Stalin implemented a command economy in the Soviet Union focused on rapid industrialization and collectivization of agriculture. Under his first Five Year Plan from 1928-1932, heavy industry and defense were prioritized through central planning while consumer goods and living standards declined. Millions joined collective farms by force and millions of wealthy peasants (kulaks) were killed or sent to labor camps, causing famine. The plan was completed ahead of schedule but collectivization failed and human costs were enormous, demonstrating Stalin's willingness to sacrifice people to transform the Soviet economy.
Stalin implemented collectivization and five-year plans to rapidly industrialize and modernize the Soviet Union. Collectivization forced millions of peasants off their small farms and into large state-run collective farms, leading to widespread famine and millions of deaths, especially of wealthy landowners who resisted. The five-year plans set ambitious industrial production targets and saw massive growth in industries like steel, coal, and oil through concentrating on heavy industry and harnessing labor, but also resulted in poor work conditions and unrealistic demands that damaged workers. Both policies transformed the Soviet economy and society at enormous human cost.
CAMBRIDGE A2 HISTORY: THE SECRETARIAT UNDER STALIN. Contains: Stalin and first changes, Nomenklatura no 1,
Party Congress, assigning party members blindly, strengthening the organisation and accounting, responsibilities for the appointments, guberniia, the local party secretary, settling for conflicts, Georgian Affair, Democratic Centralists, Workers Opposition, struggle for power, conspiracies.
CAMBRIDGE A2 HISTORY: STALIN SOCIAL AIMS - EDUCATION, WOMEN'S RIGHTS AND EDUC...George Dumitrache
Stalin pursued three main social aims: education, women's rights, and Russification. For education, he made it compulsory and free to increase literacy but also used it to indoctrinate students with communist ideals. For women's rights, some policies benefited women but the main aim was to increase the birth rate to provide more workers. For Russification, Stalin promoted the Russian language and culture to unite ethnic groups, facilitate the transition to communism, and ready the Soviet Union for war.
The Cold War, United States, USSR, Vietnam War, Korean War, Space Race, Nuclear Arms Race, Cuban Missile Crisis, Bay of Pigs, Berlin Wall, Iron Curtain, Containment Policy, Marshall Plan, John F. Kennedy, Nikita Khrushchev, Detente, Red Scare, Ronald Reagan, Perestroika, Glasnost
Stalin rose to power through a series of strategic political moves from the 1920s onwards. As General Secretary, he consolidated control over party appointments. After Lenin's death, Stalin marginalized Trotsky and the United Opposition by accusing them of disloyalty. He then removed Bukharin and his supporters, before exiling Trotsky in 1929. Stalin exploited divisions between his rivals and portrayed himself as the defender of Leninism, aided by his underestimation as a "grey blur" compared to Trotsky. Through cunning political tactics, he eliminated potential challengers to become the undisputed leader of the Soviet Union.
Sec 3N Hist (Elec) Chapter 2.1 (Part 2) Reasons for rise of stalinWeng Lun Ho
Stalin rose to become the supreme leader of the Soviet Union through manipulation and eliminating his opponents. As general secretary, he retained power by not disclosing Lenin's testament that wanted him removed. He discredited Trotsky and used his control over the Communist Party and secret police to expel Trotsky and gain complete control by 1929.
Stalin implemented collectivization and five-year plans to rapidly industrialize and modernize the Soviet Union. Collectivization forced millions of peasants off their small farms and into large state-run collective farms, leading to widespread famine and millions of deaths, especially of wealthy landowners who resisted. The five-year plans set ambitious industrial production targets and saw massive growth in industries like steel, coal, and oil through concentrating on heavy industry and harnessing labor, but also resulted in poor work conditions and unrealistic demands that damaged workers. Both policies transformed the Soviet economy and society at enormous human cost.
CAMBRIDGE A2 HISTORY: THE SECRETARIAT UNDER STALIN. Contains: Stalin and first changes, Nomenklatura no 1,
Party Congress, assigning party members blindly, strengthening the organisation and accounting, responsibilities for the appointments, guberniia, the local party secretary, settling for conflicts, Georgian Affair, Democratic Centralists, Workers Opposition, struggle for power, conspiracies.
CAMBRIDGE A2 HISTORY: STALIN SOCIAL AIMS - EDUCATION, WOMEN'S RIGHTS AND EDUC...George Dumitrache
Stalin pursued three main social aims: education, women's rights, and Russification. For education, he made it compulsory and free to increase literacy but also used it to indoctrinate students with communist ideals. For women's rights, some policies benefited women but the main aim was to increase the birth rate to provide more workers. For Russification, Stalin promoted the Russian language and culture to unite ethnic groups, facilitate the transition to communism, and ready the Soviet Union for war.
The Cold War, United States, USSR, Vietnam War, Korean War, Space Race, Nuclear Arms Race, Cuban Missile Crisis, Bay of Pigs, Berlin Wall, Iron Curtain, Containment Policy, Marshall Plan, John F. Kennedy, Nikita Khrushchev, Detente, Red Scare, Ronald Reagan, Perestroika, Glasnost
Stalin rose to power through a series of strategic political moves from the 1920s onwards. As General Secretary, he consolidated control over party appointments. After Lenin's death, Stalin marginalized Trotsky and the United Opposition by accusing them of disloyalty. He then removed Bukharin and his supporters, before exiling Trotsky in 1929. Stalin exploited divisions between his rivals and portrayed himself as the defender of Leninism, aided by his underestimation as a "grey blur" compared to Trotsky. Through cunning political tactics, he eliminated potential challengers to become the undisputed leader of the Soviet Union.
Sec 3N Hist (Elec) Chapter 2.1 (Part 2) Reasons for rise of stalinWeng Lun Ho
Stalin rose to become the supreme leader of the Soviet Union through manipulation and eliminating his opponents. As general secretary, he retained power by not disclosing Lenin's testament that wanted him removed. He discredited Trotsky and used his control over the Communist Party and secret police to expel Trotsky and gain complete control by 1929.
Stalin manipulated factors and exploited divisions within the Communist Party to consolidate his power following Lenin's death in 1924. He pretended to be close to Lenin, used his position as General Secretary to appoint loyalists, and isolated opponents like Trotsky by portraying them as disloyal. By 1927, Stalin had established himself as the Supreme Leader of the Soviet Union by removing potential rivals through alliances, propaganda, and purges.
In this lesson, we looked at the impact that Stalin had on the Soviet Union after he had taken over. We started out by considering his economic impact, which focused on his Five Year Plans.
Sec 3N Hist (Elec) Chapter 2.1 (part 1): The Soviet UnionWeng Lun Ho
The document summarizes the rise of Stalin in the Soviet Union. It describes how Russia entered World War I on the side of the Allies but faced struggles by 1917, leading to the February Revolution where Tsar Nicholas II abdicated. A provisional government took over but faced opposition, leading to the October Revolution where the Bolsheviks overthrew the government under Lenin and Trotsky. This began a civil war as the communist Reds fought the anti-communist Whites, which the Reds won, establishing the USSR in 1922. The USSR then underwent centralization under Lenin and the Politburo, establishing a one-party authoritarian government by 1924 with the Communist Party controlling all aspects of government.
