5.1 Adaptations Are a Product of Natural Selection
Stated more precisely, natural selection is the differential success (survival and reproduction) of individuals within the population that results from their interaction with their environment. As outlined by Darwin, natural selection is a product of two conditions: (1) that variation occurs among individuals within a population in some “heritable” characteristic, and (2) that this variation results in differences among individuals in their survival and reproduction as a result of their interaction with the environment. Natural selection is a numbers game. Darwin wrote:
Among those individuals that do reproduce, some will leave more offspring than others. These individuals are considered more fit than the others because they contribute the most to the next g.
what is a shared derived charterer and how is it useful for construc.pdfmichaelazach6427
what is a shared derived charterer and how is it useful for constructing a phylogeny ?
Solution
Phylogeny can be understood as the science of developmental history of an organism with
respect to other organisms. Since the origin of an individual remains unknwon and
developmental characters can be measures only relative to other known organisms, the science of
phylogeny is based upon relavance of the features of a developing organism with respect to other
organisms whose features have been already well studied. For this purpose, the extent of
relatedness and differences between two or more organisms are generally studied. There are
some features which remain exclusive for a species whereas some features are common in
different species. These common features are termed as \'shared derived characters\' because it is
supposed that owing to their presence, anatomical relavance and similarities in physiological
function in different species, these features must have been orginated from a common ancestor
and gradually shared by different species for development. Thus, the more is the number of
shared derived characters between two or more species, the more likely is their evolutionary
relatedness.
For example, while constructing a phylogeny tree, the index of these shared derived characters
remains highly useful. It helps in grouping and clssifying organisms based upon their
evolutionary history and evident relatedness based upon number of shared characters. For
example, all organisms with jointed feet are placed under phylum arthropoda. After that,
organisms with paired feet and un-paired feet are differentiated either as millipeds or centipeds.
After that, organisms are differentiated based upon their mouth structures and so on. Thus, the
occurence of jointed feet, nature of feet and distribution of body plates on mouth cavity represent
shared derived characters. These characters can be further elaborated at anatomical and
molecular levels.
Thus, this clearly explains the role of shared derived charterer and its usefullness for
constructing a phylogeny tree..
SOMEONE HELP Complete sentences, stating the differences and relati.pdfexpressionnoveltiesk
SOMEONE HELP: Complete sentences, stating the differences and relationships between the
two terms, and give specific examples where appropriate.
1. gene flow / genetic drift
2. sexual selection / artificial selection
3. ring species / biological species concept
4. hybrid inviability / temporal isolation
5. autopolyploidy / allopatric speciation
6. molecular clock / cladogram
7. gradualism / uniformitarianism
8. extreme thermophiles / viroids
9. HIV / Creutzfeld-Jakob disease
10. biofilm / microbial fuel cell
Solution
Q.No 1
Genetic drift is a mechanism of evolution of biological species that takes place because of the
change in the frequency of alleles in a population. These changes in the allele frequency in a
population occur randomly. One very common example to describe the genetic drift would be
that most of the human families have different number of boys and girls, as the X or Y alleles
have been passed differently into the new generation from the parents. Although the X and Y
alleles do not really contribute for the evolution, the frequency changes in other alleles would
have a considerable effect for evolution.
Gene flow is a process of evolution that takes place when genes or alleles move from one
population to another. It is also known as the Gene Migration, and that could cause changes in
the allele frequency as well as some variations in the gene pool of both populations. There are
some good examples to support this phenomenon from humans regarding a developed immunity
for malaria among new Western Africans after their parents mated with Europeans who initially
had the immunity. It is interesting to notice that gene flow could take place between two species,
as well.
Q.No 2
Sexual selection enhances mating success or the number of copulations, while natural selection
tends to produce well-adapted individuals to their environment. Sexual selection does not adapt
the individuals to their environment. Unlike sexual selection, natural selection acts on traits
which increase the fitness of members in a population. Certain adaptations have been derived
from the sexual selection which could never have been arisen from natural selection alone (Ex:
the neck of the giraffe, various plumages of most male birds etc.). Generally sexual selection
depends on the success of one sex while natural selection depends on the success of both sexes in
relation to the general condition of life. In most of the animals, certain traits related to their
sexual selection process do not express their characteristics until the organism is able to mate,
but naturally selected traits may occur at birth of the organism during the process of natural
selection.
Q.No 3
A ring species is a connected series of neighbouring populations, each of which can interbreed
with closely sited related populations, but for which there exist at least two \"end\" populations in
the series, which are too distantly related to interbreed, though there is a potential gene flow
between e.
