This describes the topic research in statistics

1. Research Methods
RMS 101/201
Ms Chipumuro 0712085098

2. Chapter 1
 We will defined research and scientific
research
 Describe the scientific research process
and its steps
 Types of research
 The need to understand ethical issues
in research

3. 1. Introduction
 Research advances knowledge and
improves practice
 Module intends to give students a
sense of direction in the
implementation of inquiry methods
that value new ways of knowing

4. 1.2 What is Research?
 A systematic process of collecting and
logically analysing data for some purpose
(Creswell 2004, Graziano & Raulin 2008)
 Information is collected to increase our
understanding of any subject
 Research is a systematic process that can
be conducted by anyone, anywhere and on
anything in nature
 This module will explain what scientific
research is

5. 1.3 What is Scientific
Research?
 It is formal, sequential and not applied in a general
way
 The search of knowledge by using recognised methods
in data collection, analysis and interpretation (McMillan
and Schumacher 1998)
 Scientific is not similar to science
 Scientific refers to an approach of generating
knowledge
 Meanwhile science is a body of established knowledge
 Research is a methodological study used to prove a
hypothesis or answer a specific question

6. 1.3.1 Characteristics of Scientific
research
 Research starts with a question or
problem, it begins with a clear simple
statement of a problem
 It deals with the main problem through
appropriate sub-problems
 It is guided by the specific hypothesis
 It accepts certain critical assumptions
(a position taken for granted)
 It requires a systematic approach

7. 1.4 Scientific methods of solving
a problem
 Scientific research method is cyclic
(Neutons and Rubinson 1997). 7 steps of the
research process;
 Research problem
 The hypothesis
 Reviewing literature
 The research design
 Methods of data collection
 Analysing the data
 Writing a research report

8. 1.5 Types of Research
Applied research:
 Research which provides solutions to practical
problems (Graziano & Raulin 2007)
 This is people management research e.g. fields
that use scientific knowledge include
management, medicine, engineering, social
work, education etc.
 The fields may not themselves be science
 Applied research provides a generalised solution
to a general problem e.g. absenteeism,
performance management

9. Types of Research cont.
Basic Research
 Also known as fundamental research of
pure research is designed to increase
scientific understanding without any
particular practical goals (Graziano and
Raulin 2007)
 It starts with a theory, basic principle
or generalization e.g. ‘if you underplay
workers they get demoralised’

10. 1.6 Conceptual Framework
 Proposes explanations for potential
relationships
 Puts the study in perspective among other
studies
 It is used to support studies looking for
relationships between variables e.g.
relationship between employee motivation
and their performance needs a conceptual
framework for the study to fit into existing

11. 1.7 Research Ethics
 It refers to code of behaviour expected
 It is important when conducting
research on humans it is important to
avoid harm physically, emotionally or
spiritually
 The National Research Council of
Zimbabwe has ethical research
principles that govern social research
principles
 Different disciplines have their ethics

12. Assingments 1
 A) Discuss the importance of research
in education. 10 marks.
 B) Discuss the differences between an
interview and a questioner as research
gathering tools. 10 maks. Due date 25
September 2014.

13. Chapter 2
 Define research problem.
 Describe the steps involved in
formulating the research problem.
 Evaluation of a researchable problem.
 Definition of a hypothesis and its
characteristics

14. 2. STATING THE PROBLEM
STATEMENT
2.1 INTRODUCTION
 Problem is stated as a statement or a
question
 Steps include formulating the topic,
giving the background to the study,
stating the purpose of the study and
stating the hypothesis or assumptions

15. 2.2 Problem Formulation
 Selecting the topic-undertake research in
your area, topic should investigate
something important, give rationale
 Developing the topic-it starts broad but
narrow it down still showing detail of
variables to be measured
 Characteristics of a good topic-interesting,
researchable
 Background to the study- brief history, put
into context

16. Problem Formulation cont.
 The purpose of the study - why
 Statement of the problem-what exactly
clearly and concisely
 Sub-problems or Sub-questions
 Hypothesis-the transformation of the
problem into a statement, provides
framework for data, can be deduced,
can be tested

17. Check list questions for
problem
 How significant is the problem?
 What are practical benefits ?
 How accessible is the information to solve
the problem to the researcher?
 How interested are you?
 What are the ethical issues?