Stalin enforced collectivization in the 1930s to transform traditional agriculture and reduce the power of wealthy landowners known as kulaks. This involved forcing peasants to join large collective farms, causing widespread resistance as peasants destroyed their farms and killed livestock. Collectivization led to famine and millions of deaths, but did modernize and mechanize Soviet agriculture. The Five Year Plans rapidly industrialized Russia through focus on heavy industry and use of forced labor, but living standards declined and later plans faced challenges meeting production goals due to shortages and war. Overall, the Russian people suffered enormous hardships and loss of life from Stalin's policies of forced collectivization and rapid industrialization.
The document summarizes the key events leading up to the Russian Revolution in 1917. It describes how pre-revolutionary Russia was an autocratic state without democratic institutions. Russia's defeat in the 1904 Russo-Japanese War and 1905 Revolution increased instability. Lenin advocated for a revolutionary vanguard to modernize Russia. World War I further weakened Russia and led to food shortages and riots in 1917, causing Czar Nicholas II to abdicate in March. Vladimir Lenin returned from exile and gained support for the Bolshevik's radical socialist ideology. In November, the Bolsheviks led by Lenin and Trotsky seized power in the October Revolution, establishing Soviet Russia and one-party communist rule.
Stalin rose to power in the Soviet Union through a combination of factors. He carefully maneuvered himself up the party ranks with appointments from Lenin. As General Secretary, he consolidated power by appointing allies. After Lenin's death, Stalin further isolated opponents by allying with different factions and turning them against each other, removing Trotsky, the Left, and the Right from power. Through ruthless manipulation, Stalin was able to eliminate all political rivals and become the unchallenged leader of the Soviet Union by the early 1930s.
The document discusses the rise of Stalin's power in the Soviet Union following Lenin's death in 1924. It notes that Stalin consolidated power by suppressing Lenin's criticisms of him and expanding the role of General Secretary, which he was appointed to in 1922. He eliminated any opposition while holding the post of General Secretary until 1952, during which time he also served as Premier from 1941 onward. The document outlines how Stalin systematically increased his control over the Communist Party and Soviet government in the years after Lenin's death.
Lesson 2 of 4: The Rise of Hitler - Hitler's Leadership Abilities
In this lesson, we looked at the 2nd set of reasons leading to Hitler's rise, namely Hitler's own personality and leadership abilities. Having studied the circumstances in Germany, we now learnt about how Hitler took advantage of the situation to rise to power in Germany.
In this lesson, we continued our study of Stalin's Soviet Union by analysing his political impact. We found out how he used a combination of propaganda and terror to control the population.
The document summarizes the events in Russia leading up to and following the Russian Revolution of 1917. It discusses the struggles Russia faced under the Romanov dynasty like food shortages, poverty, and the embarrassing loss in the Russo-Japanese War. This led to the overthrow of the Tsar in 1917 and the rise of the Bolsheviks under Lenin who took power that same year. A civil war then broke out between the Reds and anti-Communist Whites which the Reds eventually won, establishing the Soviet Union by 1922 under Lenin's rule which was later passed to Stalin.
CAMBRIDGE A2 HISTORY: WHY WAS STALIN VICTORIOUS OVER TROTSKY?George Dumitrache
CAMBRIDGE A2 HISTORY: WHY WAS STALIN VICTORIOUS OVER TROTSKY? Contains: Lenin's demise and thoughts, Stalin's propaganda, Stalin's political power, Trotsky's political power, Trotsky as a viable replacement for Lenin, New Opposition, exiled, Lenin's role in Stalin rise to power, downfall for Trotsky, differences between Stalin and Trotsky, Trotsky weak in playing politics.
Lecture slides rise of stalin and impact (2016) updated-1703_geditsGerald Pang
Stalin imposed economic, political, and social policies to consolidate his power and modernize the Soviet Union. His economic policies focused on rapid industrialization through Five-Year Plans which set high targets for industrial and agricultural growth. This included expanding factories, transportation, and collectivization of agriculture. Politically, Stalin eliminated all opposition through the Great Terror and established a cult of personality. Socially, the state tightly controlled all aspects of society and people lived in constant fear. Overall, Stalin's policies transformed the Soviet Union into an industrial and military power, but at the cost of individual freedoms and millions of lives.
Hitler consolidated his power in Nazi Germany through three key events between 1933 and 1934:
1) The Night of the Long Knives in June 1934, where Hitler ordered the killing of SA leader Ernst Rohm and hundreds of other political rivals to eliminate internal opposition.
2) After Hindenburg's death in August 1934, Hitler combined the roles of Chancellor and President to become Führer and gain full dictatorial control.
3) He also required soldiers to swear personal loyalty oaths to him, cementing his command over the military and removing the final institutional challenge to his authority.
Stalin's dictatorship devastated the Soviet Union in several ways:
1) It imposed extreme control over all aspects of society, removing freedoms and individuality from citizens. Social goods, work, and even personal lives were dictated by the state.
2) It created a climate of fear, as citizens lived in constant threat of punishment for any perceived "anti-state" acts. Millions were imprisoned or killed under Stalin's regime.
3) It caused immense human suffering. Workers lived in poverty and dangerous conditions. Famines in the 1930s killed millions due to the failures of collectivization. Housing and goods were chronically short in supply.
Chapter 2a: The Rise of Stalin (Lesson 1 of 2)
In this lesson, you will learn about the Russian Revolutions of 1917 and how they set the stage for Stalin's rise to power. We will get through a few key names and terms, such as the 'Bolsheviks', 'Communism' and 'Lenin'. You will also see a guest appearance by Les Miserables (which, I repeat, has absolutely no historical relevance to the rise of Stalin).
CAMBRIDGE A2 HISTORY: RUSSIAN TERROR TRADITION BEFORE STALIN - TSARS AND LENINGeorge Dumitrache
CAMBRIDGE A2 HISTORY: RUSSIAN TERROR TRADITION BEFORE STALIN - TSARS AND LENIN. Contains: last 2 czars, Alexander the third, nationalism, autocracy, russification, bloody Sunday, Lenin, Red Terror.
The document discusses Stalin's Five-Year Plans from the 1920s to 1930s in the Soviet Union. It describes the plans' goals of rapidly industrializing the country, introducing socialized farming, eliminating private enterprise, and developing education and transportation. It discusses the collectivization of agriculture, which faced resistance from farmers, and the purges and cult of personality Stalin used to consolidate his power and control over society. Overall, the Five-Year Plans industrialized the Soviet Union but also had many negative consequences for citizens and caused much suffering.