Cell Division Evolution in Ichthyosporea: Insights from EPFL and EMBL Heidelb...The Lifesciences Magazine
Research on Ichthyosporea sheds light on the evolutionary origins of cell division mechanisms, offering insights into the remarkable diversity of eukaryotic development.
• The method of classifying organisms into monophyletic group of a common ancestor based on shared apomorphic characters is called cladistics.
• Cladistics is now the most commonly used and accepted method for creating phylogenetic system of classifications.
Cladistics produces a hypothesis about the relationship of organisms to predict the morphological characteristics of organism.
892018 South Universityhttpsmyclasses.southuniversity.docxransayo
8/9/2018 South University
https://myclasses.southuniversity.edu/d2l/le/content/34297/viewContent/1114063/View 1/1
Download: Video Transcript (PDF 18KB) (media/week1/SU_W1_L1.pdf?
_&d2lSessionVal=X4ZxS4reQPabhOYfLa2QhfkZb&ou=34297)
The Scienti c Method
Biology consists of a great deal of knowledge. Much of that knowledge takes the form of facts that we
refer to as theories. Or perhaps this is better understood by saying that biologists treat theories as
though they were facts. But, they are special kind of fact. They are not a fact the way your social
security number is a fact. A theory is a fact that has been derived using the scienti c method.
The scienti c method always starts with an observation. And notice carefully that we use the singular
word, observation, and not the plural 'observations', even if a thousand events were observed. The
observation leads to a question. Questions come in many shapes and forms, but the scienti c method
needs to pose only very speci c questions. This is because the question must be able to be worded as a
hypothesis. What is a hypothesis? A hypothesis is a speci c statement in which a cause and effect
scenario is central. For an example, follow along with the scenarios presented in the assigned textbook
readings. You will see that a hypothesis can never be an open ended question. It must be speci c. For
example, this is a hypothesis: If I put a cover over a ame, it will go out. This is not a hypothesis: Why
does the ame go out when I put a cover over it? After you have created a hypothesis, you design
experiments to see if you can support your hypothesis. Keep in mind that in the biological sciences,
while you can support a hypothesis, you can never prove one. This is one of the most misunderstood
concepts in science. You will never account for every possible condition for a given hypothesis;
therefore, you can never prove it beyond any shadow of doubt.
https://myclasses.southuniversity.edu/content/enforced/34297-2405986/media/week1/SU_W1_L1.pdf?_&d2lSessionVal=X4ZxS4reQPabhOYfLa2QhfkZb&ou=34297
CHAPTER 5
Smith, T. M., & Smith, R. L. (2015). Elements of Ecology (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
5.1 Adaptations Are a Product of Natural Selection
Stated more precisely, natural selection is the differential success (survival and reproduction) of individuals within the population that results from their interaction with their environment. As outlined by Darwin, natural selection is a product of two conditions: (1) that variation occurs among individuals within a population in some “heritable” characteristic, and (2) that this variation results in differences among individuals in their survival and reproduction as a result of their interaction with the environment. Natural selection is a numbers game. Darwin wrote:
Among those individuals that do reproduce, some will leave more offspring than others. These individuals are considered more fit than the others because they contribute the most to the next g.
what is a shared derived charterer and how is it useful for construc.pdfmichaelazach6427
what is a shared derived charterer and how is it useful for constructing a phylogeny ?
Solution
Phylogeny can be understood as the science of developmental history of an organism with
respect to other organisms. Since the origin of an individual remains unknwon and
developmental characters can be measures only relative to other known organisms, the science of
phylogeny is based upon relavance of the features of a developing organism with respect to other
organisms whose features have been already well studied. For this purpose, the extent of
relatedness and differences between two or more organisms are generally studied. There are
some features which remain exclusive for a species whereas some features are common in
different species. These common features are termed as \'shared derived characters\' because it is
supposed that owing to their presence, anatomical relavance and similarities in physiological
function in different species, these features must have been orginated from a common ancestor
and gradually shared by different species for development. Thus, the more is the number of
shared derived characters between two or more species, the more likely is their evolutionary
relatedness.
For example, while constructing a phylogeny tree, the index of these shared derived characters
remains highly useful. It helps in grouping and clssifying organisms based upon their
evolutionary history and evident relatedness based upon number of shared characters. For
example, all organisms with jointed feet are placed under phylum arthropoda. After that,
organisms with paired feet and un-paired feet are differentiated either as millipeds or centipeds.