18. CHAPTER 3
3.1 INTRODUCTION
 Concepts of quantitative and qualitative
research approaches

19. 3.2 Definition of quantitative
Approach
 Is a formal objective, systematic
process in which numerical data are
utilised to obtain information about the
world
 It presents results in numbers
 It is generalisable,
 Deductive i.e. based on reasoning

20. 3.3 Definition of qualitative
research approach
 Broad approach to the study of social
phenomenon
 It is naturalistic, interpretive and
increasingly critical
 It is subjective, uses words
 Based on a world view with the
following beliefs, that there is no single
reality, reality is based on perceptions
that vary with individuals, time, context
and situation

21. 3.3.1 Comparison of the features of
Qualitative and Quantitative approaches
 Both are systematic in their approach
 Both follow a process
 Quantitative is objective while qualitative is
subjective
 The researcher remains detached while in
other researcher can become involved
 Quantitative tests theory the other generates
theory
 Results can be generalised in quantitative and
not in qualitative, use of numbers vs words

22. Types of Variables
 Quantitative Variables
 Qualitative Variables
 NB. Can have the phrases “types of
variables” used synonymous to “types
of data”

23. (A) Quantitative Variables
 Are variables which take numerical
values for which mathematical
operations are possible
 Numeric in nature
 Express measured characteristics
 Convey concepts such as quantity,
amount, and magnitude
 Can be in two forms:
 (i) Discrete variables and
 (ii) Continuous variables

24. (i) Discrete Variables
 Are variables with values that are whole
numbers
 They take only a single exact value
 They have gaps between each number
where no intermediate values can occur
 e.g. No. of visits to a waterhole, no. of
animals/plants etc.

25. (ii) Continuous Variables
 Can take on any numerical value on a
scale
 And there exists an infinite number of
values between any two numbers on a
scale
 Obtained more precisely
 E.g. weight, mass, height, time etc.

26. (B) Qualitative/Categorical
Variables
 Are non-numeric in nature
 Are variables which yield categorical
responses
 Express a described characteristic
 Use descriptive words/names/labels
 Can be in two forms:
 (i) Ordinal variables
 (ii) Nominal variables

27. (i) Ordinal Variables
 Are ranked or ordered observations
based on whether they are greater than
or less than one another
 Ordinal data do not provide
information about how close or distant
observations are from one another
 Values/levels can be ranked or ordered
 e.g. Occupation

28. (ii) Nominal Variables
 When an observation is simply given a name,
label, or otherwise classified into categories, a
nominal variable is being used
 Values/levels can not be ranked or ordered
 Nominal variables use numbers to identify
qualitative differences among measurements
 NB. These numbers are not in any mathematical
relationship with one another
 i.e. no quantitative distinction can be drawn
among them
 E.g. gender, marital status, race, ethnicity,
religion

29. Definition of research
design
 Research design refers to the plan and
structure of the investigation used to
obtain evidence to answer research
questions
 It describes the procedures for
conducting the study, including when,
from whom and under what conditions
the data will be collected

30. 3.5 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
DESIGNS
 It is a framework that provides the glue
that holds the research together
 It shows how the topic, problem
statement, sample, methods for
collecting data and analysing data work
together to address the central
question
 Quantitative designs were initially
developed from research and hard
sciences (Biology, Chemistry and

31. Quantitative research designs
cont.
 Designs are in two groups
 The true experimental, quasi-
experimental, single subjects and non-
experimental

32. 3.5.1 EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGNS
 Experiments are conducted to predict a
phenomenon
 The researcher is able to manipulate what the
subjects experience in an experimental design
 Usually there are two groups, one group is
the experiment and the other is the control
 Some conditions are imposed on the subjects
which are not imposed on the control e.g.
comparing a trained group versus an
untrained group

33. True experimental design
 The experiment is observed in the laboratory
 The researcher exercises a great deal of
control and manipulation
 True experimental research can be applied in
management with caution where researcher
studies two groups
 Research design aims to investigate the
possible cause effect relationship
 Randomization is used, presenting equal
chances