The USSR needed to rapidly industrialize to catch up with more developed Western nations and protect itself. Stalin's goals were to transform the Soviet Union into a modern, powerful industrial state within 10 years through collectivizing agriculture, increasing coal and steel production, and creating an industrial workforce. However, this came at great human costs as millions died, living standards declined, and basic freedoms were restricted under Stalin's oppressive policies.
Stalin manipulated factors and exploited divisions within the Communist Party to consolidate his power following Lenin's death in 1924. He pretended to be close to Lenin, used his position as General Secretary to appoint loyalists, and isolated opponents like Trotsky by portraying them as disloyal. By 1927, Stalin had established himself as the Supreme Leader of the Soviet Union by removing potential rivals through alliances, propaganda, and purges.
In this lesson, we looked at the impact that Stalin had on the Soviet Union after he had taken over. We started out by considering his economic impact, which focused on his Five Year Plans.
Sec 3N Hist (Elec) Chapter 2.1 (part 1): The Soviet UnionWeng Lun Ho
The document summarizes the rise of Stalin in the Soviet Union. It describes how Russia entered World War I on the side of the Allies but faced struggles by 1917, leading to the February Revolution where Tsar Nicholas II abdicated. A provisional government took over but faced opposition, leading to the October Revolution where the Bolsheviks overthrew the government under Lenin and Trotsky. This began a civil war as the communist Reds fought the anti-communist Whites, which the Reds won, establishing the USSR in 1922. The USSR then underwent centralization under Lenin and the Politburo, establishing a one-party authoritarian government by 1924 with the Communist Party controlling all aspects of government.
Stalin enforced collectivization in the 1930s to transform traditional agriculture and reduce the power of wealthy landowners known as kulaks. This involved forcing peasants to join large collective farms, causing widespread resistance as peasants destroyed their farms and killed livestock. Collectivization led to famine and millions of deaths, but did modernize and mechanize Soviet agriculture. The Five Year Plans rapidly industrialized Russia through focus on heavy industry and use of forced labor, but living standards declined and later plans faced challenges meeting production goals due to shortages and war. Overall, the Russian people suffered enormous hardships and loss of life from Stalin's policies of forced collectivization and rapid industrialization.
The document summarizes the key events leading up to the Russian Revolution in 1917. It describes how pre-revolutionary Russia was an autocratic state without democratic institutions. Russia's defeat in the 1904 Russo-Japanese War and 1905 Revolution increased instability. Lenin advocated for a revolutionary vanguard to modernize Russia. World War I further weakened Russia and led to food shortages and riots in 1917, causing Czar Nicholas II to abdicate in March. Vladimir Lenin returned from exile and gained support for the Bolshevik's radical socialist ideology. In November, the Bolsheviks led by Lenin and Trotsky seized power in the October Revolution, establishing Soviet Russia and one-party communist rule.
Stalin rose to power in the Soviet Union through a combination of factors. He carefully maneuvered himself up the party ranks with appointments from Lenin. As General Secretary, he consolidated power by appointing allies. After Lenin's death, Stalin further isolated opponents by allying with different factions and turning them against each other, removing Trotsky, the Left, and the Right from power. Through ruthless manipulation, Stalin was able to eliminate all political rivals and become the unchallenged leader of the Soviet Union by the early 1930s.
The document discusses the rise of Stalin's power in the Soviet Union following Lenin's death in 1924. It notes that Stalin consolidated power by suppressing Lenin's criticisms of him and expanding the role of General Secretary, which he was appointed to in 1922. He eliminated any opposition while holding the post of General Secretary until 1952, during which time he also served as Premier from 1941 onward. The document outlines how Stalin systematically increased his control over the Communist Party and Soviet government in the years after Lenin's death.
Lesson 2 of 4: The Rise of Hitler - Hitler's Leadership Abilities
In this lesson, we looked at the 2nd set of reasons leading to Hitler's rise, namely Hitler's own personality and leadership abilities. Having studied the circumstances in Germany, we now learnt about how Hitler took advantage of the situation to rise to power in Germany.
In this lesson, we continued our study of Stalin's Soviet Union by analysing his political impact. We found out how he used a combination of propaganda and terror to control the population.
The document summarizes the events in Russia leading up to and following the Russian Revolution of 1917. It discusses the struggles Russia faced under the Romanov dynasty like food shortages, poverty, and the embarrassing loss in the Russo-Japanese War. This led to the overthrow of the Tsar in 1917 and the rise of the Bolsheviks under Lenin who took power that same year. A civil war then broke out between the Reds and anti-Communist Whites which the Reds eventually won, establishing the Soviet Union by 1922 under Lenin's rule which was later passed to Stalin.
CAMBRIDGE A2 HISTORY: WHY WAS STALIN VICTORIOUS OVER TROTSKY?George Dumitrache
CAMBRIDGE A2 HISTORY: WHY WAS STALIN VICTORIOUS OVER TROTSKY? Contains: Lenin's demise and thoughts, Stalin's propaganda, Stalin's political power, Trotsky's political power, Trotsky as a viable replacement for Lenin, New Opposition, exiled, Lenin's role in Stalin rise to power, downfall for Trotsky, differences between Stalin and Trotsky, Trotsky weak in playing politics.
Lecture slides rise of stalin and impact (2016) updated-1703_geditsGerald Pang
Stalin imposed economic, political, and social policies to consolidate his power and modernize the Soviet Union. His economic policies focused on rapid industrialization through Five-Year Plans which set high targets for industrial and agricultural growth. This included expanding factories, transportation, and collectivization of agriculture. Politically, Stalin eliminated all opposition through the Great Terror and established a cult of personality. Socially, the state tightly controlled all aspects of society and people lived in constant fear. Overall, Stalin's policies transformed the Soviet Union into an industrial and military power, but at the cost of individual freedoms and millions of lives.
Hitler consolidated his power in Nazi Germany through three key events between 1933 and 1934:
1) The Night of the Long Knives in June 1934, where Hitler ordered the killing of SA leader Ernst Rohm and hundreds of other political rivals to eliminate internal opposition.
2) After Hindenburg's death in August 1934, Hitler combined the roles of Chancellor and President to become Führer and gain full dictatorial control.
3) He also required soldiers to swear personal loyalty oaths to him, cementing his command over the military and removing the final institutional challenge to his authority.
Stalin's dictatorship devastated the Soviet Union in several ways:
1) It imposed extreme control over all aspects of society, removing freedoms and individuality from citizens. Social goods, work, and even personal lives were dictated by the state.
2) It created a climate of fear, as citizens lived in constant threat of punishment for any perceived "anti-state" acts. Millions were imprisoned or killed under Stalin's regime.
3) It caused immense human suffering. Workers lived in poverty and dangerous conditions. Famines in the 1930s killed millions due to the failures of collectivization. Housing and goods were chronically short in supply.
Chapter 2a: The Rise of Stalin (Lesson 1 of 2)
In this lesson, you will learn about the Russian Revolutions of 1917 and how they set the stage for Stalin's rise to power. We will get through a few key names and terms, such as the 'Bolsheviks', 'Communism' and 'Lenin'. You will also see a guest appearance by Les Miserables (which, I repeat, has absolutely no historical relevance to the rise of Stalin).