After that, organisms are differentiated based upon their mouth structures and so on. Thus, the
occurence of jointed feet, nature of feet and distribution of body plates on mouth cavity represent
shared derived characters. These characters can be further elaborated at anatomical and
molecular levels.
Thus, this clearly explains the role of shared derived charterer and its usefullness for
constructing a phylogeny tree..
SOMEONE HELP Complete sentences, stating the differences and relati.pdfexpressionnoveltiesk
SOMEONE HELP: Complete sentences, stating the differences and relationships between the
two terms, and give specific examples where appropriate.
1. gene flow / genetic drift
2. sexual selection / artificial selection
3. ring species / biological species concept
4. hybrid inviability / temporal isolation
5. autopolyploidy / allopatric speciation
6. molecular clock / cladogram
7. gradualism / uniformitarianism
8. extreme thermophiles / viroids
9. HIV / Creutzfeld-Jakob disease
10. biofilm / microbial fuel cell
Solution
Q.No 1
Genetic drift is a mechanism of evolution of biological species that takes place because of the
change in the frequency of alleles in a population. These changes in the allele frequency in a
population occur randomly. One very common example to describe the genetic drift would be
that most of the human families have different number of boys and girls, as the X or Y alleles
have been passed differently into the new generation from the parents. Although the X and Y
alleles do not really contribute for the evolution, the frequency changes in other alleles would
have a considerable effect for evolution.
Gene flow is a process of evolution that takes place when genes or alleles move from one
population to another. It is also known as the Gene Migration, and that could cause changes in
the allele frequency as well as some variations in the gene pool of both populations. There are
some good examples to support this phenomenon from humans regarding a developed immunity
for malaria among new Western Africans after their parents mated with Europeans who initially
had the immunity. It is interesting to notice that gene flow could take place between two species,
as well.
Q.No 2
Sexual selection enhances mating success or the number of copulations, while natural selection
tends to produce well-adapted individuals to their environment. Sexual selection does not adapt
the individuals to their environment. Unlike sexual selection, natural selection acts on traits
which increase the fitness of members in a population. Certain adaptations have been derived
from the sexual selection which could never have been arisen from natural selection alone (Ex:
the neck of the giraffe, various plumages of most male birds etc.). Generally sexual selection
depends on the success of one sex while natural selection depends on the success of both sexes in
relation to the general condition of life. In most of the animals, certain traits related to their
sexual selection process do not express their characteristics until the organism is able to mate,
but naturally selected traits may occur at birth of the organism during the process of natural
selection.
Q.No 3
A ring species is a connected series of neighbouring populations, each of which can interbreed
with closely sited related populations, but for which there exist at least two \"end\" populations in
the series, which are too distantly related to interbreed, though there is a potential gene flow
between e.
Cell Division Evolution in Ichthyosporea: Insights from EPFL and EMBL Heidelb...The Lifesciences Magazine
Research on Ichthyosporea sheds light on the evolutionary origins of cell division mechanisms, offering insights into the remarkable diversity of eukaryotic development.
UNDERSTANDING WHAT GREEN WASHING IS!.pdfJulietMogola
Many companies today use green washing to lure the public into thinking they are conserving the environment but in real sense they are doing more harm. There have been such several cases from very big companies here in Kenya and also globally. This ranges from various sectors from manufacturing and goes to consumer products. Educating people on greenwashing will enable people to make better choices based on their analysis and not on what they see on marketing sites.
Natural farming @ Dr. Siddhartha S. Jena.pptxsidjena70
A brief about organic farming/ Natural farming/ Zero budget natural farming/ Subash Palekar Natural farming which keeps us and environment safe and healthy. Next gen Agricultural practices of chemical free farming.
Diabetes is a rapidly and serious health problem in Pakistan. This chronic condition is associated with serious long-term complications, including higher risk of heart disease and stroke. Aggressive treatment of hypertension and hyperlipideamia can result in a substantial reduction in cardiovascular events in patients with diabetes 1. Consequently pharmacist-led diabetes cardiovascular risk (DCVR) clinics have been established in both primary and secondary care sites in NHS Lothian during the past five years. An audit of the pharmaceutical care delivery at the clinics was conducted in order to evaluate practice and to standardize the pharmacists’ documentation of outcomes. Pharmaceutical care issues (PCI) and patient details were collected both prospectively and retrospectively from three DCVR clinics. The PCI`s were categorized according to a triangularised system consisting of multiple categories. These were ‘checks’, ‘changes’ (‘change in drug therapy process’ and ‘change in drug therapy’), ‘drug therapy problems’ and ‘quality assurance descriptors’ (‘timer perspective’ and ‘degree of change’). A verified medication assessment tool (MAT) for patients with chronic cardiovascular disease was applied to the patients from one of the clinics. The tool was used to quantify PCI`s and pharmacist actions that were centered on implementing or enforcing clinical guideline standards. A database was developed to be used as an assessment tool and to standardize the documentation of achievement of outcomes. Feedback on the audit of the pharmaceutical care delivery and the database was received from the DCVR clinic pharmacist at a focus group meeting.