34. Experimental designs cont.
 Pre-test Post-test control group design
Control is not treated but both post-test
results are compared after treatment of
subjects
 Post-test only design
Experimental group can only be tested
after treatment e.g. measuring level of
motivation after incentives

35. 3.6 Quasi-Experimental
designs
 Are used where manipulation,
randomization and control are lacking
 True experimental controls are limited
 e.g. use of groups which have evolved
naturally

36. 3.7 Validity in Experiments
 Design must be valid for knowledge
generated from experimental research
to be sound
 There are two types of validity, Internal
and External

37. Internal Validity
 This is the ability to determine if a
causal relationship exists between one
or more independent variables and one
or more dependent variables, i.e. has
treatment caused the change or lack of
change
 Examples:
 Effects of history, any event that can
alter or affect subjects’ performance,
try to make experiences identical

38. Internal Validity cont.
 Effects of maturation,
Changes which come with age e.g. a new
medication to test depression within 6
months
 Effects of testing,
Giving a pre-test and post-test to a group
increases the chances of improvement
if it’s the same test

39. Internal Validity cont.
 Effects of statistical regression
It refers to the tendency for subjects who
score very high or very low to score more
toward the mean on subsequent testing i.e.
regression towards the mean
 Effects of instrumentation
If the measuring device changes during the
course of the study, changes in scores
maybe due to the instrument rather than
the treatment

40. Internal Validity cont.
 Effects of selection
Differences in groups prior to the study may
continue throughout the study, therefore
use subject matching or randomization
 Effects of experimenter bias
The researcher maybe biased towards the
result they want
 Effects of mortality
if subjects drop out or there is mortality
during study

41. External Validity
 Demand Characteristics
When subjects become aware of the expected result
and exhibit that
 Hawthorne Effects
Mere presence of others watching your performance
causes a change in your performance
 Order Effects (or Carryover Effects)
Important where multiple treatment is administered
 Treatment Interaction Effects
Treatment can affect people differently
depending on their characteristics

42. 3.8 NON EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
 Describes something that occurred or
examines relationship between things
without suggesting cause and effect
relationships
 There are four types of non
experimental designs, descriptive,
correlation, survey and ex post facto.

43. Non experimental designs
 Descriptive design
Simply describes an existing phenomenon by using
numbers to characterize individuals or a group, there
is no manipulation or treatment
 Correlation design
It is a form of descriptive designs. It assesses the
relationship between two or more phenomenon. It
measures the degree of association between
variables. Positive implies high values of both
variables are associated and negative correlation
means high values of one variable are associated to
low values of second variable

44. Ex Post Facto
 Used to explore possible relationships
among variables that cannot be
manipulated by the researcher e.g.
customer care in two or more
supermarkets
 Questionnaires and interviews of
employees can be used to understand
their training experiences for customer
care

45. Survey design
 It is used when the purpose is to describe a
prevailing phenomenon without explaining
casual relationships
 The researcher selects a sample of subjects
and administers questionnaires or conducts
interviews to collect data
 Surveys can describe attitudes, belief,
opinions or frequency of different factors
 Information about a population can be
inferred from responses from a sample

46. The concept of population in a
survey design
 Population
Larger group to which all the people of interest are
 Sample
Is a subset of the population. Sampling saves time,
money and provides valid results if done properly
 Sample size
It should take into account type of research,
research hypotheses, financial constraints, the
importance of the results, the number of
variables studied, methodology and degree of
accuracy needed

47. Types of sampling
 In quantitative research there are two types of
sampling i.e. probability sampling and non-
probability
 Probability sampling
Probability sampling is where subjects are drawn
from a larger population in such a way that
probability of selecting each member of population
is known. A sample maybe representative of the
population, observations of the probability sample
are used for inferential purpose, inferential or
parametric statistics are used for probability sample

48. Probability sampling
 (a) Convenience sampling
The sample is composed of the subjects that
the researcher conveniently finds available. It
makes also use of volunteers. Technique is
highly biased and maybe suitable where data
collection in not complex and a very low level
of generalisation is envisaged
 (b) Quota sampling
Is similar to convenience sampling, subjects are
selected according to their ratio in the pop.