CAMBRIDGE A2 HISTORY: RUSSIAN TERROR TRADITION BEFORE STALIN - TSARS AND LENINGeorge Dumitrache
CAMBRIDGE A2 HISTORY: RUSSIAN TERROR TRADITION BEFORE STALIN - TSARS AND LENIN. Contains: last 2 czars, Alexander the third, nationalism, autocracy, russification, bloody Sunday, Lenin, Red Terror.
The document discusses Stalin's Five-Year Plans from the 1920s to 1930s in the Soviet Union. It describes the plans' goals of rapidly industrializing the country, introducing socialized farming, eliminating private enterprise, and developing education and transportation. It discusses the collectivization of agriculture, which faced resistance from farmers, and the purges and cult of personality Stalin used to consolidate his power and control over society. Overall, the Five-Year Plans industrialized the Soviet Union but also had many negative consequences for citizens and caused much suffering.
The USSR needed to rapidly industrialize to catch up with more developed Western nations and protect itself. Stalin's goals were to transform the Soviet Union into a modern, powerful industrial state within 10 years through collectivizing agriculture, increasing coal and steel production, and creating an industrial workforce. However, this came at great human costs as millions died, living standards declined, and basic freedoms were restricted under Stalin's oppressive policies.
Stalin’s soviet union chp 3 economic policiesReuben Ong
Stalin implemented policies of collectivization and industrialization to rapidly modernize the Soviet Union. Collectivization involved merging small farms into large collective farms, and faced resistance from kulaks who slaughtered livestock in protest. This led to famine in 1932-1933 that caused millions of deaths. Industrialization focused on heavy industries through five-year plans and resulted in overproduction and underproduction issues initially. However, it helped transform the Soviet Union into an industrial power and military force by 1941. Both policies had negative social impacts but achieved Stalin's goal of making the Soviet Union an economically strong socialist state.
PAGE 10Chapter 16 COMMUNIST CHINA An Historical Overv.docxgerardkortney
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10
Chapter 16: COMMUNIST CHINA:
An Historical Overview and the Importance of Ideology
(Written 1989; Revised 2006)
Loren Lee, Palomar College
With its victory over the Nationalist government in 1949, the Chinese Communist Party came to power. The communist party leaders agreed that the country needed to develop economically and that such development was to occur within a socialist framework. However, since 1949, there have continually been major disagreements as to the ways by which these goals would be accomplished. Until 1976, the main disagreements were between party chair Mao Zedong and his followers (who will be called “radical leftists”) and a more moderate group of party leaders led by Liu Shaoqi and then by Deng Xiaoping (who will be called “pragmatists” or “moderates”). Following the death of Mao in 1976, the “pragmatists” became dominant and China entered a period of major reform.
From 1949 to 1976, Mao’s ideology was the dominant influence on Chinese economic policies. In the ten years prior to his death (1966 to 1976), his ideology could be likened to a state religion. Several features of this ideology should be kept in mind as we attempt to understand the peculiarities of China’s economic history.
· First, Mao believed that people, through sheer human willpower, could accomplish practically any end. This belief developed from his quarter century as a leader of a guerilla revolutionary army. The “guerilla mentality” carried over into economic matters in his belief that people, if properly mobilized, were more important to economic development than capital or technology.
· Second, unlike Marx, Mao believed in the primacy of politics over economics. You will see below how the Cultural Revolution illustrates Mao’s belief in the primacy of politics.
· Third, following from this elevation of the role of politics was Mao’s desire to eliminate “economic man” and replace him or her with “communist man”. Communist man would be selfless and capable of total self-denial. He would be one whose main motivation is to benefit the group. You will see this belief illustrated by Mao’s advocacy of “moral incentives” for peasants and workers and his repudiation of material incentives. To Mao, allowing any type of “capitalist” incentives (such as higher pay) would necessarily lead to a reversion to capitalism.
· Fourth, for Mao, an equal distribution of income was at least as important as economic growth. This included equality between men and women.
· Finally, Mao saw class struggle and revolution as a continuing process and not as a process that would end with the revolution. He saw a continuing tendency to revert to capitalism that had to be continually fought.
As a result of this need for continual revolution, China’s economic history is extremely unstable--- reverting from one set of programs to another and then back again. In examining this instability, we will look four at specific sub-periods: (1) 1949 to 1958, (2) Th.
The document provides background information on China's Great Leap Forward period from 1958-1962. It describes Mao Zedong's goals to rapidly industrialize China and catch up to Western nations. Peasants were organized into large communes and pushed to exceed production quotas. Mao's plans included a failed backyard steel production campaign that wasted resources and contributed to a widespread famine that killed hundreds of thousands.
Joseph Stalin had a significant impact on Russia and its people through his rule from 1928 to 1953. He industrialized the country, transforming it from a poor, agricultural nation into a modern industrial power. However, this came at tremendous human costs. Stalin collectivized agriculture, which initially benefited production but eventually led to widespread famine and death as peasants resisted giving up their land. Stalin's harsh policies, including the execution and deportation of kulaks and use of secret police, left a lasting impact through terror and human rights abuses for many Russians during his rule.
Stalin played a minor role in creating the Soviet state but established it as a powerful nation through totalitarian control. He collectivized agriculture and implemented five-year plans to industrialize the economy and make it state-controlled. Stalin also created a cult of personality around himself and used the Great Terror to eliminate opposition. This allowed Stalin to completely control all aspects of Soviet politics, society, and the economy.
Stalin implemented radical policies of industrialization, collectivization, and terror that transformed the Soviet Union into a global superpower but resulted in immense human costs. Millions died from famine during collectivization as peasants were forced off their land into collective farms. Stalin also purged perceived political opponents through mass arrests, executions, and imprisonment in the Gulag system. While industrial output increased dramatically, the Soviet people suffered under Stalin's brutal totalitarian rule characterized by censorship, propaganda, and constant fear of repression or death.
Here are some key points about Russification under the Tsars:
- Russification refers to policies aimed at assimilating non-Russian peoples of the Russian Empire into the Russian culture and identity.
- It involved imposing the Russian language and Orthodox Christianity on minority groups like Poles, Ukrainians, Finns and Baltic peoples.
- The Tsars pursued Russification to strengthen central control and unity in their vast, multi-ethnic empire. They wanted to prevent separatist nationalism on the empire's borders.
- Russification intensified under Alexander III in the 1880s after the assassination of Alexander II by revolutionaries. Alexander III was a staunch nationalist who distrusted non-Russian influences.
- Pol
The document summarizes key events and conditions in Russia before and after the 1917 revolution:
- Before 1905, Russia was an autocratic state ruled by the Tsar. Peasants and workers lived in poor conditions with long hours, low pay, and no political rights. Inspired by socialism and democratic reforms in Europe, calls for change grew.