"Understanding the Carbon Cycle: Processes, Human Impacts, and Strategies for...MMariSelvam4
The carbon cycle is a critical component of Earth's environmental system, governing the movement and transformation of carbon through various reservoirs, including the atmosphere, oceans, soil, and living organisms. This complex cycle involves several key processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, and carbon sequestration, each contributing to the regulation of carbon levels on the planet.
Human activities, particularly fossil fuel combustion and deforestation, have significantly altered the natural carbon cycle, leading to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and driving climate change. Understanding the intricacies of the carbon cycle is essential for assessing the impacts of these changes and developing effective mitigation strategies.
By studying the carbon cycle, scientists can identify carbon sources and sinks, measure carbon fluxes, and predict future trends. This knowledge is crucial for crafting policies aimed at reducing carbon emissions, enhancing carbon storage, and promoting sustainable practices. The carbon cycle's interplay with climate systems, ecosystems, and human activities underscores its importance in maintaining a stable and healthy planet.
In-depth exploration of the carbon cycle reveals the delicate balance required to sustain life and the urgent need to address anthropogenic influences. Through research, education, and policy, we can work towards restoring equilibrium in the carbon cycle and ensuring a sustainable future for generations to come.
Micro RNA genes and their likely influence in rice (Oryza sativa L.) dynamic ...Open Access Research Paper
Micro RNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs molecules having approximately 18-25 nucleotides, they are present in both plants and animals genomes. MiRNAs have diverse spatial expression patterns and regulate various developmental metabolisms, stress responses and other physiological processes. The dynamic gene expression playing major roles in phenotypic differences in organisms are believed to be controlled by miRNAs. Mutations in regions of regulatory factors, such as miRNA genes or transcription factors (TF) necessitated by dynamic environmental factors or pathogen infections, have tremendous effects on structure and expression of genes. The resultant novel gene products presents potential explanations for constant evolving desirable traits that have long been bred using conventional means, biotechnology or genetic engineering. Rice grain quality, yield, disease tolerance, climate-resilience and palatability properties are not exceptional to miRN Asmutations effects. There are new insights courtesy of high-throughput sequencing and improved proteomic techniques that organisms’ complexity and adaptations are highly contributed by miRNAs containing regulatory networks. This article aims to expound on how rice miRNAs could be driving evolution of traits and highlight the latest miRNA research progress. Moreover, the review accentuates miRNAs grey areas to be addressed and gives recommendations for further studies.
Willie Nelson Net Worth: A Journey Through Music, Movies, and Business Venturesgreendigital
Willie Nelson is a name that resonates within the world of music and entertainment. Known for his unique voice, and masterful guitar skills. and an extraordinary career spanning several decades. Nelson has become a legend in the country music scene. But, his influence extends far beyond the realm of music. with ventures in acting, writing, activism, and business. This comprehensive article delves into Willie Nelson net worth. exploring the various facets of his career that have contributed to his large fortune.
Follow us on: Pinterest
Introduction
Willie Nelson net worth is a testament to his enduring influence and success in many fields. Born on April 29, 1933, in Abbott, Texas. Nelson's journey from a humble beginning to becoming one of the most iconic figures in American music is nothing short of inspirational. His net worth, which estimated to be around $25 million as of 2024. reflects a career that is as diverse as it is prolific.
Early Life and Musical Beginnings
Humble Origins
Willie Hugh Nelson was born during the Great Depression. a time of significant economic hardship in the United States. Raised by his grandparents. Nelson found solace and inspiration in music from an early age. His grandmother taught him to play the guitar. setting the stage for what would become an illustrious career.
First Steps in Music
Nelson's initial foray into the music industry was fraught with challenges. He moved to Nashville, Tennessee, to pursue his dreams, but success did not come . Working as a songwriter, Nelson penned hits for other artists. which helped him gain a foothold in the competitive music scene. His songwriting skills contributed to his early earnings. laying the foundation for his net worth.
Rise to Stardom
Breakthrough Albums
The 1970s marked a turning point in Willie Nelson's career. His albums "Shotgun Willie" (1973), "Red Headed Stranger" (1975). and "Stardust" (1978) received critical acclaim and commercial success. These albums not only solidified his position in the country music genre. but also introduced his music to a broader audience. The success of these albums played a crucial role in boosting Willie Nelson net worth.