49. Non –probability sampling
 Non-probability sampling also called incidental,
accidental sampling, purposive or judgement
sampling, convenience or availability sampling
involves using whatever subject is available to
the researcher e.g. at a conference or meeting
 Limitations are:
Sample size is not representative of a larger
population, so generalisation is more restricted
Sample maybe biased. Especially where subject
volunteers.

50. Techniques for probability
(unbiased) sampling
 (a) Simple random sampling
All members of a population have an
equal chance of being chosen e.g.
assigning numbers and then using
random tables, a random sample from
a computer programme or picking
names from a hat, lottery method of
randomization, tossing a coin, throwing
a dice, blind folding

51. Advantages and limitations of
randomization
 It is objective, it is economic, convenient,
permits the application of statistical devices
and treatments of data, maintains the accuracy
the accuracy in the analysis, it is practical and
gives a representative may be selected
 Limitations, sample may fail to be truly
representative, if not done rigorously it may
allow subjectivity, where practical operations
are not favourable the process might be
affected

52. Techniques for Unbiased
sampling cont.
 (b) Systematic sampling
It is similar to simple random sampling
except that the researcher randomly
picks a number then systematically
selects, subjects from a list of names
beginning with the subject assigned the
chosen number. If the number is 6 and
there is need to select a ten percent
sample every tenth subject is selected-
6. 16, 26, 36, and so on.

53. Techniques for Unbiased
sampling cont.
 (c) Stratified sampling
The population is divided into subgroups
or stages on the basis of variable
chosen by the researcher, such as
gender, age or level of education

54. Techniques for Unbiased
sampling cont.
 (d) Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling is similar to stratified random
sampling in that groups of individuals are
identified from the population and subjects
are drawn from these groups. e.g. retail
shops, manufacturing companies, finance
companies can represent group units
Cluster sampling involves two stages, selection
of group units and then of individuals within
groups

55. Historical method
 History is the meaningful record of
man’s achievement . It is a truthful
integrated account of the relationship
between persons, events, times and
places (Singh 2006)
 Historical approach is an aid in
visualizing society as a dynamic
organism and its structures and
functions as steadily growing and
undergoing change and transformation

56. Historical research
 It is the application of the scientific
method of inquiry to historical
problems
 It involves, identification of the
problem, formulation of the hypothesis,
collection, organisation, validation and
analysis of data; testing the hypothesis;
and writing of the historical account.
Leading to an understanding of the
past and its relevance to the present

57. Approaches of historical research
 Perspective Approach: to study the
events from the past towards present
 Retrospective Approach: to study the
events from present and proceed to
past events

58. Case study method
 Case study is both method and tool for
research. Case study leads to very novel idea
and no longer limited to the particular
individual.
 Case study is conducted for specific case. It
requires special observation It means the study
is in depth. Depth is to explore all peculiarities of
case.
 It is an intensive study of a phenomenon, it
gives
 subjective information rather than objective

59. Case study
 Case study refers to a study of a unit, it
is a deep study, cumulative study and
can be used for a clinical studies
 Case study is a method of exploring
and analysing the life of a social unit-
i.e. a person, a family, institution,
culture group or even an entire
community

60. Objective s of case study
 Clinical purpose (dealing with a patient)
 Diagnostic purpose (educational
situation to provide the remedial
instruction to poor student)
 Fact-finding about psychological or
educational problems
 Supplementing other information. It
may be a follow up work.

61. Three phases of conducting Case
study
 Retrospective phase refers to the past
records of the case which is used in
diagnosing the case
 Prospective phase refers to the present
status of the case, which is helpful in
understanding the case
 Conspective phase refers to the future
development of the case which is also
employed to examine the effects of the
remediation given to the case

62. Types of Case studies
 A group or a community –deals with such
elements of community as locations, appearance,
prevailing economic activity, climate and natural
sources, historical development, how people live,
the social structure, goals and life values, an
evaluation of social institutions within a
community that meet the human needs etc.
 Casual comparative studies- comparing social
educational background of juvenile groups the
delinquent and non delinquent