- After the 1917 revolution, the Bolsheviks took power and immediately nationalized industries and banks. They redistributed land to peasants and introduced a command economy managed by the Communist party through centralized five-year plans.
- Stalin later introduced collectivization in 1929, forcing independent farmers onto collective farms to boost grain production. However, initial results were poor harvests and famine,
Stalin consolidated power in the Soviet Union through totalitarian policies like collectivization, industrialization, and the Great Purge. He forced peasants off their land and into collective farms, causing a famine that killed millions. Stalin also eliminated political opposition through executions and the Gulag system. His five-year plans transformed the Soviet economy into an industrial power but at the cost of individual freedoms and millions of lives under his repressive communist regime.
The document discusses the impact of the French Revolution and the spread of new ideas about individual rights and social power. It led to varied responses across Europe, with some wanting gradual change and others desiring a radical restructuring of society. There emerged three main groups - conservatives who wanted to preserve the status quo, liberals who favored limited reforms, and radicals who pushed for widespread changes to society. The document examines the political divisions that arose in the aftermath of the French Revolution across Europe regarding approaches to social and political transformation.
The document summarizes the establishment of a dictatorship of the proletariat in Russia following the Russian Revolution of 1917. Key events include Czar Nicholas II abdicating the throne in March 1917 amid widespread unrest. The Bolsheviks then seized power in November 1917, led by Lenin, establishing Soviet rule and single-party control under the Communist Party. Stalin later consolidated power as dictator, instituting policies of rapid industrialization and collectivization that transformed the Soviet Union economically but cost millions of lives.
The Russian Revolution began in February 1917 when widespread unrest caused Czar Nicholas II to abdicate. A provisional government was established but faced growing opposition. In October 1917, the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, seized power in the October Revolution. They established a communist one-party state and fought a civil war against anti-Bolshevik forces from 1918 to 1920. Under Stalin's rule in the 1920s-1930s, the Soviet Union underwent rapid industrialization and the forced collectivization of agriculture, which caused significant hardship and famine.
The document summarizes key events in Europe and Asia between 1929 and 1949, including:
1) Stalin's rise to power in the Soviet Union and implementation of authoritarian policies like collectivization and industrialization under the Five-Year Plans.
2) The global Great Depression starting with the 1929 stock market crash, which impacted Germany and Japan more severely and led to the rise of fascism.
3) World War 2, in which Germany and Japan aggressively expanded their territories until defeated by the Allied powers of the US, Britain, Soviet Union and China.
4) The war saw unprecedented death and human suffering due to new technologies and strategic bombing of civilians, as well as the Holocaust carried out by Nazi Germany
Nicholas II's weak leadership and failure to enact meaningful reforms led to growing unrest in Russia. Economic issues like increased taxes hurt peasants while workers faced poor conditions. Socially, ethnic groups faced oppression and workers had no rights. The Bloody Sunday massacre in 1905 further radicalized opposition. Nicholas issued the October Manifesto granting civil liberties and limited parliament, but it did little to resolve issues and revolution continued to simmer until the outbreak of World War I.
The document discusses several factors related to industrialization in various countries in the 19th century:
- Countries increased manufacturing which created needs for new markets, raw materials, and challenged existing manufacturing centers.
- Reforms involved modernizing militaries, improving infrastructure like railroads, taking advantage of natural resources, and sometimes requiring foreign investment.
- Resistance to reforms came from conservative groups like Janissaries and landowners who opposed modernization and loss of power.
The document summarizes key aspects of industrialization, collectivization of agriculture, and social changes in the early Soviet Union:
1) The Soviet Union underwent rapid industrialization through 5-year plans focusing on heavy industry and military production, building new industrial cities with Western engineering techniques.
2) Collectivization in 1928 seized privately owned farms and established government-owned collectives, reducing food production as grains were taken to feed cities and for export.
3) Brutal techniques against workers and farmers, and a massive famine in the 1930s, killed between 5-10 million people as the wealthy class was removed and small landowners were destroyed.
Stalin transformed the Soviet Union into a totalitarian state by bringing all economic activity under strict government control, using terror and violence to eliminate opposition, and instituting total state control over all aspects of society. He imposed five-year plans to rapidly industrialize and collectivize agriculture, leading to tremendous growth but also famine and unrest. In response, Stalin purged millions of citizens and established an all-powerful secret police force and Gulag system to enforce absolute obedience through fear and oppression.
1. Russia under Stalin
Joseph Stalin. Born the son of a Georgian cobbler, he was named Ioseb Dzhugashvilli
(Georgian) or Josef Vissarionovich (Russian). He studied in a church school in Gori,
but was expelled for Marxist activity. He continued with his activities, writing Marxist
essays in a Georgian newspaper. He was an enthusiastic defender of Lenin and the
Marxist exiles who published the socialist paper Iskra.
In Georgia he led many Marxist revolutionary movements and joined the Bolsheviks.
He was part of the Central Committee and was put in charge of the revolutionary
newspaper Pravda. He took on the name of "Stalin", which means "Man of Steel" in
Russian.
After defeating Trotsky and ridding the party of all his rivals, Stalin began to build up
Russia. As he said, "Other countries are 50 years ahead of Russia. We must make this
up in 10 years." As such, he had two main aims: (i)a centrally-planned economy
called a command economy; (ii)a totalitarian system of government.
A Centrally-Planned Economy
Stalin's Economic Aims
Stalin wanted the USSR to modernise at such a fast rate that it could make up the 50-
year gap in 10 years. The industry had to be devoloped to such an extent that the
country, which had all along depended mostly on agriculture or farming, had to be
changed such that it now depended on industry more. Although Russia was recovering
from war, its production from heavy industries was still low compared to other
countries. Stalin felt that this needed to be improved if they were to survive any
possible attack that might come from the capitalist West attempting to destroy
Communist Russia. The USSR needed to invest in materials like coal, iron, steel and
power to defend itself properly. Rapid industrialisation was also needed for defence as
the USSR was surrounded, as Stalin said, by governments that hated Communism:
Romania, Iran, Finland and Poland.
In order to become a strong industrial economy, the agricultural sector had to be
modernised and made more efficient so it could produce enough food to meet the
needs of the workforce. It would also be able to raise money needed for
industrialisation. Surplus had to be exported and money used to buy machinery and
such. Fewer workers could then be used on the farms and industrialisation could take
2. place more rapidly by transferring more workers from the countryside to the factories.
Unfortunately, Lenin's NEP was not achieving the results that they wanted. Stalin
dubbed the NEP as an impedement to communism and had to be scrapped. This rapid
industrialisation would also bring about two political results : (i)Communist support
would increase as the workers were the Communists' greatest supporters;
(ii)remaining opposition would be eliminated, in particular the class of rich peasants,
the kulaks.