Iconic Songs
Willie Nelson net worth is also attributed to his extensive catalog of hit songs. Tracks like "Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain," "On the Road Again," and "Always on My Mind" have become timeless classics. These songs have not only earned Nelson large royalties but have also ensured his continued relevance in the music industry.
Acting and Film Career
Hollywood Ventures
In addition to his music career, Willie Nelson has also made a mark in Hollywood. His distinctive personality and on-screen presence have landed him roles in several films and television shows. Notable appearances include roles in "The Electric Horseman" (1979), "Honeysuckle Rose" (1980), and "Barbarosa" (1982). These acting gigs have added a significant amount to Willie Nelson net worth.
Television Appearances
Nelson's char
Characterization and the Kinetics of drying at the drying oven and with micro...Open Access Research Paper
The objective of this work is to contribute to valorization de Nephelium lappaceum by the characterization of kinetics of drying of seeds of Nephelium lappaceum. The seeds were dehydrated until a constant mass respectively in a drying oven and a microwawe oven. The temperatures and the powers of drying are respectively: 50, 60 and 70°C and 140, 280 and 420 W. The results show that the curves of drying of seeds of Nephelium lappaceum do not present a phase of constant kinetics. The coefficients of diffusion vary between 2.09.10-8 to 2.98. 10-8m-2/s in the interval of 50°C at 70°C and between 4.83×10-07 at 9.04×10-07 m-8/s for the powers going of 140 W with 420 W the relation between Arrhenius and a value of energy of activation of 16.49 kJ. mol-1 expressed the effect of the temperature on effective diffusivity.
Artificial Reefs by Kuddle Life Foundation - May 2024punit537210
Situated in Pondicherry, India, Kuddle Life Foundation is a charitable, non-profit and non-governmental organization (NGO) dedicated to improving the living standards of coastal communities and simultaneously placing a strong emphasis on the protection of marine ecosystems.
One of the key areas we work in is Artificial Reefs. This presentation captures our journey so far and our learnings. We hope you get as excited about marine conservation and artificial reefs as we are.
Please visit our website: https://kuddlelife.org
Our Instagram channel:
@kuddlelifefoundation
Our Linkedin Page:
https://www.linkedin.com/company/kuddlelifefoundation/
and write to us if you have any questions:
info@kuddlelife.org
1. PATNA SCIENCE COLLEGE
DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
SUBMITTED
BY
SAMIKSHA
ROLL NO -16
CC12
ORGANISM AND
EVOLUTIONARY
BIOLOGY
2. PHYLOGENETIC TREE
1. INTRODCTION
2. PHYLOGENY APPLICATION
3. TYPES OF PHYLOGENETIC TREE
4. CONSTRUCTING PHYLOGENETIC TREE
5. DISTANCE BASED METHODS
6. REFERENCES
3. INTRODUCTION
A phylogenetic tree or evolutionary tree is a branching
diagram or ‘tree showing the evolutionary relationships
among various biological species based upon similarities and
differences in their physical and genetic characteristics.
It also is called a cladogram.
4. PHYLOGENY APPLICATIONS
Tree of life:- Analyzing changes that have occurred
in evolution of different organisms.
Phylogenetic relationships among genes can help
predict which ones might have similar functions.
Follow changes occurring in rapidly changing
species.(eg,-HIV Virus)
5. TYPES OF PHYLOGENETIC TREE
Rooted trees: a single node is designated as a common
ancestor ,a unique path leads from it through evolutionary
time to any node.
Unrooted tree: only specify the relationship between nodes
say nothing about the direction in which evolution occured.
6.
7. Constructing Phylogenetic Trees
There are three main methods of constructing phylogenetic trees:
* distance-based methods such as
UPGMA and neighbour-joining,
* parsimony-based methods such as maximum
parsimony, and
* character-based methods such as maximum likelihood
or Bayesian inference.
8. DISTANCE BASED METHODS
Calculate evolutionary distances between sequences.
Build a tree based on those distances.
Calculate evolutionary distance between sequences and
make a matrix.
So the evolutionary
Distances between the
Two sequences= 4
9. LIMITATIONS TO THE USE OF
TREES
it is importance to remember that trees do have
limitations.for example, trees are meant to provide insight
into a research question and not intended to represented
an entire species history.
several factors,like gene transfers,may affect the output
placed into a tree.
all knowledge of limitations related to DNA degradation.