63. Types of Case studies cont.
 Activity Analysis-the analysis of the activities or
process that an individual is called upon to
perform
 Content or document analysis- usually deals
with the systematic examination of current
records or documents as a source of data
 A follow up study-used to investigate the
impact of a certain program or treatment, used
in evaluation
 Trend studies-it is longitudinal assessment of
records based on the past and present

64. Steps of the Case study
 A case study must follow steps and
essentially meet the same criteria as do
other research methods
 Status of the Situation on Unit of
attention
 Collection of data
 Diagnosis and identification of casual
factors
 Adjustment, Treatment and Therapy
 Follow up Programme

65. CHAPTER 4
 DATA COLLECTION TOOLS

66. 4.1 Introduction
 There are different ways or tools to
collect data i.e.; observations,
questionnaires, interviews, documents,
tests and unobtrusive measures
 Commonly used methods are
observations, questionnaires and
interviews

67. 4.2 QUESTIONNAIRES
 Questionnaire is commonly used tool in
quantitative research, it is good for
gathering information from groups. e.g. it
can provide information on the levels of
motivation giving information on the
employees knowledge, opinions and
preferences
 Questionnaire can elicit reactions, beliefs
and attitudes from subjects. It can
encompass a variety of instruments

68.  Researcher can choose to construct or
use existing questionnaire
 It can be administered by the
researcher, or can be self administered
 The questions include open, closed,
sealed and ranked items

69. 4.2.2. Steps to construct a
questionnaire
 Familiarise yourself with the research
quest, sub questions, aim and objective
 Determine the type of information you
want to gather
 Decide on the respondents. Knowing
your population helps in determining
the sample size and appropriate
sampling technique
 Calculate number of people to be
surveyed and determine number of

70.  The more the responses the better the result
 Create an introduction to your questionnaire,
brief summary on reason of questionnaire
and instructions on how to answer it
 Be straight forward and clear, don’t write
questions that can be misinterpreted
 Limit the response for each question
 Double check for errors, ask someone to
proof read, Pilot the instrument for validity
and reliability

71. 4.2.3 Some things to avoid
 Avoid complexity
 Avoid leading and loaded questions
 Avoid ambiguity
 Avoid making assumptions
 Avoid burden-some questions

72. 4.2.4 Advantages of
questionnaires
 Responses are gathered in a standard way
and are more objective than interviews
 It is quick to collect information
 Information can be collected from a large
sample
 Respondents have enough time to consider
their responses carefully
 It permits anonymity
 It easy to analyse and can be done with
computer software

73.  Questionnaires reduce bias. There is no
verbal or visual clues to influence
respondents
 There are less intrusive than telephone
or face to face interviews. Respondent
is free to respond at their own time

74. 4.2.5 Disadvantages of
questionnaires
 Open ended questions in a
questionnaire can generate large
amounts of data that can take a long
time to process and analyse
 Respondents may answer superficially
especially if the questionnaire is too
long
 It may be difficult to get good response
often there is no motivation for
respondents

75. 4.3 Interviews
 4.3.1 Introduction
 Interviews are among the most
challenging and most rewarding forms
of measurement. They require a
personal sensitivity and adaptability
and ability to stay within bounds of the
designed schedule/protocol. Can be
used in both quantitative and
qualitative research designs

76. 4.3.2 Definition of an
interview
 It is a purposeful conversation in which
one person asks prepared questions
(interviewer) and another answers
them (respondents/interviewee) Frey
and Oishi (1995)
 It is oral, in person administration
 It can be used to lead to other
methodologies such as observation and
experiments

77. 4.3.3 Interview structures
 Structured Interviews
 Nicholas (1991) described them as a
social survey where the range of
possible answers to each question is
known in advance
 The questions include open ended and
closed ended

78.  Approach uses prearranged list of
answers
 Unstructured Interviews
 Informal interview, not structured by a
standard list of questions
 Questions are asked in any order
 Researcher can probe deeper
 Richness of data depends on the
interviewer

79. Key issues in conducting a
successful interview
 Interview structure to be inline with
objective
 Use appropriate language
 Ensure interviewees confidentiality
 Establish a rapport with the
interviewees

80. Advantages of interviews
 Researcher learns things that cannot be
directly observed
 Add an inner perspective to outward
behaviour
 Allows probing
 Increases accuracy of response
 Respondents can raise concerns