Main Features of a Centrally-Planned (Command) Economy
During this period, Russia's economy was completely transformed. The state planned
the entire economy through the State Planning Commission, or Gosplan. They issued
instructions and orders, commands that were then passed down to factories,
businesses or farms. They drew up a series or plans which Stalin dubbed, the Five
Year Plans. The three Five-Year Plans were set targets and goals that the industry and
agriculture had to achieve. In practice, the emphasis was on achieving more than the
set targets rather than meeting them. Such a system greatly discouraged individual
initiative. For example, a factory manager received his commands and just carried
them out to the letter.
The government controlled the resources it needed to achieve the economic targets.
Factories, mines, transport and farms were owned by the state. The government
exercised tight control over the labour force. Ordinary workers were harshly
disciplined and poor workmanship and absence made things worse. Millionis of
peasants were directed into the towns and cities to work in factories and mines. These
and other heavy industries were given high priority in the first Five Year Plan.
Consumer industries were neglected and agriculture was reorganised to suit this.
The First Five Year Plan
The First Five Year Plan was aimed at expanding and modernising existing industries,
establish new ones, and relocate those in the west further to the east, so that they
would be more secure and protected by the vast amounts of land if Russia were to be
attacked by the West.
Many targets which the workers had to meet were set - and most were unrealistic. For
example, there was to be a 250% increase in total industrial output and a 350%
increase in heavy industries. The people were given no leave and absenteeism was
treated as treason. Many workers had to slog for 11 hours! However, none of them
revolted, as they knew their wages were paid in food rations, which meant they would
DEFINITELY not eat if they did not work. Propaganda was used. Brochures,
pamphlets and posters were distributed all over to boost the people's morale. Human
3. examples were used. One man was said to be working at a rate 500% more productive
than the average worker. Of course, most of these figures were exaggerated and the
people were killed by jealous workers.
The Russian heavy industries were far below average, and Stalin felt that devloping
these industries were important. The factories would be able to churn out machinery
for farming, which would increase productivity and allow more workers to join the
urban working force. Not only that, these factories would be able to change their
products into war machinery. Tanks, weapons and airplanes could be produced at
these factories if ever required. The large supplies of iron and steel, for example,
which would otherwise have been used to make machinery meant for agricultural
uses, could then be used for war machinery manufacturing. This would be a sufficient
backup for machines to defend Russia if the West decided to attack.
The agricultural sector was not neglected. Rapid industrialisation could only be
achieved if agriculture was made more efficient, as sufficient food had to be produced
to feed the workforce. Surplus food could then be sold for money to boost the
industrial sector. Stalin introduced a new method of farming - collectivisation.
Collectivisation basically encompassed grouping small, scattered farms in an area
together in a collective, or Kolkhozy. These peasants pooled their animals, tools and
labour to work for the benefit of the whole community. The collectives had to sell
most of their produce at low prices to the government. Any profits and surplus were
theirs to keep.
Agriculture was also subjected to state planning. The First Five Year Plan was aimed
at raising agricultural output by 130%. Major grain-producing areas were to be
collectivised by early 1931 followed by the other regions in the following year. Each
colelctive had a quota of grain it had to deliver to the state by a set date.
Collectivisation was implemented in 1928 and supposed to be on a purely voluntary
basis, and at a moderate pace. Of course, as with all theories, it never happened in
practice. In 1929 Stalin sped up the process because peasants refused to share their
labour and would rather burn their crops and kill their animals instead of selling food
to the government. The government had to apply force to make them join the
collectives. Those who resisted were severely dealt with. At the same time, Stalin
dealt with the rich class of peasants, the kulaks. As Communism preached equality
among all men, these peasants of "higher class" had to be eliminated. Stalin ordered
these kulaks to hand over their land, houses and property to the government. Their
crops, labour and machinery were to be distributed among the collectives. They were,
however, not allowed to join the collectives and millions if these peasants were sent to
labour camps or executed. Most kulaks resisted and destroyed their property,
4. machinery, crops and animals so that the government would not be able to use it. In a
bid to increase collective membership, peasants were granted incentives to join the
collectives in 1930. Stalin introduced the machine tractor station in Russia, where
collectives could borrow machinery and increase their productivity in return for
payment in the form of crops.
Results of the First Five Year Plan
Even though the official government figures were greatly exaggerated, there is no
denying the fact that it was a great success. The plan was achieved in four years, and
not five as scheduled. There was a huge expansion of energy production as new
factories and towns needed power. Dams were created and other major projects also
led to the improvement of Russia. Roads, railways and canals were constructed.
Russia was able to increase manufacturing and thus make more ample preparations for
war in future.
However, the Five Year Plan was not all that successful if we talk in terms of the
social aspects present in Russia at that time. The enormous demands placed on the
workers meant that millions of them lived in harsh conditions, working on the vast
projects in the interior of Russia. The state tightened its control on the workers.
Absenteeism was treated extremely harshly. The large emphasis on heavy industries
meant that consumer goods were high in demand. Shops were empty, clothing was in
short supply and many household items were unavailable. THe lack of consumer
products was one example of the fall in the standard of living. Because of the huge
influx of people going into the cities from the countryside, there were insufficient
medical facilities, houses and schools. Workers were poorly paid.
Collectivisation was also part of the Five Year Plan, but it was less successful than
industrialisation. It did not fulfil its targets udner the Plan and grain production even
declined from 1928 to 1932. This caused widespread famine later on. Even though up
to 7 milliong peasants died, the government still hoarded grain to sell to other
countries to earn foreign currency to be used for investment in industry. Grain
production recovered a lot, but the lifestock took till 1953 to regain its 1928 level due
to all the killings earlier. Collectivisation was a huge success as it made Russia's
agriculture more efficient. The huge amount of mechanisation involved, the efficiency
meant that many peasants left their farms and went to work in the industrial labour
sector.
According to Stalin, the Plan was also a success because they were able to rid
themselves of the kulaks and move towards communism. Also, collectivisation put an
end to private ownership of land. Land was nationalised and allowed peasants to own
5. a small plot of land as a concession, to win their support. The state could now exercise
more control over the peasants with the collectives.
The Other Five Year Plans
Basically the following five-year plans focused on a more balanced economy after
that, with increasing emphasis on other stages of industrialisation, moving into the
light industry and so on.
The second Five-Year Plan (1933-37) continued and expanded the first. The third plan
(1938-42) was interrupted by World War II. The fourth covered the years 1946-50,
the fifth 1951-55. The sixth plan (1956-60) was discarded in 1957, primarily because
it overcommitted available resources and could not be fulfilled. It was replaced by a
Seven-Year Plan (1959-65), which fell far short of estimated increases in agricultural
(especially wheat) production. The Seven-Year Plan was considered the start of a
longer period (20 years) devoted to the establishment of the material and technical
basis of a Communist society. The late 1960s and early 1970s saw increased emphasis
placed on consumer goods, and the 9th Five-Year Plan (1971-75) for the first time
gave priority to light industry rather than heavy industry. The agricultural sector still
grew far less than projected in the 10th (1976-80) and 11th (1981-85) Five-Year
Plans, and overall economic performance was poor. The 12th and final Five-Year Plan
(1986-90) projected increases in consumer goods and energy savings, but the
economy began to slide, shrinking by 4% in 1990. The dissolution of the Soviet Union
made the formation of a 13th Five-Year Plan a moot point.
A Totalitarian Government
A totalitarian government is one where there is only one party allowed - the ruling
party. In Stalin's Russia this meant that the Communist Party was supreme. All
criticism and opposition is eliminated. The people are expected to be totally loyal to
the state and to the person at the head of the government. Stalin ruled as a dictator,
commanding his people with absolute power. He conducted many purges against his
rivals and introduced a new constitution which reinforced his power. The secret police
and even a cult helped to build up his image and keep him in power.
Reasons for the Purges
Under Stalin's totalitarian government of the 1930s, many purges were held, killing
millions.
6. The main reason for the purges was because Stalin felt insecure. People were
questioning his leadership, his methods and his policies. Many people were unhappy
with the harshness of his Five Year Plans. He also faced criticism from within the
party. Politicians who were overly critical of Stalin were at risk, but a few took their
chances.
Sergei Kirov was one such man. He had been one of Stalin's closest supporters on the
Politburo and was, in 1934, the party boss of Leningrad. At the 1934 Party Congress,
Kirov switched sides and began criticising Stalin and his harsh policies. Fearless ones
warmly applauded Kirov as they agreed, while other less daring ones remained silent.
Stalin's position in the Central Committee was under siege, as Kirov pulled in the
highest number of votes while Stalin got the lowest. He only managed to stay in as
there were just as many vacancies as there were candidates. As such, Stalin decided to
take action against Kirov who was emerging as a potential rival for leadership of the
Party. On 1st December 1934, Stalin had Kirov assassinated. On the same day, Stalin
passed a law that ordered anyone accused of terrorism and plots against the
government was to be arrested and executed immediately after conviction. This law
gave Stalin the chance to carry out the Great Purges properly and easily without any
resistance.
The Great Purges
Stalin used this 1934 law to launch a massive purge of all the people, including
Communist Party members and top government officials, who were potential rivals or
threats to him, those who criticised his policies and even the innocent few. Stalin held
show trials for those party members who opposed him. These trials were meant for the
people to see and serve as a warning to any people planning to oppose Stalin. They
were held in Moscow and were filmed at times to show in other parts of Russia, so
that the people in those places would also receive the same precautionary warning.
In the "Trial of the Sixteen", in 1936, Zinoniev, Kamenev and 14 other prominent
members of the party who had questioned Stalin and his actions before were put on
trial. They were charged with being part of a conspiracy to assassinate leading
Communists, and they were found guilty and executed promptly.
The "Trial of the Seventeen" in 1937 saw Radek and 16 other members charged with a
variety of crimes such as sabotage and treason. 13 of them were executed while the
other 4 were brought to labour camps.
In 1938 the "Trial of the Twenty-One" was held. Bukharin, Rykov and 19 others were
charged with an even greater assortment of crimes. As in the earlier trials, the secret
police tortured the accused and extracted confessions of guilt.
7. By 1937 the purging had spread to the armed forces. Russia's most famous general
Tuchachevsky and other generals were arrested and killed. By 1939, 3 out of 5
marshals and about half of the military officials had been purged.
The Great Purges had affected Russians all over as they lived in constant fear that
they would be arrested and jailed, tortured or shot. It was common for ordinary
citizens to accuse their neighbours or even family members of criticising Stalin so as
to project a patriotic and loyal image of themselves in the hope that they would not be
killed. In this way, all sectors of society were affected. People of every profession and
background were purged. Over 10 million people were sent to labour camps where
they often died, while a million were executed.
Effects of the Purges
The most important political effect was, naturally, that Stalin became even more
powerful than before. He had got rid of his political rivals and nobody dared to
challenge his authority. Even when Russia was doing badly in World War II, his
leadership was not challenged. He introduced a new constitution called the Stalin
Constitution. This placed him firmly in control of the USSR.
A serious military effect was that the purges severely weakened the armed forces by
removing many capable leaders who had to be replaced by inexperienced officers.
This contributed greatly to the slow start that the Russians made in World War II.
In economic terms, the purges slowed down economic development, what with all the
internal squabbling and fear in the country. Many industrial workers and high-end
employees were killed, thus affecting worker morale and productivity.
Lastly, the purges made life extremely difficult for the people - the millions of
citizens. Everyone lived in fear and terror, with the secret police patrolling the area.
Apart from those sent to the labour camps where conditions were appalling and most
people died or disappeared, the family and friends that they left behind suffered
because they did not know what had happened to their loved ones.
The Stalin Constitution
Stalin claimed this constitution was the fairest in the world. Everyone over 18 was
allowed to vote every four years for a national assembly called the Supreme Soviet.
This assembly met for two weeks a year. It elected a smaller body, the Praesidium, to
act on its behalf. It also chose a Council of Ministers responsible for running the
country. Stalin, as Secretary or leader of the Communist Party, led this cabinet.
8. Only members of the Communist Party could be elected to the various posts. Stalin
controlled party membership, and thus chose those people who liked and supported
him and his position. Although the constitution was supposed to be democratic, it is
obvious that Stalin had the real power. Stalin and the Communist Party tried to make
themselves look good by recognising the rights of the people to free medical care, to
work, to education and political rights, such as freedom of speech and freedom of
press. However, all these "freedoms" had to be expressed according to Stalin's and the
party's wishes.
The Cult of Stalin
Throughout the 1930s propaganda was used to build up Stalin's image. Like a
religious worship, a cult of Stalin was formed. Stalin was like a godlike leader to the
people, praised in the newspapers, books and in films and posters. Poems published in
Pravda praised his deeds, speeches exalting his skills, his modesty, his wisdom and his
brilliance. People who attended these meetings were careful to applaud long and
loudly, and the person who stopped first would most likely be arrested as it showed
great disrespect and disloyalty to Stalin.
Social and Cultural Policies
Education was closely regulated. It was free and compulsory, and tended to be
indoctrinated as it sought to mould people into the Communist way of thinking. The
secret police ensured that Communist ideology was taught.
The arts were controlled by the state which used them for propaganda purposes.
Pressure was put on writers to write novels about the glorious achievements of the
government. Musicians, artists and film-makers who refused to follow the state's
direction were persecuted or purged.
The Russian Orthodox Church was also persecuted by Stalin. The totalitarian
government could not tolerate people being loyal to other influential institutions such
as the Church. Churches were closed down and religiouis leaders were persecuted.
However, the Church continued to survive.
The 1930s was a period of terror and fear. Stalin and the Communist Party ruled the
USSR with an iron fist and as a dictatorship. They may have ovethrown the Tsar, but
this government was in little way different.