81. Disadvantages of interviews
 Time consuming
 Are expensive in terms of time & money
 Information obtained dependent on
interviewer
 Interview is subject to interviewer bias
 Interviewer is subject to respondent
bias
 Questions can be misleading

82. Glossary of terms used in
quantitative research
Variables
 The key to designing any experiment is to look at what
research variables could affect the outcome
 There are many types of variables these include the
independent and dependent variables
 A variable is any entity that can take on different values.
It is anything that can vary e.g. age, country, company
 Variables are not always quantitative or numerical e.g.
variable gender consists of two text values male and
female
 Variables are not only things we measure in the
traditional sense

83. Glossary of terms cont.
 The treatment or program can be
made up of one or more variables e.g.
the cause can be considered a variable
 An educational program can have
varying amounts of time on task,
classroom settings, student-teacher
ratios etc., the program can be
considered a variable that can be made
up of a number of sub-variables.

84. Glossary of terms cont.
 Concept of attribute
 An attribute is a specific value on a
variable e.g. the variable sex or gender
has two attributes: male and female
 Agreement may be defined as having
five attributes 1=strongly disagree;
2=disagree; 3=neutral; 4= agree;
5=strongly agree

85. Glossary of terms cont.
 The Independent variable- is the core of
the experiment and is isolated and
manipulated by the researcher. It can be a
treatment or program or cause
 The Dependent variable is what is affected
by the independent variable that is your
effects or outcomes. It is the measurable
outcome of this manipulation e.g. when
measuring the effects of a new educational
program

86. Glossary of terms cont.
 The educational program is the
independent variable and the measure
of achievement is the dependent
variable
 If studying effects of work experience
on college performance, in both groups
student status remains constant, and
work experience varies between the
two groups and is considered a variable

87. Glossary of terms cont.
 Every experiment has at least two types of
variables: independent and dependent. The
independent variable is often our input
variable
 It is independent of everything that occurs
during the experiment because it does not
change once chosen
 In the college performance experiment those
with work experience and those without,
make up the two independent groups

88. Glossary of terms cont.
 The dependent variable or outcome
variable, is dependent on our
dependent on our independent variable
or what we start with. College grades is
dependent on work experience
 College grades (dependent variable)
can also be dependent also on age (old
vs young students) or sex (men vs
female), these become the independent
variables

89. 3.9 Qualitative Research
Design
 Qualitative research designs are less
structured than quantitative designs
 The specific procedures are defined during the
research rather than specified ahead of time
 Each step depends on prior information
collected during the study
 Designs typically investigate behaviour as it
occurs naturally in a natural situation and
there is no manipulation of conditions or
experience

90.  The data consists of words in the form
of rich verbal description, rather than
numbers as in quantitative designs

91. Ethnography and grounded
theory
 Ethnographic design
 In an ethnographic study the researcher
relies on observation, interviewing and
document analysis, or a combination of
these to provide an in depth understanding
of a cultural group in a natural setting over
a prolonged time (Creswell 1998)
 Ethnography focuses on the culture of a
group of people, they can study broadly
defined cultures

92.  One can study the culture of owners or
managers of family business in Zim.
 The underlying assumption of the
ethnographer is that every human
group eventually evolves a culture that
guides the members’ view of the world
and the way they structure their
experiences
 Meaning may be shared and these can
be passed on

93.  Grounded theory has been used most often
in studying areas where there has been little
previous research and in gaining new
insights research previously researched
areas. It is inductive
 The steps of grounded theory research
occur simultaneously
 The researcher will be observing, collecting
data, organizing data and forming theory
from the data at the same time

94.  Data may be collected by interview,
observation, records or a combination of
these, typically grounded theory research
projects in management tend to have a
sample of 25-50 people
 Data collection usually results in large
amount of hand written notes, typed
interview transcripts, or video/audio taped
conversations which needs to be coded and
categorised

95.  The report tends to be narrative
discussions of the study process and
findings. The outcome of the study is a
theory explaining the phenomenon
under study

96. Summary
 We defined quantitative, qualitative
research approaches
 We defined the concept of research
design describing the different research
designs