Stalin's Legacy
9. The task of confronting unpleasant historical episodes is difficult for any country, even long-established
democracies. It took more than two decades after World War II before the majority of Germans truly
acknowledged the full horror and magnitude of Nazi Germany's crimes. In France today, many citizens are
still reluctant to look closely at the Vichy period and the widespread collaboration that occurred. In Austria,
many people still pretend that their country was a victim of Nazi aggression rather than an enthusiastic
participant in the Third Reich and its atrocities. In Japan, political leaders still frequently downplay the
abominations perpetrated by Japanese troops in China, Korea, and Manchuria in the 1930s and 1940s. In
the United States, too, many tragic aspects of history—the enslavement of blacks, the many decades of
violent racial segregation that followed the Civil War, the campaigns against American Indians, and the
internment of Japanese-Americans at the start of World War II—have often been glossed over.
Difficult as the process of historical reckoning may be for these Western countries, it is even more onerous
in Russia, where far too little has been done to come to terms with Stalin's legacy. In a mass survey in
2005, a majority of Russians chose Stalin as the "greatest leader" in Russia's history. Follow up surveys
revealed similar results and widespread public misperceptions of the Stalin era. The majority of Russians in
these surveys were either ambivalent or favorable in their assessment of Stalin, and roughly 25 percent said
they would definitely vote for Stalin if he were to come back to life and run for the Russian presidency.
Part of the problem in Russia in coming to terms with Stalin's legacy is the continued presence of officials
who served in high-level posts in the Communist Party, the government, and the security forces during the
Soviet period. These officials have been averse to harsh reassessments of the past and have sought to
prevent the release of sensitive documents that would show the Soviet regime's activities in a sinister light.
President Vladimir Putin, for example, has repeatedly said that he profoundly regrets the demise of the
Soviet Union, describing it as "the greatest geopolitical catastrophe of the twentieth century." This
description is astounding if one bears in mind that the twentieth century witnessed many genuine
catastrophes, perhaps most significantly, the Holocaust. Although Putin has acknowledged that excesses
occurred under Stalin, he has frequently lauded the monumental accomplishments of the Soviet regime,
including the accomplishments of Stalin. Putin also often speaks proudly of the Soviet KGB, the notorious
state security agency for which he worked in the 1970s and 1980s, carrying on the efforts of agents who
served Stalin’s regime.
True to form, Putin has brought back some of the trappings and symbols used by Stalin, and he has
appointed a large number of former KGB officials to senior posts in his government. In early May 2000,
Putin authorized the Russian Central Bank to issue 500 special silver coins bearing Stalin's portrait,
ostensibly to commemorate the Soviet Union's role in World War II. A few days later, at a ceremony
marking the 55th anniversary of the end of the war, Putin unveiled a plaque honoring "Generalissimo Josef
Vissarionovich Stalin" for his heroic leadership. Putin also approved the placement of a bust of Stalin at the
Poklonnaya Gora war memorial. Several months later, in December 2000, Putin pushed for legislation to
bring back the old Soviet national anthem, which had been commissioned by Stalin in 1943 and replaced by
Yeltsin in late 1991. The anthem was formally restored as of January 2001, an event that Putin marked with
great solemnity. When Putin was asked in an interview how he could justify the revival of such a blatant
symbol of Stalinist repression, he conceded that many people associate the anthem with the horrors of
Stalin's prison camps. But Putin vigorously disagreed with this view, arguing that the anthem should instead
be linked with the many achievements of the Soviet period in which people can take pride. Putin has
returned to this theme many times since then, especially during the numerous ceremonies in 2005
commemorating the 60th anniversary of the end of the war against Germany. Stalin's portrait was widely
displayed and was prominently featured in newspapers during those celebrations.
These developments and Putin's rationalizations are deeply troubling. It would be as if German leaders after
1945 had claimed that they were bringing back the swastika to remind everyone of the proud achievements
of the Nazi regime. Adolf Hitler, after all, took a demoralized and economically desperate country and turned
it into a daunting military power in well under a decade. No doubt, if historians were to look hard enough we
could find positive things that occurred in Germany from 1933 to 1945, but this progress would hardly
warrant a revival of the swastika. The atrocious evil of the Holocaust, as Germans are well aware, precludes
any notion of celebrating the Nazi regime's accomplishments.
The same should apply to Stalin's regime. Although Putin would like to focus exclusively on the allied victory
in World War II and the emergence of the Soviet Union as a superpower, none of this focus gets around the
fact that Stalin presided over one of the bloodiest and most abominable regimes in history. The restoration
of conspicuous symbols of the Stalinist regime inevitably mitigates and blurs over the regime's monstrous
10. crimes. The continued celebration of Soviet holidays, particularly the "Day of the Security Organs" on
December 20th, conveys appalling disregard for the millions who fell victim to the Soviet security apparatus.
Rather than harkening back to the symbols and institutions of the Soviet regime, the Russian government
should be doing its best to overcome that terrible legacy. Boris Yeltsin had an opportunity early in his
administration to promote a thorough historical accounting, but he squandered it. Although he allowed some
of the former Soviet archives to be partly opened, he limited the release of documents and kept the most
important archives tightly sealed. Yeltsin failed to ensure the systematic removal of statues of Lenin and of
other monuments glorifying the Soviet regime, and he was unwilling to disband the sprawling state security
organs, which were just as symbolic of Stalinist repression as the SS was of Nazi atrocities. Although the
KGB was reorganized in late 1991, the agency's repressive apparatus was preserved essentially intact under
the main successor organization in Russia, the Federal Security Service (FSB), which regards itself as
proudly carrying on the KGB’s work.
The lack of a thorough reckoning with the past has had negative effects on the Russian population. Russians
who proudly display portraits of Stalin on the streets of Moscow or who lay flowers before symbols of the
Stalinist regime are never chided for condoning mass murder. On the contrary, the admirers of Stalin can
now purchase silver coins with his image from the Russian government itself. This may help explain why a
large number of Russians regard Stalin as the greatest leader in their country's history. It is inconceivable
that a majority of Germans today would think of Hitler in similar terms. It is also inconceivable that Germans
today would tolerate any suggestion of reviving the Hitler Youth. In Russia, by contrast, there has been no
outcry at all over the growing power and size of youth indoctrination organizations like Nashi and Young
Guard. These groups are akin to the Komsomol, the Communist youth organization that indoctrinated and
prepared millions of Soviet young people for service to Stalin’s regime.
So long as the symbols and institutions of Stalinist repression are still flourishing in Russia, the prospects for
democracy will be dim. The former Communist countries that have done the most to encourage a thorough
reckoning with the Communist period have enjoyed much greater stability than the countries that have gone
about the process selectively or halfheartedly. Deep and lasting democratization in the former East-bloc
states has made the most headway when the iniquities of the Communist period have been exposed to
public light.
Courageous groups in Russia like Memorial and the Democracy Foundation have done invaluable work in
documenting the extent of the Stalinist repressions, but a full reckoning with the Stalinist past must
encompass the whole society. The passing of generations will help, but the task of facing up to the horrors
of Stalin's rule will also require integrity on the part of public officials – officials who take no pride in the
Stalinist regime's "monumental achievements" and are instead committed to overcoming the Stalinist legacy
once and for all.